Oceanography prelim 2

The ability of the ocean to take up more CO2 in the future

will go down with increases in acidity

Traditional Food Chain Concept

y axis size(incremented by scales of 10). x axis chlorofyl or not. On the left heterotrophs on the right autotrophs 1 micron is size for bacteria.(smaller ones are 0.5 micron) 2 to 20 micron : smallest protozoines.(het. flaggelets) then large protozoinez and then fish

General Rule of Zonation

• upper limit at which a species can occur in the intertidal is usually determined by physical factors, • lower limit is usually determined by biological factors

Odontocetes

(Toothed) ex: orca (Katil balina)

Noise Pollution...

1. "Acoustic Habitat" is no different than spatial habitat and must be preserved. 2. "Noise Pollution" is every bit as destructive as other forms of more familiar marine pollution (oil, nitrogen, plastic)

Coral Reef Formation

1. A new island forms (e.g., mantle hot spot or ocean-ocean plate collision) and a fringing reef develops in shallow sunlit waters close to shore of the island 2. The island slowly sinks with age (crust cools and thins) and at the same time the coral slowly grows upward by secreting its calcium carbonate support structure layer- by-layer - this eventually forms a barrier reef. 3. Later in time the entire island is submerged and all that is left is the reef - referred to now as coral atoll. NOTE: If the island sinks too fast, or sea level rises too fast, and the reef cannot keep up with its upward growth, it eventually stops growing because it becomes too submerged in deep/dark waters... These dead reefs are referred to as drowned reefs...

Coastal Regions

1. All Year round: Tidal Mixing 2. Seasonally: Coastal Upwelling

Variation in Surface Salinity

1. All salinities in the ocean (deep ocean included!) are/were set at the air-sea interface 2. Evaporation at the ocean surface removes only freshwater and leaves behind salt - thus increasing surface ocean salinity 3. Atmospheric precipitation adds freshwater to the surface ocean - thus reducing surface ocean salinity 4. Overall, salinity is a direct function of evaporation minus precipitation

Why Study Primary Production?

1. Base of the Food Web: Ecosystem Function-understanding the variability of primary production in the ocean allows for a better understanding of the variability of all marine organisms 2. Essential Element of the Global Carbon Cycle: Biogeochemistry- Another major goal of biological oceanography is to understand how life in the ocean affects global elemental cycles. Global Carbon cycle is closely related to global warming problem. Photosynthesis takes up CO2 and respiration releases it (produced Co2). (land photosynthesis and ocean photosynthesis are of equal amount). The difference between (of arrow size) photosynthesis and respiration by all of the organisms is what sinks to the ocean floor. (this is called biological carbon pump:The process of moving carbon from CO2(atmosphere) to CO2(ocean) via down-gradient diffusion to uptake via photosynthesis to form organic carbon to sinking or dead organic carbon to the deep ocean to release of CO2 via respiration of microbes at depth as they consume the sinking dead carbon as food.)(we want to balance this with what we are adding to the atmosphere) (and we are adding more to the atmosphere than what we are able to remove from ocean). Small changes in arrows changes a lot and global warming might change these arrows. Also as photosynthesis consumes Co2 it releases oxygen and half of our oxygen is made from ocean.

Sources of Anthropogenic Sound in the Ocean

1. Commercial Shipping Engine and Propeller Noise (everywhere, so u impact a lot of whales, u disrupt communication of whole community) 2. Naval Operations (damages whale's ears but as u move away not direct damage but still stresses whale) Low Frequency Active Sonar (they get scared and dart to the surface and blow their ear drums). 3. Oil Exploration Seismic Surveys with Explosive Air Guns/Cannons Repeated Every Ten Seconds, 24 hours a day, For Days and Weeks at a Time. (like really loud sonar so as the whale is trying to eat it prevents it from properly eating).

Projected Rise in Sea Surface Temperature Relative to Coral Bleaching Threshold

1. Corals bleach when water rises 1 oC above acclimated levels 2. Global Average Temperature is now close to 1 oC above pre-industrial levels — and still rising... 3. With global warming nearly 1 oC above pre- industrial levels, even small natural variability superimposed on this warming can now regularly raise local regions 1 oC above acclimated levels and cause coral bleaching. Note: Diff coral communities have different temp thresholds, but if u even go 1 deg. above those threshold temps. bleaching happens. As the temps. increase the likelihood of the natural variability to cross the threshold.

Large Seasonal Increase in Primary Production Occurs in the North Atlantic Due To:

1. Deep Winter Mixing 2. Strong Springtime Stratification

Equatorial Pacific and Atlantic

1. Easterly Trade Winds Cause Surface Waters to Pile Up in the West 2. Themocline is Deep in the West and Shallow in the East 3. Proximity of Thermocline Near the Surface in the East Enhances Upwelling of Cold and Nutrient-Rich Deep-Water to the Lighted Region of the Surface Ocean and Thus Enhances Biological Productivity in this Area. Western part there is nutrient poor warm water. The Equatorial Pacific Exhibits Very Little Seasonal Variability in Primary Production.

Trophic Cascade: (alternating change of abundance of species) The Sea Otter-Kelp Forest Example Another example fish and zooplankton in river.

1. Sea Otters eat sea urchins 2. Sea urchins are herbivores that eat tiny young kelp (before they grow large). 3. Removal of sea otters allows sea urchins to grow to high abundance 4. Low abundance of sea otters leads to high abundance of sea urchins and low abundance of kelp forests Fish eat zooplankton which eat phytoplankton.

Summary of Light and Nutrient Control of Primary Production

1. In the surface ocean, light is often plentiful but nutrients are often limiting 2. In the deep ocean, nutrients (except iron) are often plentiful but light is limiting 3. The surface and deep waters are usually separated by a thermocline 4. Primary production is enhanced whenever the physical oceanography allows for the best of both worlds (high light and high nutrients) to come together in the same place at the same time

Oxygen levels are low now bc

1. Inability to get waters in to main thermocline region (no subduction into main therm. region) 2. Vertical mixing.

Ocean Acidification

1. Increases in CO2 in the atmosphere leads to increases in ocean acidity 2. Projected Increases in ocean acidity lead to slowing of calcium carbonate precipitation and/or eventually coral dissolution 3. An atmosphere above 480 ppm is Expected to Enhance Coral Loss - We are now at 406ppm 4. Note that TwicePre- Industrial Atmospheric CO2 = 550 ppm

The upper limit on the total biomass of harvestable fish in a given ocean province is determined by:

1. Intensity of primary production per square meter in the ocean province and areal extent of the ocean province 2. Number of trophic levels between primary producers and the harvestable fish in the ocean province and the trophic transfer efficiencies between each of trophic levels

Species Diversity within a Rocky Intertidal Community

1. Intermediate Disturbance 2. Keystone Predators

Coral Bleaching

1. It is the zooxanthellae algae that give corals all of their beautiful natural colors 2. Coral bleaching is the name given to an event where corals expel their symbiotic zooxanthellae algae due to environmental stress such as unusually warm water 3. Corals can recover and regain their zooxanthellae if the stress is small or short-lived (a couple of weeks) 4. Coral death follows if the stress is extreme and/or prolonged.

