Oceanography Exam 4

What Kingdom do most single-celled eukaryote plankton belong to?

Protista

What are the three conditions Kelp need to survive and thrive?

1. Clear, shallow water 2. Cold water 3. Strong, stable substrate

Marine resources can be defined in different ways. Into what categories can they be fitted?

1. Physical resources - result from the deposition, precipitation, or accumulation of useful substances in the ocean or seabed. 2. Biological resources - living animals and plants collected for human use. 3. Marine energy resources - result from the extraction of energy directly from the heat or motion of ocean water. 4. Nonextractive resources - uses of the ocean in place - transportation of people and commodities by sea, recreation, and waste disposal.

What are the four groups of marine mammals we discussed and who belongs to which group?

1. Pinnipedia - seals, sea lions and walrus 2. Carnivora - sea otter and polar bear 3. Sirenia - dugong and manatees 4. Cetacea - whales, dolphins and porpoises

What is a cold seep?

A bacterial mat coats the seabed at a cold seep. These chemosynthetic organisms form the base of a limited food chain in the area

Are our current catch fishery intakes sustainable? How can you tell?

A century of dramatic decline in the fisheries of the North Atlantic. These data are for table fish (to be eaten directly by people), not for fish collected for oil or animal feed. Despite the decline in stock fisheries continue to collect at the same yield, which increases the already significant depletion.

Where do mangroves exist? Why are the not found in colder climates?

About 80 species of mangroves exist only in tropical and subtropical protected areas with low wave activity. - They cannot withstand freezing temperatures. - They are halophytes, plants with high salt tolerance. - They only tolerate partial salt water submergence. - Mangroves are not related species, but are defined by their habitat and lifestyle.

What is the name of the fishes with cartilage skeletons? Who belongs to this group?

Agnatha- Lampreys and hagfish are members of this group Chondrichthyes- Sharks, rays, skates and ratfishes are members of this group

What are angiosperms?

Angiosperms are true, flowering plants.

What are physical, biological, and limiting factors in the marine environment?

Any aspect of the physical environment that affects organisms is a physical factor. • light • dissolved gases • temperature • acid-base balance • salinity • hydrostatic pressure • dissolved nutrients A limiting factor is a factor found in the environment that can limit the growth of a population if present in quantities that are too large or too small. Biological factors, or biologically generated environmental factors, are also important: Diffusion Osmosis Active transport Surface-to-volume ratio

What are mariculture and aquaculture? How much are they contributing to today's fisheries?

Aquaculture is the growing or farming of plants or animals in a water environment under controlled conditions. Mariculture is the farming of marine organisms, usually in estuaries, bays, or nearshore environments, or in specially designed structures using circulated seawater.

What are seaweeds or marine algae? What kingdom do they belong to?

Attached autotrophs are forms of protists called marine algae, or seaweed.

How do we disrupt different marine habitats?

Bays and estuaries Pollution from rivers Sewage Open ocean Rising ocean acidity from higher CO2 in atmosphere affects many organisms, including corals. Dredge nets can disturb and damage bottom communities

What are benthic organisms?

Benthic organisms are organisms that live on or in the bottom sediment of a body of water, such as the ocean, a lake, or a river. The benthic zone is the lowest level of a body of water and includes the sediment at the bottom, as well as any organisms that live within it.

What countries operate the largest marine catch fisheries?

China

What different kinds of marine fisheries exist?

Capture fisheries encompass wild- caught organisms from the sea (marine) or from inland bodies of water, such as lakes and ponds (inland).

Who were Aristotle and Carolus Linneaus?

Carolus Linnaeus (the father of modern taxonomy in Laplander costume. He went on a scientific expedition to Lapland in 1732) Linnaeus invented three supreme categories, or kingdoms: Animal Vegetable Mineral Aristotle's' zoology and the classification of species was his greatest contribution to the history of biology, the first known attempt to classify animals into groups according to their behavior and, most importantly, by the similarities and differences between their physiologies.

Which marine algae group is most closely related to land plants? Why?

