Oceanography test #1 review ch 1, 2, and 3

First Global exploratory Expeditions

Chinese navigators set out in the 1400s to explore the Indian Ocean, Indonesia, Africa and the Atlantic. Their ships were laden with gifts designed to show China's wealth and degree of civilization.

P waves

primary waves, compressional waves First wave to arrive at the seismograph station. Compress and expand like an slinky

50AD Ptolemy

produced a world map that showed a realistic Mediterranean, Europe , England, North America and little Asia. The map had good latitude , but was way off in longitude! He did not use Eratosthenes circumference of 40,000 km instead used his own calculation of 29,000km!

the Spanish Armada 1588 was a failed attempt to what?

punish England for piracy. marked the end of Spain's dominance

Bartholomew Diaz 1488AD

rounds Cape of Good Hope Africa.

Vasco Da Gamma

sails to India establishing alternate trade route to Asia (what Columbus was looking for).

Glomar Challenger

samples obtained by scientists on this drilling ship provided confirming evidence for seafloor spreading and plate tectonics.

list types of margins

divergent, transform, convergent, and subvergent

One of the major forces that drives plate motion is...

heat driven convection currents in the Mantle.

Ptolemy

invented dividing degrees into minutes and minutes into Seconds of arc and convention of east to right and north at top.

First purely scientific voyage:

***A Corvette ship was converted to a floating lab with Wyville Thomson as lead scientist over a team of scientists. ***Disproves Forbe's Azoic Zone theory. ***4717 new species described and collected. ***Record water depth measured at Marianus trench (8.19km) ***77 of its water samples used by William Ditmar 1884 to confirm constancy of ocean Salinity, supporting Alexander Marcet 1820's finding of the constancy of proportion of Major elements in seawater i.e. conservative elements. Note: In 1865 the principle of Constant Proportions became known as the Forchhamer Principle

Large scale Joint and International Efforts:

*DSDP---Deep sea drilling project, 1963, Joint Scripps and Lamont-Doherty effort, called JOIDES for Joint Oceanographic Institute For Deep Sea Drilling which was joined by Universities of Washington, Oregon, Hawaii, Rhode Island and Texas A&M. It's drilling ship was the Glomar Challenger, 1968 and could drill in water 6000m deep. *ODP---Ocean Drilling Program,1983. It evolved from DSDP with U.S., United Kingdom, Rusia, Japan and Germany. *IGY---International Geophysical year, 1957-1958 IDOE---International Decade of Ocean Exploration, 1970's GEOSECS, Geochemical ocean section study, 1972-1978 *JGOFS---Joint Global Ocean Flux Study, 1987 to present *WOCE---World Ocean Circulation Experiment, 1990-1997 *Note: CLIVAR---Climate Variability and Predictability has replaced WOCE and TOGA

Institutions:

*Musee' Oceanographique, Monaco 1903, Jacque Cousteau an alumni *Script Institution of Oceanography, San Diego, Cal. Started in 1912 as U.S. first oceanographic Institution *Woods Hole in 1930's, but was originally a late 1800's seaside lab to teach science to women as established by Ellen Swallow Richards. Now part of Harvard and Massachusetts Inst. Of Technology *Lamont Doherty Earth Observatory, started in 1949 as Lamont Geological Observatory, Palisades, N.Y. *University of Miami's Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atm. Science 1930 *Texas A&M Univ. Oceanography Program started in 1949, in 1984 became the Administrator of the Ocean Drilling Program

Modern Wars lead to Modern Advances:

*WWI saw echo sounders developed to defend against German U boats and was adapted to quickly survey the ocean floor *WWII battles needed much more sophisticated data to win. So ocean currents and seafloor bathymetry, as well as physical properties of ocean water with greatest detail ever. *Sea Grant Program developed to keep a high level of research going at universities

Hipparchus

127 BC gave us a regularly spaced grid of 360 degrees

The Age of Discovery

1451-1522 was government funded. The incentive was that new trade route to Asia.

Balboa

1513 First European to see Pacific at Isthmus of Panama

Ferdinand Magellan

1519AD-1522 First circumnavigation of Earth on the HMS Victoria. Only 18 out of 260 sailors managed to return after three years of dangerous travel.

Sir Francis Drake (Britain)

1577-1580 Looted Spain and Portugal's ships and colonies. Britain was openly supporting piracy to whittle away at Spain's dominance.

***SEASAT A-

1978 first ocean satellite, worked only three months, but showed global distribution of ocean temperature in real time.

Nimbus 7

1978-1981, showed Chlorophyll providing a world view of where the highest Primary Production of Phytoplankton. Chlorophyll -a fluoresces at certain wavelengths and is Indirect proxy for how much plankton biomass is being produced.