Mysticetes (baleen whales)

1. Often make the long, low-frequency, sounds known as the whale song. The complex and haunting sounds of the Humpback Whale (and some Blue Whales) are believed to be primarily used in sexual selection during mating season, but the simpler sounds of other whales have a year-round use. 1. While many toothed whales are capable of using echolocation to detect the size and nature of objects (e.g., prey), this capability has never been demonstrated in baleen whales. 2. Given the poor visibility of aquatic environments, and the fact that sound travels so well in water, simple low freq grunts of sounds may play a role in navigation. For instance, the depth of water or the existence of a large obstruction ahead may be detected by loud low frequency noises made by baleen whales.

Oyster Farms on the US West Coast

1. Oyster farms on the Washington and Oregon coasts have already been strongly impacted by ocean acidification... 2. Adding higher surface CO2 (more acidic conditions) to the already acidic deep water that upwells naturally in summer has tipped the balance for oyster larvae

Physical Disturbance Can Regulate Species Diversity within a Community

1. Physical disturbance (e.g., wave energy from storms and log damage) can open up gaps or patches in the rocky intertidal. 2. Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis - disturbance maximizes species diversity by periodically removing competitively dominant species and allowing less competitive species to reestablish themselves Note : Too much disturbance keeps the rock bare with few species. Too little disturbance allows the dominant competitor for space to take over and form a monoculture (single species)

Odontocetes (toothed whales)

1. Produce rapid bursts of clicks and whistles 2. Single clicks are generally used for echolocation 3. Collections of clicks and whistles are used for communication.

Westerly Wind Belt Region (c.a. 30-60 degree latitude)

1. Strong Seasonal Variation in Sea-Surface Temperature in Both the Pacific and Atlantic 2. Strong Seasonal Change in the Depth of the Seasonal Thermocline in the Atlantic - but not the Pacific (the Pacific is not salty enough).

Conclusions: Molecular Properties of Water.

1. Strong polar nature of the water molecule makes it a very good polar solvent for ionic constituents (salt ions) i.e., it can dissolve a lot of salt 2. Hydrogen bonds are weak, but below 100 oC they are strong enough to allow individual water molecules to bond temporarily with other water molecules to form liquid water. Below 0 oC they are strong enough to hold/lock all water molecules into solid crystalline ice. 3. High specific heat capacity means a given heat addition does not change ocean temperatures as much as would occur if the same amount of heat was added to the atmosphere (or land) 4. High latent heat of vaporization allows large amounts of heat to be removed from the ocean, stored at latent heat in the form of water vapor in the atmosphere and then transported by winds to other parts of planet where it can then be released to the atmosphere as sensible heat upon precipitation

Spatial Patterns of Primary Production

1. Subtropics 2. Equatorial Pacific and Atlantic. 3. Coastal Regions

Surfce Salinity Variation Summary

1. Surface salinity varies widely and is a function of evaporation minus precipitation - Highlatitudeshavelowsurfacesalinity • High precipitation • Low evaporation - Tropics have high surface salinity • High evaporation • Low precipitation - Equatorhasadipinsurfacesalinity • High precipitation offsets high evaporation 2. While salinity may vary considerably in different regions, the relative proportion of one ion to another does not vary.

Limits to Coral Growth

1. Temperature : Limits Most Coral Growth to Tropical Latitudes, Optimal 26-28°C Restricted 18-36°C. (in general they are restricted in a boundary of 20 degrees isotherm.)(ex: Carribean). 2. Sunlight: Limits Coral Growth to a depth range extending from the ocean surface down to maximum of about 25 meters. Light required for zooxanthellae to photosynthesize 3. Space to Grow: 4. Predation

The Cause of Zonation: A Simple Barnacle Example (no need for details)

1. The Upper Limit of both species (grey and rock barnacles) is determined by emersion; larvae that settle too high in the intertidal dry out and die (physical factor). Little grey barnacles can tolerate drying better than rock barnacles, so they settle higher in the intertidal. 2. At Lower Levels, where the rock barnacles can survive, the rock barnacle out competes the little grey barnacle for space (biological factor) and this sets the lower limit for the little grey barnacle. 3. The Lowest Limit of the adult rock barnacles is determined by competition from mussels, and predation by whelks or sea stars (biological factors).

Predation by Crown of Thorns Starfish (Acanthaster)...

1. This starfish is a very important predator of corals a primary source of coral mortality 2. Eutrophic conditions increase phytoplankton abundance that enhances the growth of Acanthaster larvae(bc they eat phytoplankton) that eventually leads to large increases in abundance of adults and subsequent high coral mortality.

Spectrograms are used to visualize the whale vocalization

1. Time on the x-axis 2. Frequency on the y-axis 3. Loudness is denoted by Brighter Colors

Coastal Upwelling Along the Washington Oregon Coast (look at figure)

1. Wind blowing out of the north drives the Ekman layer to the right (northern hemisphere) which is offshore 2. The offshore transport of the Ekman surface layer is replaced by upwelling of deeper cold nutrient-rich water along the coast 3. Wind blowing out of the south drives the Ekman Layer again to the right (because northern hemisphere) which is onshore 4. The onshore transport of the Ekman surface layer is driven downward - a process called downwelling Upwelling favorable (N winds in N hem.) (S winds in S hem.)

Ocean Acidification: Future Projections...

1. WithbusinessasusualratesofCO2emissionsoceanaciditywillincreaseby170% by the end of the century 2. Withindecadespolaroceanswillbecorrosivetounprotectedcalcareousshellsof marine organisms 3. Withindecadestropicalcoralreefgrowthwillbehamperedorstopped altogether. 4. Thefar-reachingeffectsofoceanacidificationarepredictedtoimpactfoodwebs 5. Peoplewhorelyontheocean'secosystemservicesareespeciallyvulnerableand may need to adapt or cope with ocean acidification impacts within decades. 6. Big changes are expected in economically important upwelling regions

A complex ecosystem can be simplified by classifying organisms into broad categories based on:

1. presence of chlorophyll 2. body size

Coral reef decline

1.Coral reefs around the world are being degraded at an accelerated pace due to the combined effects of local-scale stressors caused by land-based pollution and by global-scale stressors due to a warming planet and increased ocean acidification. 2.It is now widely recognized that local-scale stressors on coral reefs should be minimized as an immediate means of offsetting increases in global-scale stressors. 3. Managing local water quality conditions to alleviate the pressure from global-scale stresses is now a top reef management priority.