Chlorophyta: Green algae - Thought to be ancestor of land plants - Found worldwide in wet environments - Microscopic to macroscopic - Chlorophylls A and B as well as carotenoids (same as in true plants) - Store excess energy as starch (same as in true plants) - Cellulose in cell walls (same as in true plants)

What are the three major groups of marine algae?

Chlorophytes (Green Algae) are green due to the presence of chlorophyll and the lack of accessory pigments. Phaeophytes (Brown Algae) are brown. They contain chlorophyll and the secondary pigment fucoxanthin. Rhodophytes (Red Algae) These seaweeds get their red= color from their accessory pigments.

What are commercial extinction and bykill?

Commercial extinction - the depletion of a species to the point where it is no longer profitable to harvest. Bycatch - animals unintentionally killed when other species are being harvested; often exceeds target catch.

What are populations, communities, habitats, and niches?

Community - many populations of organisms that interact in a particular location Population - group of organisms of same species in same location Habitat - physical location of an organism Niche - what an organism does in its habitat, what it eats, how it avoids enemies, etc.

What bottom type to tropical coral reefs form on?

Coral reefs are a specialized type of hard-bottom community.

Know whether the following are phytoplankton/zooplankton, what their shell composition is, and what their most distinguishing attributes are: Diatoms, Dinoflagellates, Coccolithophores, Foramenifera, and Radiolarians

Diatoms - the dominant and mostproductive of the photosynthetic plankton Dinoflagellates - widely distributed single-celled phytoplankton; use flagella to move Coccolithophores - small single-celled autotrophs Foramonifera - Ameoboid protists that feed on other plankton. Radiolarians - Ameoboid protists that feed on other plankton.

What are diffusion, osmosis, active transport, hypotonic, hypertonic, and the surface to volume ratio?

Diffusion is mixing due to random molecular movements. It moves particles from areas of higher concentration to areas of lower concentration. Osmosis is diffusion of water through a semi -permeable membrane. Water may move freely over this barrier, while other substances, like minerals and salts, may not. Isotonic - same concentration of dissolved substances inside and outside the organism. Hypertonic- A higher concentration of dissolved substances outside the organism. Water will tend to flow out of the organism. Hypotonic- A lower concentration of dissolved substances outside the organism. Water will tend to flow into the organism. Active transport is the transport of a substance against a concentration gradient. Active transport requires energy input.

What are the three domains of life?

Domain: Bacteria, Archaea - small, single-celled organisms with no distinct compartments Domain: Eukarya - Usually multicellular with nucleus and organelles Animals, plants, fungi, protists

What is deep sea gigantism and who has it?

Due to the bacteria deposit feeding organisms are common Many organisms are quite large compared to their counterparts in other marine communities. This is especially true for invertebrates (such as the amphipod at the right - amphipods are about the size of lady-bugs or smaller in other communities This phenomenon is known as deep sea gigantism

What is convergent evolution?

Environmental conditions may lead to similar adaptations in otherwise much different species, called convergent evolution.

When looking at major trends in pelagic organism morphology (pelagic zones) what are the zones called. What are their characteristics, and from what to what depth are they located?

Epipelagic zone: This is also known as the oceanic or photic zone and is the uppermost layer of the ocean. It extends from the surface down to a depth of approximately 200 meters, where there is enough light for photosynthesis to occur. Organisms in this zone are adapted to life in open water and have streamlined bodies to reduce drag and increase swimming efficiency. Mesopelagic zone: This is also known as the twilight or disphotic zone and extends from a depth of approximately 200 to 1000 meters. In this zone, there is not enough light for photosynthesis to occur, and organisms are adapted to low light conditions. Many organisms in this zone are bioluminescent, producing light to attract prey or mates. Bathypelagic zone: This is also known as the midnight or aphotic zone and extends from a depth of approximately 1000 to 4000 meters. In this zone, there is no light, and organisms are adapted to extreme pressure and low temperatures. Many organisms in this zone are small and have gelatinous bodies, which allows them to conserve energy and survive in this harsh environment. Abyssopelagic zone: This is the deepest layer of the ocean and extends from a depth of approximately 4000 to 6000 meters or more. It is the least explored zone in the ocean, and organisms in this zone are adapted to extreme cold, pressure, and low food availability. Many organisms in this zone are filter feeders, relying on organic matter that sinks from the surface.