Topex/Poseidon

1993, maps global sea level and studies global ocean-atmosphere Interactions.

How many years does it take Earth to complete one orbit around our central super massive black hole?

230 million years

when did the ocean form?

4 bya

HMS Beagle voyages 1831-1836

:***circumnavigate world, but concentrate on the southern oceans and Pacific volcanic islands (Galapagos). ***Deduced the association between volcanic islands and coral reefs. How subsidence evolves the reefs from fringing to barrier to atoll. ***It was time spent on Galapagos Islands that led to his insights on natural selection and Origin of Species.

John Harrison's Chronometer

Accurate time at sea was difficult so accurate longitude impossible and many ships were running aground. British formed The Board of Longitude which offered a large amount of money for accuracy to 30 nm of longitude. Chronograph attempt number 4 tested in1761 to accuracy of 1.4 nm. A copy of number 4 tested on Cook's last two voyages.

Stable phase

After the fusion reaction, the star is stable, burning its hydrogen fuel at a steady rate and converts hydrogen into elements as heavy as carbon and oxygen.

Alexander Agassiz and Wyville Thompson connection:

Agassiz was a millionaire oceanography benefactor who helped process Challenger samples In 1876. He is credited for improving scientific quantitative quality of data collected, as well As inventing sampling devices and innovated the use of steel cables in sampling.

Christians gain control of Arab Spain areas and use Spanish Libraries to rediscover all the Greek and other lost knowledge. what date?

Around 1410 AD

Who gave us the first grid system?

Eratosthenes

Henry the Navigator

Establishes a Navigation School a t Sagres where they collect all known navigation charts and refine use of Magnetic compass

Remote Sensing:

Gives us synoptic global views of large scale ocean phenomena that we can study in no other Way.

why were the 1st scientific expeditions undertaken?

Governments Spurred on to gain power (especially England wanting to maintain superiority over United States and other countries). This was spurred on by some Controversies that were incentives to spend money

what was the first purely scientific expedition?

H.M.S. Challenger (1872-1876) Captain James Cook

what was the first expedition dedicated only to scientific research?

HMS Challenger expedition of 1872-1876

V. W. Ekman

He used Nansen's data on ice drift relative to wind direction to develop the concept of the Ekman Spiral. Data revealed ice drifted 20-40 degrees to right of wind direction. Because of Coriolis Force is to the right in Northern Hemisphere most of the water in a surface current moves 45 degree to the right of wind direction. Note: Surface waters move 3% of wind velocity and more and more to the right loosing velocity with depth causing the Spiral.

Alfred Wegener 1915***Continental Drift

He was a meteorologist. He proposed all continents were once a single land mass called Pangea. Pangea broke apart ~180 to 200 million years ago and the pieces drift to their present positions. He used Paleontological evidence from fossils. Climatological data from Glacial deposits and erosion (also coal and desert deposits) and Stratigraphic data (geologic outcrops matching on separate continents. His downfall was the lack of a viable mechanism to move continents. He proposed continents plowed through the primitive world wide ocean basin he called Panthalasa and that their leading edges being deformed by drag into mountain ranges, with perhaps tidal forces of sun-moon or centrifugal forces of earth's spin and bulging equator providing the force for movement. His data and evidence was excellent, but his mechanisms very bad. It became a hotly debated issue for the time, But faded into obscurity with time.

Wilson, 1965***integrated continental drift and seafloor spreading into the Plate Tectonic Model we use today

How deep can you go? ***Oceanography had to deal with all the problems with pressure, Dissolved gases and needs for decompression. Today we use special gas mixtures of oxygen-helium-nitrogen to extend range of depth. ***Pressurized suits ( LIKE "JIM") that maintain surface pressure avoid decompression. ***submersables like Beebe 1934, goes to 923m in a bathsphere (tethered to ship). ***Untethered---Trieste, 1960 Marianas Trench 10, 915m. ---Alvin, 4000m used with ROV (remote operational vehicle) Argo-Jason. ---Sea Cliff II 6000m ---Shinkai 6500 the worlds deepest diving manned submarine (can explore 97% ocean floor) AUV's---autonomous underwater vehicles, Wood's Hole's ABE (Autonomous benthic explorer).

Columbus: 1492

Looking for that new trade route to Asia. Uses Ptolemy's faulty map of 29,000km circumference, which is why he thinks he's in Asia when he lands in San Salvedor Islands.