Expected Scenario for Coral Reef Survival With 1.5oC Versus 2.0oC Global Warming...

1.Coral reefs will decline by 70-90% in a 1.5oC world 2.Virtually all (>99%) coral reefs will be lost in a 2oC world

Geochemical Cycles

1.Elemental Inputs (sources) 2.Transports &Transformations 3. Outputs(sinks)

Nonconservative Constituents: Carbon Dioxide Sources and Sinks

1.Photosynthesis Consumes CO2 2. Respiration Produces CO2 3When u add more CO2 to atmosphere more Diffusion Across the Air-Sea Interface is gonna take place. 4. When in ocean: Co2 reacts with sea water to form carbonic acid. (more acidic ocean bc in reaction hydrogen ions are produced).

Global Distribution of Annual Net Primary Production (NPP)

1.Terrestrial NPP is about 54% of Global NPP 2.Oceanic NPP is about 46% of Global NPP bc of ocean surface area even tho it is less intense in oceans.

How do we assign an organism to a particular trophic level?

1st Question to Ask... Is the Organism Autotrophic or Heterotrophic? The answer to this question is pretty straightforward because it amounts to asking... Does the organism contain chlorophyll? yes, then it is an autotroph no, then it is a heterotroph If the organism is heterotrophic, then the second question to ask... Is the heterotrophic organism a primary consumer or a secondary consumer or a tertiary consumer etc...? the following logic is used... 1. Life in fluid suspension does not allow animals the opportunity to sit around and nibble on their prey over an extended period of time. 2. Animals, in general, must consume their prey whole. 3. The need to consume whole prey puts strong constraints on the size of prey that can be consumed by an organism 4. Optimal prey size is often set by the consumer's mouth size and, as a rule-of-thumb, prey size is often about 1/10 the consumer's size.

The ocean has taken up

30% of all the CO2 we have emitted since the start of the industrial era — so you owe a big-big thank you to the ocean!

Why Study Microbes?

Most of the Proportion of living biomass in the Global ocean are bacteria and proto zoines that feed on bacteria.

Examples of Two Very Different Grazer Exploitation Efficiencies in Two Very Different Ocean Environments...

A. Spring Blooms in the Temperate North Atlantic Region: 1. During long winter periods large grazers (copepods mainly) sink into the deep ocean and enter a diapause (i.e., hibernation) stage and thereby become decoupled from any variations in primary production above. 2. In spring, phytoplankton standing stock can initially grow to very high density(and during spring they are kept at surface ocean) before the grazers come out from hibernation to eat them. 3. This allows for exceptional phytoplankton blooms during the decoupled period. 4. Exploitation efficiency is very low much of phytoplankton is not found by grazers after they wake up from hibernation and instead sinks into the deep ocean as dead phytoplankton cells(loss of carbon, no carbon movement movement up the pyramid). B. Tropical Environments: 1. No winter so no hibernation of small grazers. Small grazers remain active throughout the year and consume phytoplankton as fast as it is made. 2. Any increase in production is quickly met by an increase in grazer abundance and subsequent increase in the consumption of phytoplankton. 3. This leaves standing stock of phytoplankton nearly constant throughout the year. Exploitation efficiency is very high almost all phytoplankton is found and consumed by grazers

But this has come at a cost:

Acidity has increased by 26%

Latent Heat of Vaporization

Amount of heat energy required to convert 1 gram of liquid water to water vapor (540 calories per gram). Also takes a lot of heat to change water liq. to gas.

Specific Heat Capacity of Liquid Water

Amount of heat energy required to raise 1 gram of liquid water by one degree celsius (1 calorie per gram per deg C). This is among the highest of any substance on earth. Water has very high heat capacity so hard to change temp.

New view of marine food webs recognizes the importance of high bacterial abundance and a large fraction of heterotrophic nanoflagellates (2-20-micron diameter cells) that are consumers of bacteria

An unanswered question... What is the carbon and energy source for all this newly discovered heterotrophic bacteria?

Conclusions

As nutrient concentration is reduced, the competitive growth advantage shifts to small phytoplankton cells Small phytoplankton cells found at low nutrient concentrations enhances the percentage of organic carbon that is respired back to carbon dioxide gas and, consequently, carbon is NOT efficiently pumped into the deep ocean Large phytoplankton cells found at high nutrient concentrations increases the percentage of organic carbon that is pumped to the deep ocean and, consequently, carbon is efficiently pumped into the deep ocean

Light-Dependency of Net Primary Production(look at first figure)

At light levels below the compensation light level(it is level where phot.=resp.), phytoplankton cells do not have sufficient light to photosynthesize fast enough to meet their basal metabolic needs and so cell respiration exceeds photosynthesis and this then leads to negative values of net primary production. 1. At low light levels, phytoplankton are light limited: above compensation light, but still can give further light to inc. photosynthesis. (if you give more and more light there will be a gain in primary prod. (since phot>resp)) 3. At optimal light levels, phytoplankton are light saturated: max. light capacity, any change in light doesn't have any increase in photosynthesis. Photosynthesis happening at the fastest possible rate. All photons are occupied. 4. At very high light levels, phytoplankton are photoinhibited: If you crank the light incredibly high (as sunlight) you destroy the cell and start to lose photosynthesis.

All Baleen Whales (Mysticetes) are large filter-feeders

Baleen whales feed by gulping large quantities of seawater and then squeezing the water through the baleen "filter" to retain krill and small fish. OR thru: gulp-feeding skim-feeding bottom plowing

Simplified Pelagic Food Chain Conceptualization (pyramid)

Base of pyramid to top ordering: 1. Primary Producers:Phytoplanktons (First Trophic level) 2. 1st Consumers (Second Tropic Level) 3. 2nd Consumers 3. 3rd consumers 4. 4th consumers (Top Trophic level)

North Pacific is less salinity than North Atlantic.

Bc not as much evaporation in North Pacific as in North Atlantic. So precipitation dominates evaporation in North Pacific causing it to be relatively less salty than North Atlantic. Consequences: Deep interior water sinks in deep of Atlantic but in pacific can't sink cuz not salty (effects on ocean water circulation).

Why did we ignore bacteria for a long time?

Bc we didnt know they were living out there.