Why are gas hydrates of great commercial interest and how well do we exploit them?

Gas hydrate deposits contain incredibly large amounts of gas, but currently there is no economical method for its recovery. Gas hydrates represent an untapped resource.

What are gas hydrates and where do they form?

Gas hydrates refer to the unusual hydrocarbon deposits that consist of frozen water molecules entrapping molecules of methane (natural gas). Gas Hydrate Production

What is the greenhouse effect and what gases contribute to it?

Greenhouse effect - trapping of heat by the atmosphere Greenhouse gases - carbon dioxide, methane, chlorofluorocarbons, water vapor - cause surface temperatures to rise

What are zooxanthellae?

Harbor photosynthetic symbionts, dinoflagellates called Zooxanthellae, which allow them to gain access to food despite the low nutrient levels.(shown at right) Restricted in distribution by water temperature and water quality

What are hermatypic and ahermatypic corals? Who builds reefs where?

Hermatypic corals- Reef builders in sunlight Ahermatypic corals- Do not build reefs in sunlight areas, but may in deeper water. May not contain zooxanthellae Not restricted by water temperature and water quality

What challenges to living organisms do the deep sea vent communities present?

High temperatures, toxic chemicals, high pressure, lack of light, volatility.

What wavelength light and color penetrates to what depth in the oceans?

In clear, open ocean water, blue and green wavelengths can go about 600m. In coastal ocean water, green goes the farthest down to 100m.

In what latitudes do salt marshes dominate ocean shores rather than mangroves? Why?

In colder temperate latitudes where mangroves cannot thrive salt marsh grasses dominate the marine and estuarine shorelines.

What are the two suborders of the order Cetacea and who belongs to them? Which one has teeth? Which one has echolocation?

In the Cetacea, the Suborder Odontoceti (odontos = tooth)toothed whales are known for being active predators who use teeth for feeding. In the Cetacea, the Suborder Mysticeti (mystidos = unknowable), baleen whales are known for having no teeth and instead use baleen for filter feeding.

Which is most common on soft-bottom shores?

Infauna and Epifauna

Where do deep sea vent tube worms get their food from? What did they loose in their body structure?

Interesting, one group of these organisms - the tube worm seen at the left - actually harbors the chemoautotrophic bacteria in their body to support their metabolic needs as they no longer have a mouth or digestive track.

What are the numbers of current mariculture and aquaculture fisheries? Are they rising, declining, or currently stable?

It's worth noting that the growth rate of both aquaculture and mariculture has slowed somewhat in recent years,

How well do we exploit them and what are our plans for the future?

Large tubes flexed by ocean waves may someday be used to generate electricity.

What is the most lucrative physical marine resource?

Marine petroleum and natural gas 34% of crude oil and 30% of natural gas production. The most lucrative marine resource.

What are marine pollutants?

Marine pollution - introduction into the ocean by humans of substances or energy that change the quality of the water or affect the physical and biological environment. Pollutant - directly or indirectly interferes with the biochemical processes of an organism Quantity, toxicity, persistence

What impact do marine fisheries have on humanity in terms of providing food, feedstock, and work?

Marine resources: provide 20% of all the animal protein we eat ~1/3 of world fish harvest: used as animal feed, fish meal, oils 60% of fishery output is consumed by the developing world. In Asia, 1 billion people rely on fish as their primary source of protein. Fishing employs ~200 million people worldwide.

What are the definitions for maximum sustainable yield and overfishing?

Maximum sustainable yield - the maximum amount of any species that can be harvested without affecting future yields. Overfishing - a status assigned to fish stocks that have been harvested so there is not enough breeding stock left for replenishment

What are some of the methods and problems with large scale fishing operations?

Maximum sustainable yield - the maximum amount of any species that can be harvested without affecting future yields. Overfishing - a status assigned to fish stocks that have been harvested so there is not enough breeding stock left for replenishment. Commercial extinction - the depletion of a species to the point where it is no longer profitable to harvest. Bycatch - animals unintentionally killed when other species are being harvested; often exceeds target catch.

