only god can help me now
What are primacy and recency effects?
-primacy effect: the first communicator has advnatages over second -recency effect: second position is more advantageous
personal space
body buffer zone! (personal bubble please)
3 Lessons from Robbers Cave Experiment
1. Differences in background, appearance, prior histories of conflict are NOT necessary for intergroup hostility to develop. 2. Competition against outsiders increases group cohesion. 3. To reduce hostility between groups, policy makers should get them to work together to fulfill common superordinate goals.
Group Polarization
A group-produced tendency to make judgments that are more extreme than individuals' initial judgments
role playing
A learning technique in which two or more people act out characterizations of other people or other communication styles.
Superordinate Goal
A shared goal that necessities cooperative effort; a goal that overrides people's differences from one another.
Ethnocentrism
A tendency to attribute desirable characteristics to one's own group and undesirable characteristics to outgroups.
Market-Based Policies
An offer of rewards to those who reduce their socially harmful behaviors
diffusion of responsibility
bystander effect, people feel less responsible when in the presence of others
Ethnocentrism
Awareness of differences but think their own way is better
Aggression
Behavior that is intended to cause harm to another
Discrimination
Behavioral (intentions) -> Discrimination - unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group or its members - When applying Attitude Theory (ABCs) to Prejudice
What is a cultural truism?
Beliefs accepted by/within a culture
Symbolic Racism
Blacks no longer face much prejudice or discrimination, Blacks' failure to progress results from their unwillingness to work hard enough, Blacks are demanding too much too fast, Blacks have gotten more than they deserve.
Social norms
Decrease self-imposed segregation Support of authorities, law, or customs.
Robert Cialdini
Developed the foot-in-the-door phenomenon, "start small and build"
Hostile Sexism
Dislike of women, viewed as usurping men's power.
What is stereotype threat?
Disruptive concern that one will be evaluated on a negative stereotype. High told there were racial differences on the test, low if there was NO difference.
Post-decision dissonance
Dissonance aroused after making an irrevocable decision that is reduced by increasing the attractiveness of the chosen alternative and devaluing the attractiveness of the rejected alternative
Five Strategies for Resolving Impasse (cont)
Establish common ground through superordinate goals, common enemies, shared expectations, reduced time pressure, integrative reframing Make better offers, clarify benefits, repackage the offer, sweeten the deal, use positive commitments
Minimal Groups Paradigm
Even arbitrary and virtually meaningless distinctions between groups can trigger a tendency to favor one's own group at the expense of others
Gender role
Expectations of ways in which males and females should behave as defined by a person's culture
Minimal Group Paradigm (Henry Taijfel)
Experimental paradigm in which researchers create groups based on arbitrary and seemingly meaningless criteria and then examine how members of these groups are inclined to behave toward one another.
Subtyping
Explaining away exceptions to a given stereotype by creating a subcategory of the stereotyped group that can be expected to differ from the group as a whole. Ex: sexists who believe that women are passive and dependent and should stay home to raise children are likely to subcategorize assertive, independent women who choose not to have children as "militant" or "strident" feminists, thereby leaving their stereotype of women largely intact.
subtyping
Explaining exceptions to a given stereotype by creating a subcategory of the stereotyped group that can be expected to differ from the group as a whole.
How does Fundamental attribution error contribute to conflict?
Explaining own behavior situationally. Self Inflicting, self-focused. Unlikely to empathize with others' perspectives (Myers). Excuses we make for ourselves that are not applied to another person.
Ethnocentrism
Glorifying one's own group while vilifying other groups
Superordinate Groups
Group members display hostility due to incompatible goals, but when group members have similar goals, must accept there will be a decline in prejudice. e.g. Sherif exp - broke H20 mains & boys had to work together to fix. Can reduce prejudice if successful but if not then out-group blamed.
Facial Expressions of Emotion/Big 6
Happy (best at identifying), Sad, Angry, Disgust, Fear, Surprise
Naive Psychology
Heider's theory that people practice a form of untrained psychology as they use cause and effect analyses to understand their world and other people's behaviour.
Other Barriers to Agreement
Ideologically based conflict Positions based on values or ideals Influence perceptions of fairness Ingroup - Outgroup effect Harder to resolve because of perception of selling out
Why, according to Bronfenbrenner and Deutsch, are misperceptions a serious problem?
If A expects B to be hostile, A may treat B in such a way that fulfills A's expectations, thus beginning a vicious circle.