Nonconservative Constituents: Dissolved Oxygen Sources and Sinks/ Oxygen Concentration in the Ocean

Biological Sources and Sinks 1. Photosynthesis produces oxygen 2. Respiration consumes oxygen Physical Sources and Transports 1. Vertical diffusion across the air sea interface 2. Horizontal advection from nearby regions(deep ocean currents)

Classfying Organisms into Broad Categories Based on Feeding Mode

Broadest Possible Grouping... Autotrophs: Group of organisms whose energy/carbon for growth comes from non-organic sources. For example, phytoplankton are autotrophs because they use sunlight and CO2 for their energy/carbon needs. (clorofyl) Heterotrophs: Group of organisms whose energy/carbon for growth comes from previously formed organic carbon material. For example, herbivorous zooplankton are heterotrophs because they consume phytoplankton for their energy/carbon needs. Carnivores would also be heterotrophs. (no clorofyl) A More Refined Grouping... Trophic Level - Nutritional feeding level within a food chain or food web e.g., primary producer (i.e., autotroph), primary consumer (herbivore), secondary consumer (first carnivore), tertiary consumer (second carnivore), etc...

Coastal upwelling bring

CO2 rich water (i.e., already pretty acidic) to the surface and with surface water now more acidic than before (bc of our activities) the net effect is for upwelling regions to be highly vulnerable to acidification.

Interior of N. Pacific Ocean has a lot of

Co2

Coastal Upwelling

Coastal Upwelling results from Wind/Ekman Offshore Transport i. Seasonally Variable ii. Greatly enhances upward movement of deep water that is rich in nutrients

Pelagic Food Chains

Complex food webs are simplified by grouping/classifying all species into a small number of broad categories. An individual organism's membership in a given category is often determined by... 1. What are the main food sources of the organism? 2. Who are the main predators of the organism?

Conservative and Non-conservative Seawater Constituents

Conservative Constituents of seawater are those that are only varied by physical exchange processes at the sea surface (or by mixing with other water masses at depth). Once the water leaves the surface, these properties are conserved. 1. salinity (‰) 2. temperature 3. inert gas concentration (e.g.,Argon) Non-conservative Constituents of seawater are altered by chemical or biological processes that occur in the water column. 1. biological uptake and recycling (e.g. nutrient uptake and remineralization) 2. geochemical processes (e.g., radioactive decay) Nutrients, Oxygen, Carbon Dioxide

Global Pattern of Nutrient Concentration in the Deep Ocean

Conveyor Belt Circulation: Deep water forming in N. Atlantic slowly making its way to the South Atlantic around the southern ocean. up into Indian Ocean and then North Pacific to surface (where high nutrient)(takes 2000 years). explains why nitrate and phosphate get more concentrated as the deep water moves from the Deep North Atlantic and gradually into the Deep Pacific - organic matter rains down into the deep water, and it is remineralized to nitrate and phosphate, as the deep water slowly moves toward the Pacific. This belt was formed on the basis of nutrients.

Westerly Wind Region

Deep vertical mixing in winter - brings high levels of nutrients to the surface - causes phytoplankton to mix below the critical depth and so even though nutrients are plentiful, cells spend too much time in the dark and NPP is light limited. Formation of shallow thermocline in spring -sunlight and spring bloom forms -Continued stratification in summer - Mixing remains shallow, and above the critical depth, but nutrients are depleted and NPP is nutrient limited.

Why Iron is limited in some places?

Doesn't come up to surface ocean like other plant nutrients. Iron is not abundant in the deep ocean. And the main way to get iron to the surface ocean where sunlight is the iron in dust blowing off continents. But in iron limited regions no wind is present to blow of iron dust into the surface ocean.

Trophic Transfer Efficiency

Efficiency which u are able to move carbon or energy from one level to the other (what fraction of carbon moved on from one level to the next?)(percentage of lower trophic level biomass or energy that is transferred to the next higher trophic level's biomass or energy. ) 1. Exploitation Efficiency The efficiency with which a consumer population is able to find, capture and ingest all of the potential prey present in the environment. (A game of hide and seek) 2. Gross Production Efficiency The physiological/biochemical efficiency of converting ingested prey into consumer biomass 3. Trophic Transfer Efficiency= (Exploitation Efficiency x Gross Production Efficiency)

2015-2016 El Nino Warming Effect, When Super-Imposed on the Multi-Decadal Global Warming Trend, Was Disastrous for Coral Reefs!

El Ninos are nothing new. They temporarily raise global average temperatures. However, when these temporary warming events are super imposed on the human-caused multi- decadal warming they have increasingly devastating effects on coral reef mortality

Evaporation Moves Latent Heat From the Ocean to the Atmosphere — The AtmospheresThenTransportsThis Heat to Other Parts of the Planet

Evaporation: Latent Heat removed from the ocean and stored in the atmosphere in the form of water vapor. (the ocean gets cooler and the atmosphere gets warmer). (but this took a lot of heat and time)(540 kcal per gram is stored in water vapor and gets transported and then gets condensed as seen below: Condensation: Latent Heat released into the atmosphere as sensible heat by condensation of water vapor (to form clouds and rain) (the heat is transferred to atmosphere thru condensation).

Trophic Transfer Efficiency is a Function of:

Exploitation Efficiency (10%(N.Atlantic) to 90%(Tropical environments) ) Gross Production Efficiency (20(eating 100 units of lettuce)% to 60(eating 100 units of beef)%) The combined effect of both exploitation and gross production efficiencies yields an overall trophic transfer efficiency of about 10%

Modeled onset of annual severe bleaching under Business as Usual emissions scenario

Figure: 1. Red regions will see regular beaching by 2030 (less than 15 years) 2. Orange and Yellow regions indicate onset of regular bleaching by 2040 (about 25 years) 3. Blue regions have unGl 2050-2060 (about 35 to 45 years) 4. Note: COP-21 Pledges will add an addiGonal 10 years onto the onset dates above, but will not prevent severe annual bleaching from occurring... JUST KNOW ON THE ORDER OF DECADES!!!!!

Thermocline and Oxygen relation (LOOK AT FIGURES)

Global warming is expected to increase the strength of the thermocline and thereby reduce vertical mixing and diffusion across this boundary and make the oxygen minimum zone even lower.

Annual Average Evaporation Pattern

Hadley circulation at around 30° latitude is where cold dry air aloft descends and warms and spreads out north/south (and is turned by Coriolis) over the earth's surface. The warm and dry surface winds are conducive to strong evaporation in the subtropics regions centered at 30° latitude.

Annual Average Precipitation Pattern

Hadley circulation produces upward convection and high precipitation along the equator and also at about 60° Latitude

Coral Anatomy

Have gut, tentacles, mouth, they feed on zooplankton and stuff them in their gut. The hard coral reef build a Calcium Carbonate Support Structure NOTE: the process of building a calcium carbonate reef structure layer-by-layer is a very slow process: <1mm per year to about 20 mm per year. As ocean acidification increases this structure dissolves. Structure formation due to acidification is slowed down.