What are global trends for sea surface temperatures, sea levels, and sea surface pH?

Measurements across the North Pacific revealed that in 15 years, carbon dioxide emissions drove down pH (blue) in all surface waters and as deep as 550 meters (1,800 feet).

What is the metabolic rate and what influences it?

Metabolic rate increases with temperature.

How do tropical corals get most of their food in low nutrient waters?

zooxanthellae

What are the four kingdoms of the eukarya and what organisms are in them?

Monera- prokaryotes, Protista- eukaryotic, Plantae- plants, Animalia- animals

What are endotherm and ectotherm?

Most marine organisms are ectothermic, meaning their temperatures are close to that of their surroundings. Mammals, birds, and a few fishes are endothermic, meaning they maintain a high and constant temperature.

What are the euphotic, disphotic, and aphotic zones?

Most of the biological productivity of the ocean occurs at the surface, the euphotic zone. The disphotic zone has light, but not sufficient for primary production. The dark aphotic zone represents the vast bulk of the ocean where sunlight never reaches.

What is the most common substrate in the deep sea benthic?

Most of the deep sea floor is covered in vast stretches of sediment containing dead organic matter that rains down from the sunlight zones.

Which of these groups is the most/least dependent on the ocean environment? Why?

Most- Penguins Least- Tubenoses

What five challenges do fish have to face in the marine environment and how do they face them?

Movement, shape and propulsion -fish must be able to move through water, which is 1,000 times denser and 100 times more viscous than air(example: streamlined body). Maintenance of level - fish tissue is usually denser than the surrounding water, so fish must have a system to keep from sinking (example: swim bladder). Gas exchange - the problem of extracting oxygen from water(example: sharks need to swim continuously or they die). Osmotic considerations - fish need a system to maintain proper salt levels in their bodies Feeding and defense - competitive pressure among a large number of fish has caused a wide variety of feeding habits to evolve

What are neritic organisms?

Neritic organisms are organisms that live in the neritic zone, which is the shallow, nearshore portion of the ocean that extends from the coast to the edge of the continental shelf. The neritic zone is characterized by relatively high levels of nutrients, sunlight, and oxygen, which support a diverse array of marine life.

What is the marine zone over the continental shelf called? What about the zone over the open ocean?

Neritic zone - near shore over the continental shelf Pelagic zone = open water Oceanic zone - beyond the continental shelf

What kinds of distribution patterns can exist in benthic communities? Which is the most common?

Of these distribution patterns, the most common in benthic communities is clustered distribution, as many benthic organisms tend to aggregate in specific areas for feeding, reproduction, or shelter.

What are the components of a natural gas and oil deposit? How are they layered? In what material are they contained?

Oil and gas are not found in vast hollow reservoirs, but within pore spaces in rock. The pressure of natural gas and compression by the weight of overlying strata drive oil through the porous rock and toward the drill pipe.

How much energy passes from one trophic level to the next?

On average, only about 10% of consumed biomass is used to make or maintain body mass and tissue. The remainder is lost to motion and heat.

What are the resources that organisms in the marine environment compete for?

Organisms in a community compete with members of the same species and with members of other species for: Food Light Space Other resources

What is the name of the fishes with bony skeletons? Who belongs to this group?

Osteichthyes- About 90% of allliving fishes arecontained within theosteichthyan orderTeleostei.

What are pelagic organisms?

Pelagic organisms live suspended in seawater.

How and under what conditions are natural oil and gas deposits formed?

Petroleum, oil, and gas are hydrocarbons derived from sedimentary rocks which were deposited in productive regions with anoxic (low-oxygen) bottom waters 1. Deep burial resulting in high temperature and pressure converted the organic remains into hydrocarbons. 2. Initially oil is created, but at higher temperatures and pressures, methane (CH4) natural gas is generated.

Which marine algae group has the largest and most complex species?

Phaeophyta: Brown algae - ~ 1500 species, almost all marine - Some microscopic, most larger - to 300+ feet - Prefer shallow, cold waters - Contain chlorophyll A and C and fucoxanthin - Typical body of holdfast, stipe and blades, can be amongst the most complex and largest algae (Kelp).