Captain James Cook 1768-1779

Made 3 voyages. ***First to sail North and South Polar Seas. ***Mapped most of the Pacific and discovered Hawaiian Islands. ***Pioneered ocean science measurements of temperature with depth, winds, currents, biologic sampling and bathymetry. Also studied coral reefs and discovered Great Barrier Reef, as well as Easter Island and Tonga. ***Observed the transit of Venus across the sun which allowed verification of planetary orbits.

Benjamin Franklin 1777

Made first chart of a major ocean current the Gulf Stream.

Exploitation period starts after ...

Magellan

What advances in oceanic exploration occurred in the 20th century?

Polar Exploration - explorers reached both the North and South poles in the twentieth century The Meteor Expedition - first expedition to use modern optical and electronic equipment for oceanographic investigation

Marine ecology and Victor Henson 1889

Problem was wild fluctuations in commercial fish catches by all the major nations. Solved by ecological approach of Henson. He used the concept of food webs, role of nutrients and ocean mixing. He studied the food supply of the fish rather than the fish. He coined the term plankton and invented ways to quantify them. This work overturned the accepted dogma of the time that there should be more plankton in the tropics where it is warm and you have more light. He found instead that the tropic biomass is low because nutrients are depleted as a result of Thermal stratification of the surface water by the constant Thermocline. So this means you need the waters to mix and overturn to mix nutrient rich deep water to the surface to support plankton which support the fisheries.

Charles Darwin1859

Published "On The Origin of Species" which stirred up international controversy.

What the drift obsrvations showed:

Showed no northern continant under Ice pack. ***First evidence to support Thermohaline Circulation showing waters were layered by density as controlled by temperature and salinity. Found a warm high salinity layer 150m to 900m and correctly interpreted it as high salinity Atlantic Water that had sunk under low salinity Arctic Surface Water. Today we label this as Intermediate Waters.

Magellan's circumnavigation is said to be the end of...

The Age of Discovery

What is a binnacle?

The compass was considered magic and only the Captain could use it so it was locked in a special box.

Mathew Fountaine Maury 1855

The first Oceanographic Textbook and is considered the "Father of Oceanography". ***Established international scientific conferences as the way to share knowledge.

Voyage of the Fram and Fridjoft Nansen 1893 (Norwegian).

The ship was made to order. Hull was 1.2m thick hull, had provisions for 5 years Drifted Frozen in the north Arctic seas for three years. Missed north pole by 245 miles and after 14 months so discouraged abandoned Fram with sled dogs.

Vine and Mathews, 1963***Magnetic Anomalies confirm seafloor spreading

They interpreted Magnetic Anomaly Bands found on each side of the MOR's as a record of the earth's magnetic field changes through time. The times of Normal and Reversed bands are symmetrical in width on either side of a spreading ridge axis. All this magnetic data came from the use of magnetometers looking for submarines in WWII. They proposed the mantle convection proposed by Hess was part of larger conveyor belt system that redistributed Continents since Pangea. This means the continents are rafted along like driftwood. This predicts ocean floor basalt crust should get older away from ridge axis.

Harry Hess, 1960***Seafloor spreading

WWII naval captain. He proposed continents spread to their present positions from a single Landmass by new ocean floor basalt being created in MOR's (Mid-ocean Ridges Spreading Centers), which then move laterally in both directions to eventually be consumed at deep sea trenches. Mantle convection currents were his mechanism.

The Trieste

a blimp-like bathyscaphe which descended into the Challenger Deep area of the Mariana Trench

GPS (Global Positioning System)---

a network of satellites to triangulate position on earth.

Proto-star

a tightly condensed knot of material that has not yet attained fusion temperature.

the mechanisms of spreading are confined to upper ___a_ involving the ______b____ and the _____c_______.

a) 700Km b)lithosphere c)asthenosphere

DSDP***

confirms Vine and Mathew's interpretation of symmetrical bands of symmetrical bands. Ocean Crust found to get older away from MOR's where it is newly formed Freezing in the basalt Fe-bearing minerals the prevailing normal or reversed polarity

Greenwich Prime Meridian

divides earth into a Western and Eastern hemisphere.

density stratified

each deeper layer is denser than the one above

The Meteor Expedition

first expedition to use modern optical and electronic equipment for oceanographic investigation - Set the standard for Oceanography as a multidisciplinary science. Set the standard to use a set grid system in sampling. Its ship track criss-crossed most of the middle and southern Atlantic Ocean. The same science was done at set intervals at each station along the transects i.e. bathymetry with an echoe sounder ran continuously, same chemistry and current at all 310 stations. First to show Mid-Atlantic Spreading center rift graben running down the center of Atlantic. Also its data used by Wust to show the four layer structure of circulation we understand today.