Source of Carbon and Energy for Heterotrophic Bacterial Growth

Heterotrophic bacteria are growing on dissolved organic macer (sugars, amino acids etc...) released from phytoplankton cells by steady leakage, sudden cell senescence or sloppy feeding by zooplankton.

Conclusions

Heterotrophic bacteria are highly abundant in all ocean environments Dissolved organic carbon that leaks from large phytoplankton cells will be consumed by heterotrophic bacteria and, with the help of protozoans, this organic carbon will eventually be respired back to carbon dioxide. • 2. Prochlorococcus is an autotrophic bacterium (i.e., bacteria that contains chlorophyll and the smallest type of phytoplankton) It is the main primary producer in oligotrophic (low nutrient) environments It is responsible for more than a quarter of the global ocean primary produc?on 3. The vast majority of living biomass in the open-ocean is in the form of heterotrophic bacteria and Prochlorococcus and this was only fairly recently discovered.

Water Vapor (gas)

High Temperature Limit (>100 C̊ ): EH-bond < Ethermal 1. minimum number of H-bonds 2. minimum order, rapid thermal motion 3. independent, non-interacting gas molecules

Major Zooplankton groups

Holoplankton: Planktonic organisms that live their entire life in fluid suspension. Born plankton, live as a plankton and die plankton. ex: • Copepods • Some Shrimp • Arrow Worms • Some Jelly Fish Meroplankton:Planktonic organisms that spend only part of their life in fluid suspension. Part of its life is as plankton. ex: • Crabs • Barnacles • Oysters • Fish Larvae

Nutrient-Dependency of Primary Production

If you have high nutrient concentrations in your ocean : the growth advantage shift to the larger phytoplankton cells. In low nutrient regions(subtropical gyres) the growth advantage shifts to the smaller phytoplankton cells. Bc Small cells have a larger surface area to volume ratio than do larger cells so smaller cells can grow better at lower nutrient concentrations . Smaller cells can more efficiently supply their needs at low nutrient concentration than can large cells

Carbon reservoirs

Immobile: Largest is Sediments Carbonates (takes years and years to move) Mobile: Largest deep ocean, and then atmosphere and surface ocean (the later 2 co2 concentrations are roughly equal) If u bring deep ocean water up to surface (the later 2 aren't equal, and co2 will rush out into the atmosphere). Deep water is coming out thru equatorial upwelling. or coastal upwelling. Coastal Upwelling brings deep water that is cold and rich in CO2 (and therefore more acidic) up to the surface in coastal regions...

The Total Amount of Salt Contained in the Entire Ocean is Essentially Constant.

Input: Weathering of continental rock, and subsequent transport by rivers, constantly brings new salt ions to the ocean each year Output: Mineral precipitation within the ocean constantly removes salt ions from solution each year (e.g., calcium carbonate CaCO3 shell formation and deposition into sediments). Because the magnitude of the input and output rates have been roughly equal for millions of year -i.e. steady state conditions have been achieved. NOTE: While the total amount of salt in the ocean does not vary, regional differences in the addition/removal of freshwater over the global ocean's surface creates regional differences in surface ocean salt concentration (i.e., in surface ocean salinity) In Other Words.... Local differences in surface salinity are caused by local differences in the addition and removal of water and not by local differences in the addition and removal of salt from the ocean surface!

Exploitation Efficiency(the game of hide and seek)

It's kind of rough living in the ocean where organisms have to be good at finding and ingesting prey AND also be good at not becoming prey themselves! Evolution has worked long and hard to create some pretty elaborate strategies for this game of hide and seek in ocean... 1. strategies for detecting prey 2. strategies for capturing prey once detected 3. counter strategies to avoid detection in the first place 4. counter strategies to frustrate capture if detected

Corals are extremely sensitive to increases in ocean temperature

Just 1C above normal temperatures for a period of a few weeks is enough to result in coral beaching.

PCB Poisoning of Killer Whales

Killer whales eat towards surface of ocean where PCB is high. This leads to bioaccumulation of high concentrations of PCB in fat of top predator species. (killer whale). This is Passed from mother to calf in her milk. Predictions are that half of Orca whales might be lost within 30 to 50 years

Ventilation of the Main Thermocline

Look at figure

New View (1990's) of Marine Food Webs that Recognizes the Importance of Prochlorococcus

Look at figure.

Change in Seasonal Thermocline Depth

Look at figures. The vertical means that mixing is easier. uniform temp from top to bottom. As heat added mixing is hard bc warmer water is more buoyant. So in summer mixing depth is shallower than winter. (even tho same winds are blowing.) phytoplankton are being mixed up and down in mixing depth (where temp is uniform the straight line) During summer: are in shallower region Winter: move up and down between deep and shallow

Solid Ice

Low Temperature Limit (< 0 C̊ ): EH-bond > Ethermal 1. Maximum number of H-bonds 2. Maximum order, low thermal motion 3. Regular lattice structure of ice

The latest evidence of raging acidification of surface waters comes in the first direct, basinwide observation of plunging pH.

Mainly due to human activity (industrialization).(growth in carbon dioxide emissions).

Diel Vertical Migration (Avoid Detection)

Much of the zooplankton community migrates up to the surface layer of the ocean at night to feed in the dark while also avoiding visual predators like small fish. During the day they migrate down to the safety of the darkness found at depth.

4 main plant nutrients

Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Iron, Silica(for diatoms) The interest is due to the fact that at any given place or time in the ocean it is one of these four nutrients that can be in short supply and can limit the growth of phytoplankton.

Intermediate level: The layer below surface layer (500 m)

No light no more photosynthesis to produce oxygen. There is microbial respiration that consumes oxygen.

Phytoplankton nutrients

Nutrients - elements or compounds required by phytoplankton for growth nitrogen, phosphorus, iron (and other trace materials) 1. Low in surface layer because of rapid uptake by phytoplankton in the presence of sunlight (sink). And then these dissolved nutrients sink. 2. High at depth because of respiration/remineralization and no uptake by phytoplankton in the dark (source)

Tidal Mixing

Occurs in shallow continental shelf regions i. Seasonally Steady ii. Mixes the water column from bottom to top and brings bottom water rich in nutrients to the ocean surface Tidal mixing occurs as the tide wave motion accelerates horizontally when it is squeezed onto the shallow continental shelf. The high speed tidal currents break into vigorous turbulence that causes mixing from top to bottom of the continental shelf water column. (and u have exaggerated chlorophyl (due to now high nutrients) and phytoplankton). Abrupt change in chlorophyll distribution(chlorophyl and nutrient mix) into fully mixed from top to bottom on the shelf side of the tidal mixing front

Biological Interactions:

Often set Lower Limit to Species Distributions: Biological Factors... 1. Competition for Space note that space on a rock to attach is the valuable resource that is in short supply in the intertidal 2. Predation

Physical Stresses:

Often set Upper Limit to Species Distributions: Stress Factors... 1. Desiccation 2. Temperature 3. Food Availability 4. Wave Energy 5. Salinity 6. Dissolved Oxygen The more they can endure these factors the higher they want to go.