What are phosphate nodules? What do we use them for? Where and how fast do they form? Are they renewable?

Phosphorus is required for growth by all organisms; commercial fertilizers add significantly to this pool. • Phosphate deposits generally form on submarine terraces where coastal upwelling zones generates high productivity. •Organic matter decomposition releases phosphorus compounds which precipitate as slow-growing phosphate nodules (1- 10mm/1000 years). •World phosphate consumption = 150 million tons per year and known supplies should last until 2050.

What is the difference between phytoplankton and zooplankton?

Phytoplankton - autotrophic plankton living in the sunlight layers of the oceans where they can photosynthesize. Zooplankton- small single or multicelled heterotrophic prokaryotes, protists, and animals, which feed on other plankton.

What are primary producers, chemosynthesis and photosynthesis?

Primary producers are organisms that can covert and store energy from an inorganic energy source in the form of chemical energy, usually as sugars. Most of the inorganic energy used by marine organisms to make food comes from the sun. Photosynthesis is the process used by most producers to convert the sun's energy to food energy. Chemosynthesis is the production of food from inorganic molecules in the environment.

What does the ozone layer do?

Protects Earth's surface by absorbing UV rays

How do we define a polluntant's quantity, toxicity, and persistence?

Quantity - the amount of a particular pollutant present Toxicity - the amount of a pollutant required to cause damage Persistence - the length of time a pollutant lasts in an environment

What are mutations and adaptations and how do they relate to each other?

Random variations of traits are produced by mutations. Most of the time, mutations are detrimental ,but in rare cases they can be beneficial to the survival and reproduction of an organism. These traits are referred to as adaptations and are passed on genetically to offspring.

Which marine algae group can live at the deepest locations? Why?

Rhodophyta: Red Algae ~ 4000 species, almost all marine, has the most species in the marine environment Some are corraline (produce calcium carbonate) and build reefs Contains photosynetic pigments, chlorophyll A and phycobilins Can grow at greater depths than other algae due to red phycobilin pigments

Which are the largest contributors to marine pollution?

Runoff and discharges from land, Airborne emissions from land, Shipping and accidental spills, ocean dumping, offshore mining, oil and gas drilling

Are there any marine reptiles? What kinds?

Sea Turtles Saltwater crocodiles Sea snakes Marine iguanas

What are sea grasses? How do they reproduce? Where do they live?

Seagrasses - About 60 species exist in temperate and mainly tropical locations and are always completely submerged. - Flowers are small and inconspicuous in most species. - Pollen (sperm) is carried by water currents. - Tiny seeds produce by fertilization are also carried by water currents or in the feces of animals that consume the seagrasses.

By which characteristic are marine algae classified?

Seaweeds can be classified based on pigment type

What are some of the problems of mining sand, gravel, and limestone from the marine environment? What do we use these materials for.

Serious problems for bottom-dwelling communities that rely on stable sediments Disrupts fauna and flora Creates plumes of mud that interfere with phytoplankton photosynthesis and clog the filter-feeding appendages of organisms

Which is the most common on rocky shores?

Sessile and motile organisms, but motile decrease with increasing wave action

What are infauna, epifauna, sessile and motile?

Soft-Bottom substrates are the most common and force most organisms to burrow in the sand or mud (Infauna) while moving (Motile) animals living on top of the sediment (Epifauna) are more rare. Here most organisms tend to be affixed to the substrate (Sessile) and consist of both seaweeds (Epiflora) and a large variety of attached animal life (Epifauna).

What particular resource opportunities does the rocky intertidal shore have compared to soft-bottom shores?

Solid surfaces to attach to Many food sources

What is the difference between eukarya and the prokaryotes (bacteria and archea)?

The Bacteria and Archaea contain single-celled organisms without nuclei or organelles; collectively, they are called prokaryotes. The fungi, protists, animals, and plants contain organisms with cells having nuclei and organelles; collectively, they are called eukaryotes.

How do the black and the red mangrove deal with the lack of oxygen available to their roots?