The Atlantis

investigations on this research vessel confirmed the presence of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.

where is there a phase change

lithosphere to asthenosphere, asthenosphere to mesosphere, and outer to inner core,

1599 Gerhadus Mercator

makes Mercator Projection maps for Navigation

mesosphere

middle; ~700Km to Outer Core ~2900Km; hotter than asthenosphere but greater pressure keeps it from flowing

list the following from largest to smallest %: oceans, wetlands, permafrost, freshwater lakes, groundwater, and glaciers.

oceans, glaciers, groundwater, permafrost, freshwater lakes, and wetlands.

S waves

secondary waves, side to side waves; none below 2900Km (outer core)

list 4 things the Chinese invented for ocean exploration

the compass, the central rudder, water-tight compartments, and sails on multiple masts.

supernova

the explosive collapse of a massive star.

The Waldseemüller Map, published in 1507

the first map to name America and to show the New World as separate from Asia.

Eratosthenes of Cyrene

was the second librarian at Alexandria. He was the first to calculate the circumference of Earth and also invented a system of longitude and latitude. Figures the circumference of earth as 40,000km (actual ~40,032km) using basic geometry and an understanding that light rays are parallel when arriving at earth.

when did scientific oceanography begin?

with Captain James Cook 1768-1779

Modern Oceanography begins with

Meteor Expedition 1925 (German)

what was the first modern expedition?

Meteor Expedition 1925 (German)

EOS (Earth Observing System)---

Nasa, uses same instruments sent to study planets to look back on earth.

when did the earth form?

4.6 bya

Plate Tectonics: (5 steps to its advancement)

1. Alfred Wegener 1915***Continental Drift 2. Harry Hess, 1960***Seafloor spreading 3. Vine and Mathews, 1963***Magnetic Anomalies confirm seafloor spreading 4.DSDP*** 5.Wilson, 1965***integrated continental drift and seafloor spreading into the Plate Tectonic Model we use today

Greek evidence that earth was a sphere (4)

1. Shadows on earth lengthen going northward at any given hour of the day. 2. Constellations change from north to south hemisphere. 3. Eclipse of moon as shadows seen as curves. 4. Mast of ship the last part of ship seen as it sails below horizon.

what assumptions did Eratosthenes make when measuring the circumference of the earth?

1. rays of light parallel due to great distance of sun. 2. Alexandria and Syene lay on the same N-S meridian perpendicular to equator. 3. straight line intersecting 2 parallel lines creates corresponding equal angles. 4. distance between Alexandria and Syene 5000 stadia or ~800 km.

what 4 incentives led to the funding of the Challenger Expedition?

1.Life in the deep sea controversy 1818 Ross verses Forbes: 2.Trans Atlantic Cable 3. Thomas Huxely's Bathybius (Primeaval Slime) 4.Political will

when was Hawaii settled

A.D. 450-600

who were the first regular ocean traders

Cretans or the Phoenicians

Why is right side of boat called Starboard?

Prior to Chinese a special oar was used over right side to steer boat.

Large regions of earth's continents are held above sea level by ...

isostatic equilibrium (Isostacy).

Hypatia

last librarian. In 415AD Roman Christians murdered her and Burned Library and ~700,000 irreplaceable scrolls!!!

Echo sounders

sense the contour of the seafloor by beaming sound waves to the bottom and measuring the time required for the sound waves to bounce back to the ship. If the round-trip travel time and wave velocity are known, distance to the bottom can be calculated. This technique was first used on a large scale by the German research vessel Meteor in the 1920s.

How did water and water vapor form on early Earth?

slide 17

core layer depths

slide 4

where is there a chemical change****

slide 4

asthenosphere

soft; 100 Km to ~700Km, flows deforms plastically under stress supports lithosphere

inner core

solid, Fe & Ni 5100Km to 6370Km, 16g/cm3

dark ages

starts when the Roman Empire falls in 476AD. Arabs and Asians were the only ones to retain some of the previous accomplishments in Marine Science.

Leonardo Da Vinci: 1452-1522

studies currents, waves, ocean water budget, fossils on Mt. Everest and realizes sea level has gone up and down through time. He also built a diving suit.

lithosphere

to 100Km, both crusts and upper most rigid portion of mantle

Vikings

took advantage of a small global warming event that freed N. Atlantic of Ice. Sailed West using pre-determined Latitude using North Star angle above horizon and sun position for a given time of the year. In 981AD Eric the Red makes it to Greenland and Baffin Island. In1200Ad Lief Erikson, son of Red advanced west looking for Timber for Greenland settlements and finds North America (Vinland) by 1200AD warming climate ends and ice returns to these latitudes ending Viking expansion west.

outer core

viscous liquid of Fe & Ni, ~2900Km to 5100 Km, 11.8g/cm3