Summary of Open Ocean Province and Upwelling Province

Open Ocean Province Low primary productivity per square meter, but areal extent is so large that it has the greatest overall primary production of any province, BUT phytoplankton are small in this province so the number of trophic steps is large (up to 7-total) and the loss to get to harvestable fish also is, and does not make up for the large overall primary production and thus yields small fish production. Upwelling Province High primary productivity per square meter, but small areal extent so small the total primary production for this province is low, BUT phytoplankton are large and so the number of trophic steps to get to harvestable fish is small (2-total) and so is the loss and this overall transfer efficiency makes up for the relatively small overall primary production to then yield the highest of fish production in this province

1/10

Other than clorofyl size determines almost everything about an organism's position/role in the community of pelagic organisms (except for the possibility of containing or not containing chlorophyll) It determines who will eat it (all organisms 10 times bigger than it) It determines who it will eat (all organisms 1/10 its own size) Marine Food Webs are Said to be Strongly Size-Structured!

Same conveyor belt figure

Oxygen is being consumed as u move from N. Atlantic to N. Pacific. (This movement takes 2000 years).

Molecular Structure of Water

Oxygen is very strongly electronegative. So when it shares its electrons with H, it pulls non-bonding electrons closer to the Hydrogen relatively more. The result of this a slightly more positive side to the water molecule is created. A slightly negative side to the oxygen molecule is created. And that is why water is very polar. This high polarity makes it a very good solvent. Simple case: NaClsolid ↔ Na+solvated + Cl-solvated (Na - oxy surrounding it) (Cl positive H surrounding it)

Deep level:

Oxygen rises back up: Bc little respiration occurs at depth due to low organics and horizontal advection of high O2 water from other locations.

Pakicetus

Pakicetus hoofed-mammal that is sometimes classified as the earliest whale. It lived around 53 million years ago (after the age of dinosaurs). It's skull looked rather like a dog/wolf with hoofed feet and long, thick tail(resembling a deer). The shape of the ear region in the Pakicetus skull is highly unusual and only resembles the skulls of whales. The special ear bone feature is diagnostic for cetaceans and is found in no other species.

Eutrophic:

Pelagic environment (water column) that has naturally high plant nutrient concentraions --coastal upwelling zones are eutrophic

Oligotrophic:

Pelagic environment (water column) that has naturally very low plant nutrient concentraions --the vast subtropical gyres are oligotrophic

Primary Production Summary:

Primary Production/photosynth. consumes Carbon Dioxide Gas and forms particulate organic carbon that can sink into the deep ocean. Primary Production Makes Oxygen Primary Production Requires Light and Essential Plant Nutrients (e.g., N, P, Si, Fe and a bunch of others)

Prochlorococcus Abundance...

Prochlorococcus abundance in the oligotrophic open-ocean is similar in magnitude to the abundance of heterotrophic bacteria. Roughly 1/3 of all bacteria in the oligotrophic open-ocean is autotrophic Prochlorococcus.

In oligotrophic (low nutrient) open-ocean environments, the growth advantage goes to the smallest phytoplankton cells which are now recognized to be represented mainly by Prochlorococcus.

Prochlorococcus is the main contributor to primary produc?on in open-ocean environments. Altogether, Prochlorococcus single- handedly contributes more than a quarter of total ocean primary produc?on with the remainder being contributed by hundreds of other phytoplankton groups.

Respiration

Reactions needed to construct new complex molecules, and to provide basal metabolic needs, consume oxygen and generate CO2 which is exactly the opposite of what happens during photosynthesis. Collectively the generation of CO2 by this process is referred to as respiration.

Hydrogen Bonding

Relatively weak(but highly important). Hydrogen Bond an electrostatic attraction between partial + and - charges on separate polar molecules.

Salinity

Salinity is a measure of the salt concentration (total weight of salt) in a seawater sample. It is often expressed as the number of grams of salt contained in a thousand grams of seawater and expressed as parts per thousand and denoted by the symbol ‰.

Whale migration Gray Whale

See them around west coast Similar mig. pattern to North Pacific Humpback. In summer move uptown Alaska In winter they return back to Abaha.(they mate)

Ex: The Keystone predator (Starfish) Predation Produces High Intertidal Community Diversity:

Sets Lower Limits of Mussel Distributions in Rocky Intertidal Leads to Higher Species Diversity within a Rocky Intertidal Community 1. Mussels can out compete most of the other intertidal organisms for valuable space 2. Pisaster (Starfish) predation sets the lower distributional limit to mussels and below this distributional limit other species can settle in 3. The removal of Pisaster allows mussels to take over and this leads to a decrease in the community's species diversity (just mussels remain).

Phytoplankton

Small cells (often single cells, but sometimes chains or colonies of many cells) that contain chlorophyll and drift with ocean currents

Plankton

Small organisms that drift with the ocean currents

Phytoplankton needs a little bit of iron. Iron is not the main building block of its cell growth.

So a little iron can make a lot of cells, whilst a lot of nitrogen and phosphorus is needed to form cells. So iron fertilization could be done (spray oceans with iron where iron is not rich enough for cell growth). (but not very effective (global warming offset by less than 10 percent, ecosystem change implications were too uncertain).

Limited Iron regions

Southern Ocean, Subpolar North Pacific and Eastern Equatorial Pacific have high nitrate concentrations all year round. But it is so weird bc we would expect the phytoplanktons to feed of off that nitrogen and grow and decrease the level of nitrate but that doesn't occur. So what is happening? Iron is very limited here and thus the phytoplanktons cannot grow.

Keystone Species:

Species that have effects on their communities that are proportionately much greater than their abundance would suggest are know as keystone species. A rocky intertidal starfish called Pisaster is a classic type of keystone predator that strongly influences community diversity. BUT: Massive Die-Off of Starfish Along the US West Coast (elevated surface temp weakened immune system of starfish and led to infection or river discharge might have lowered immune system) occurred.