The black mangrove possess pneumatophores, or vertical root extensions, that assist the plant with the exchange of gases(pictured at right) The red mangrove has prop roots that allows it to anchor its roots on a large horizonatal area without the roots having to dig too deep into anoxic sediments.(pictured at right)

What are the various parts of a marine algae and their whole body structure called?

The body of a macroalgae is known as a thallus. This thallus can be simple or more advanced in its structure. In some algae, there are: - Blades - leaf-like structures - Stipes - stem-like structures - Holdfast - root-like structures (these structures lack the advanced conducting tissues seen in true plants)

When looking at photosynthesis alone (photic zones) what are the zones called. What are their characteristics, and from what to what depth are they located?

The euphotic zone is the uppermost layer of the photic zone where there is enough light for photosynthesis to occur. This layer extends from the surface down to a depth of approximately 200 meters in clear ocean waters. In the euphotic zone, the concentration of oxygen is high, and the temperature is relatively constant. The dysphotic zone is the deeper layer of the photic zone where there is not enough light for photosynthesis to occur. This layer extends from the base of the euphotic zone to a depth of approximately 1000 meters. In the dysphotic zone, the concentration of oxygen is lower, and the temperature begins to decrease with depth.

Where do photic and pelagic zones overlap?

The photic zone and the pelagic zone overlap in the epipelagic zone, which is the uppermost layer of the pelagic zone and also the oceanic or photic zone. This zone extends from the surface down to a depth of approximately 200 meters, where there is enough light for photosynthesis to occur.

What is taxonomy and how does it relate to hierarchy?

The study of biological classification is called taxonomy. Linnaeus's great contribution was a system of classification based on hierarchy, a grouping of objects by degrees of complexity, grade, or class.

How much food is available at deep sea vent communities compared to the rest of the deep sea benthos?

These communities are an oasis in the otherwise nutrient poor deep sea.

Explain how chemosynthetic bacteria form the basis of the food webs at deep sea vents. What is their source of energy?

These vents contain large amounts of hydrogen sulfide that serves as the energy source for these bacteria. These bacteria are the first link in the food chain in this unique community.

What is a halophyte?

They are halophytes, plants with high salt tolerance.

What are the numbers of current marine catch fisheries? Are they rising, declining, or currently stable?

They are slightly declining

What are the two most important conditions tropical coral reefs require to thrive?

They require warm waters and very low nutrients in order to thrive.

What are autotrophs, heterotrophs, and different level consumers? Multibeam system?

Trophic pyramid - a model that describes who eats whom Autotrophs - organisms that make their own food, also called primary producers Heterotrophs - organisms that must consume other organisms for energy: Primary consumers - these organisms eat producers Secondary Consumers - these organisms eat primary consumers Top consumers - the top of the trophic pyramid

What different groups of marine birds are there and who belongs to which group?

Tubenoses - this group includes the albatrosses and petrels. Pelicans - this group includes relatives of the penguins that have webbed feet and throat pouches. Gulls - these birds are found along the shore, where they scavenge for food. Penguins - these birds have lost the ability to fly, but are excellent swimmers.

What problems do organisms face in the rocky intertidal zone?

Wave shock Desiccation Temperature changes Salinity changes

What are notextractive marine resources?

What are the main nonextractive resources of the ocean? transportation recreation

Where does the deep sea benthos get most of its food from?

While the deep ocean suffers from very little food the benthos there can trap vast amounts of dead organic matter over long periods of time. This allows these organisms to have a greater chance at finding food

What different kinds of marine energy resources are available?

Windmills High, steady winds near ocean Waves Currents Tides

What is coral bleaching?

Zooxanthellae in coral tissue, zooxanthellaw expelled from tissue, dead skeleton covered in filamentous algae

What are the three stages of reef evolution?

a. Fringing Reefs cling to the margin of land. b. Barrier Reefs are separated from land by a lagoon. c. Atolls are ring-shaped islands of coral reef enclosing lagoons.

What is the definition of a fishery?

concentrations of particular aquatic species suitable for commercial harvesting in a given ocean area or inland body of water (lakes, rivers, reservoirs, ponds)

What are planktonic organisms?

those that drift in the water