In summation

Spring Shoaling of the Thermocline above the Critical Depth Brings about Positive Net Primary Production (NPP) 1. Changes in the mixing depth relative to the critical depth determines if NPP is positive or negative and thereby determines if phytoplankton blooms will occur (i.e., if/when there is positive NPP) . 2. In winter, mixing is below the critical depth (due to cold winter storms) and NPP is negative(but a lot of plant nutrients come to surface) 3. In spring, mixing is above the critical depth (due to shallow thermocline) and NPP is positive

Whale migration North Pacific Humpback

Summer Feeding at high latitudes with long day length and lots of biological productivity. Winter Calving at low latitudes - usually warm, but low or no food (Hawai) Migration from N to S (but they still remain in N. hem) The ones in S. hem stay in S hem, but follow same mig. pattern.

Phytoplankton to grow need

Sunlight and plant nutrients.

Subtropics

Surface convergence of the Ekman Layer in the subtropics (forced by the Trade and Westerly Winds) forms a mound/lens of warm (low-nutrient) water (and associated gyre rotation) and later on that water does downwelling into the ocean: a downward surface layer velocity into the deeper ocean. Taken together, this makes it difficult for nutrients to move upward to the the surface ocean and so primary production of exceptionally low year-round in the subtropical gyres Tropical Gyres Exhibit Low Primary Production (on a per meter square basis) and Very Little Seasonal Variation. In summation a lot of sunlight but not enough nutrients.

Direct water column measurements (Look at figure)

The depth at which the ambient light intensity is equal to the compensation light intensity is called the compensation depth Note: on cloudy day, the curve doesn't turn on itself.

Role of Microbes in Carbon Cycling in the Ocean...

The Biological Carbon Pump. When the dominant phytoplankton cells are large, the dominant grazers are large and their large fecal material easily sinks to the deep ocean taking organic carbon down with it - this forms an efficient biological carbon pump. The opposite is true when the dominant phytoplankton is small and grazers are small and fecal material is so small it cannot easily sink and the particulate carbon is instead respired back to CO2 and overall the biological pump is inefficient.

Liquid Water

The Intermediate Case (0-100 C̊ ): EH-bond ≈ Ethermal 1. Clusters of H-bonded water (structural water) 2. Interspersed non-H-bonded water (free water)

El Nino

The Roughly Periodic (3-7 years) Occurrence of Prolonged (ca. 8 months) Warming of Coastal Waters off of Peru and Ecuador

International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling (ICRW) in 1946

The aim was to: "provide for the proper conservation of whale stocks and thus make possible the commercial whaling and the orderly development of the whaling industry". The International Whaling Commission (IWC) was set up under the terms of the ICRW to make decisions on quota levels based on the findings from the Scientific Committee of the IWC. Countries which are not members of IWC are not bound by its regulations and conduct their own management programs. The members of the IWC voted on 23 July 1982 to apply a moratorium to all commercial whaling beginning in 1985...

Discovery of an Important New Bacteria-Sized Autotroph (Sallie Chisholm)

The bacteria previously discovered by telescope now by new tech was found that The Presence of a New Type of Very Small Autotroph that is Present in High Abundance - Especially in Oligotrophic Regions. The Discovery was Made using a New Technique called Analyitical Flow Cytometry This Important New Autotroph Came to be Known as Prochlorococcus

Gross Growth (Production) Efficiency

The carbon I consume doesn't 100 percent make up my consumer biomass. I excreta or respirate Co2.

What is the expected efficiency of the Biological Carbon Pump for Costal Upwelling Zones?

The carbon pump is very efficient in coastal upwelling zones

Net Primary Production

The difference between the amount of CO2 consumed by photosynthesis and the amount of CO2 produced by respiration.(phot-resp) So: It is the Net Gain(if phot.>resp..) or Net Loss (if phot<resp.) of carbon within the cell.

Important Consequence of Water's Exceptionally High Specific Heat Capacity...

The exceptionally high specific heat capacity of water means that it takes an exceptionally large amount of heat energy to change ocean temperatures 93%oftheexcessheatenergytrappedby greenhouse gas build-up since the industrial era has been taken up by the ocean Because of the high specific heat capacity of water in the ocean, global surface temperatures have not increased nearly as much as they would have for the case of all the heat energy being taken up by only land and atmosphere you owe the ocean a big- big thank you for greatly attenuating the magnitude of global warming!

Given... 1. Most nutrients (except for iron as you soon will see) sit in the deeper part of the ocean and are occasionally brought to the surface ocean to "feed the phytoplankton" 2. One of the main mechanisms for getting deep nutrients into the surface (sunlit) layer of the ocean is mixing across the thermocline/pcynocline Then-- What do you expect might happen to ocean primary production under a global warming scenario that enhances only temperatures of the surface layer of the ocean and leaves the deep layer cold - i.e., strengthens the thermocline/ pcynocline

The heating of only the surface ocean and not the deeper ocean increases the density jump from the cold water to the hot water. And this increase in density jump makes it harder and harder to mix. And photosynthesis will slow down bc plant nutrients will not reach surface. The thermocline acts to hold phytoplankton near the sunlit surface ocean The thermocline also acts as a significant barrier to upward mixing of nutrient rich deep water. The stronger the thermal stratification the stronger the inhibition of nutrient mixing

Consequences of a Food Chain Length on Fisheries Production

The more trophic steps u have the smaller the number of fish gets at the end of ur food chain.

Whale migration N. Atlantic Right whale

The most endangered marine mammal in US. (bc of humans(ship strikes)(entanglement with lobster fishing gear)) Winter: Florida (S USA), Georgia etc. Summer: Migrate along coast uptown Maine and towards Canada now bc of climate change and Canada is not equipped w knowledge to conserve whales) and feed on zooplankton here.

The Main Source of Nitrogen, Phosphorous and Silica to the Surface Ocean

The surface water especially in subtropical gyres have very low nutrients. So the main source of nitrogen, phosphorous and silica to the surface layer of the ocean is by vertically mixing or upwelling of nutrient-rich deep-water to the surface.

Major Phytoplankton Groups

The vast majority of primary production in the ocean is carried out by chlorophyll containing single-celled organisms referred to collectively as Phytoplankton. Diatoms: Require Silica to grow. 2. Flagellates: Motile so they are able to avoid sinking in calm waters 3. Photosynthetic Bacteria (bacteria with chlorophyl): Able to grow at very low nutrient concentrations

Hadley Circulation

There is intense heating at equator. So there is a lot of surface water heating. Moist surface air at the equator warms and rises aloft. (water vapor). As it moves upwards, it precipitates and rains. Dry air aloft descends and warms and spreads out over the sea surface at 30° to the north and south. The surface air picks up moisture and by 60° latitude it has warmed and moistened to the point where it rises, cools, precipitates and spreads out aloft north/south.

Corals Compete for Space:

They Compete With Other Corals (They evert their gut and try to digest their neighbor competitor for space. they attack thru Sweeper Tentacles) and With Macroalgae (ex. kelp)(The competitive advantage for taking over space is shifted in favor of macroalgae when nutrients from agricultural activities run off the coast and onto coral reefs) btw MICROalgea are single celled things such as phytoplankton.

Coral Reefs

They will be killed by global warming or ocean acidification. (If we do smh we can save 30 percent of them, if we do nothing they will all die).

Cold waters take up

more CO2 and so high latitude regions are acidifying faster than lower latitudes — polar seas are at great risk!

But then with new tech of Epifluorescent Microscopy

This was key tech. that got used to discovered much more bacteria than we thought was there. (WE initially with old tech. missed these bacteria bc they were very small). And this new tech lets us see these bright bacteria on a very black background. Also allowed easy distinction between autotrophic and heterotrophic flagellate cells (i.e., chlorophyll containing or chlorophyll lacking). (the things we thought had clorofyl actually did not)

Modern-Day Whaling

Top countries: Japan: did not insert the option to opt out and they have been lying by saying their whaling is for scientific purposes. Iceland, Norway: When the 1982 moratorium was signed, Iceland and Norway had inserted the legal option to opt out of the deal at any time. They later took that option

Traditional Bacterial Concentrations Estimated from Transmission Light Microscopy and Culture-Plate Colony Counts

We can see 100s of cells in that 1 mill of seawater. This tech underestimated what was going on out there.

Half of the Great Barrier Reef Has Been Bleached to Death Since 2016

We need to cut carbon emission rn to save the corals!

critical depth is set by

sunlight+clarity of water

World ocean net primary production

While the Open Ocean (Trade Winds, Westerly Wind and Polar regions) exhibit relatively low intensities of primary production (NPP per square meter) relative to coastal regions, they contribute most (71%) as a whole to the global ocean total NPP because of the vast areas comprising these regions.

Large Seasonal Increase in Primary Production Occurs in the North Atlantic During the Spring Season

Winter low, spring v high, summer falls, fall low. It does happen in N Pacific too but bc pacific is iron lacking this seasonal change doesn't impact primary prod. that much. also very fresh so mixing is hard even if u have cold temps.

Lets say seven trophic steps the end value will be:

X(beg value). (1/((tropic transfer efficiency for each step)^7))

Coral Energetics

Zooxanthellae are chlorophyll-containing algal symbionts that live in the tissue of the coral polyp. (they are algae that live in coral tissues) Corals receive 60- 90% of their overall nutrition from photosynthetic-derived products!!!(which the zooxanthellae photosynthesize) The remainder of their nutrition comes from the zooplankton they eat and capture w their tenticles. Also the zooxantellea give the coral reef its color.

Nekton

able to swim against ocean currents e.g., fish, squid, sea turtles, dolphins, whales

At surface levels oxygen is high

bc of photosynthesis+vertical diffusion

Deeper levels

below the euphotic zone (the sun lit zone of surface ocean) the respiration by bacteria that degrade dead organic carbon produces CO2 and thereby increases CO2 at depth. then it reacts with seawater to form carbonic acid. organic c deposition.(SORUCE)

Ocean acidification on ocean organisms

coral growth does slow (ex;Great Barrier Reef bc of acidification (low ph) and high temp.), oyster larvae suffer, and plankton with calcareous skeletons lose mass.(since as acidification increases, the H ion dissolves the calcium carbonate in the calcerous shells).

"Microbial Loop"

describes the role that microbes play in the marine ecosystem carbon cycle. Describes the cycle (look in figure)(the leakage)

Coral reefs

hit by global warming, bleaching and now acidification (calcium carbonates of reefs dissolve in acidic ocean)

Primary Production

involves the synthesis of complex organic compounds and therefore requires the uptake of plant nutrients for the construction of complex molecules that are needed to form new cellular components. Consequently, the magnitude of primary production depends not only on sunlight, but also on the availability of essential plant nutrients

spring

light abundant+nutrients abundant

summer

light abundant+nutrients limited

winter

light limited+nutrients abundant

fall

light modest+nutrients modest

Early 1970's versus Early 1980's

look at figure

pathway that carbon takes from CO2(gas) to par?culate organic carbon (through photosynthesis), and on into par?culate organic carbon of higher trophic levels, varies when nutrient concentra?on varies

look at figure.

mixing depth

surface temp+strenght of winds

Surface level ocean

photosynthesis takes up (consumes) some CO2 to make organic carbon and thereby lowers CO2 in the upper ocean (SINK)

Suppose you had phytoplankton productions of 1000 biomass units per year and you had a food chain with 3 trophic steps between phytoplankton and fish that you wanted to catch each year? phytoplankton --> zooplankton --> small fish --> your fish How much fish production would you expect each year if tropic transfer efficiency is 10% for each trophic step?

phytoplankton(1000) --> zooplankton(100) --> small fish (10) --> your fish (1) So answer is : 1 biomass units of fish per year

Photosynthesis

refers to the chemical reaction which consumes carbon dioxide (gas) and the energy of sun light to form glucose and oxygen. Glucose then serves as the energy source for all subsequent biochemical reactions.

Polar Ocean Regions

same as temperate ocean, but melting of ice shelf enhances stratification

The number of trophic levels between phytoplankton and harvestable fish is .....

smaller in high nutrient regions such as coastal upwelling regions. phytoplankton are larger/fatter/bigger in more nutrient rich regions so commercial/harvestable fish can feed directly on phytoplankton and thereby skip several trophic levels and bypass the associated ecological efficiency losses of additional trophic steps. (very efficient). Open ocean : 7 trophic levels(even tho u have lots of primary production, since the phytoplankton are small in size the steps are a lot u don't have much fish in the end) Continental shelf: 4 Upwelling region: 3 (even tho u don't have that much primary production, the size of phytoplankton is big so the steps are very little so lots of fish in the end(very efficient transfer of carbon from primary producer to harvestable fish ) (very productive for fish).

Three phases of Water

solid, liquid and gas Two opposing forces determine the structure of water in its three phases: H-bond Energy: relatively weak bond energy holding adjacent water molecules together unchanging strength Thermal (kinetic) Energy pushes/breaks adjacent molecules apart increases with increasing temperature

Where do u get the highest surface salinity waters

subtropical gyres bc not much precipitation here and also lots of evaporation.

Vertical Zonation

the hallmark of the intertidal zone Communities are divided into distinct bands, or zones, at characteristic heights in the intertidal. Species are not randomly distributed throughout the intertidal zone, but rather are arranged within relatively narrow vertical ranges. The zones look like sharply divided belts easily distinguished by the colors of the assemblage (i.e. community) of organisms that live there

Benthic

the seafloor environment includes coral reefs and rocky intertidal

Pelagic

the water column environment

Plankton

unable to swim horizontally against ocean currents, but may move vertically in the water column phytoplankton zooplankton