What are Gottlib & Coby's (1988) tips for how to fight constructively?
If managed constructively, conflict provides opportunities for reconciliation and more genuine harmony. Table 13.2 page 512
Symptoms of Groupthink
Illusion of invulnerability; Unquestioned belief in group's morality; Rationalization; Stereotyped view of opponent; Conformity pressure; Self-censorship; Illusion of unanimity
Preventing Groupthink
Impartiality; Devil's advocate; Subdivision; Encouragement/welcoming of criticism; Second-chance meetings;
Information Integration Theory
Impressions formed of others are based on Personal dispositions of the PERCEIVER (we differ in the impressions we form of others)
Consistency
Information about whether a person's behaviour toward a given stimulus is the same across time.
Self-Serving Bias
Kids in a class would try to claim the perfect score test with no name on it vs. no one claiming the failed test with no name on it. Rejecting accepting ones failure.
What does it mean to say that a credible source is perceived as relatively free of bias?
Knowledge bias- receiver's belief that the communicator has a limited base of knowledge - when someone knows a lot about a specific topic but not about another Reporting bias- receiver's belief that the communicator has a limited willingness to convey accurate information.
What are two ways that social psychology methods are used to study mental disorders?
LDTs measure implicit associations between constructs. Implicit association task (IAT), Measure automatic associations with a concept of interest.
What is pluralistic ignorance?
Looking to others for clues about how to behave, while they are looking to you, collective misinterpretation
Eros
Love style that is passionate, involving powerful physical attraction
What does it mean to say that elaboration occurs on a continuum?
Low thinking (peripheral route) <---------------------> High thinking (central route) Individuals vary in degree that they are likely to engage in elaboration of persuasive messages ELM claims that there are two paths to persuasion: the central route and the peripheral route.
How does overpopulation affect the environment?
More depletion of resources, more pollution and more environmental degeneration. Heat, noise, and pollution, decreases helpfulness, attention memory and health and violence. 1/3 of us will get cancer, 90% will be environmental caused.
Sturdy three-legged Stool. Leg 2
Motivational and economic perspectives speak to how an unequal distribution of resources can show seeds of intergroup hostility.
Social Inhibition
On difficult or novel tasks, our dominant response is usually incorrect. The presence of others hinders our performance.
Social Facilitation
On easy or well-learned tasks, our dominant response is usually correct. In this case, the presence of others enhances our performance.
Multiple contacts
Over time with the same outgroup member ◦ Avoiding "it was just an exception when (s)he..." With multiple outgroup members ◦ Avoiding "(s)he is an exception..." Key here is group salience
Paired Distinctiveness
Pairing of two distinctive events that stand out even more because they co-occur.
Contact How to Achieve Peace
Predicts decreased prejudice.
Resolving Social Dilemmas
Regulations: Laws or binding norms for the common good Make the group small: Maximizing one's own influence & stake Communication: (Not merely threats) New group identity? Change payoffs: If cooperation becomes more rewarding, people cooperate Appeal to altruistic norms: sometimes works...
Lexical Decision Task
Researcher flashes a series of words and non-words on a computer screen and asks participants to determine which are words and which are non-words.
Frustration and Displaced Aggression Study - Carl Hovland and Robert Sears Cotton in the South Re-analysis
Researchers found same negative correlation between cotton price and lynchings number and a weaker negative correlation between economic conditions and number of lynchings of whites.
Cultural Display Rules
Rules in a culture that govern how universal emotions should be expressed.
What are the 3 aspects of the investment model of relationships and how do they affect relationships?
Satisfaction-admiration and respect (positive interactions vs. negative, need 5 to 1, positive perceptions of partner increase happiness) and quality of alternatives (will stay committed if no other good options, devalue others, and make themselves as inattentive to others) ex. More talked about alternatives they broke up by two months. and investment (kids, and house)
What are Stereotypes
Schemas based on group membership such as ethnicity or location
The Prisoner's Dilemma
See notes.
Bargaining
Seeking an agreement to a conflict through direct negotiation between parties
What are 2 effects of power?
Self-oriented and other-oriented - galinsky told them to either put a P or E on their head. Power decreases empathy. Power increases action.
Social Traps
Situations in which individuals or groups are drawn toward immediate rewards that later prove to have unpleasant/lethal consequences
Counterattitudinal advocacy
Stating an opinion or attitude that runs counter to one's privately held attitude or belief
Match Stereotype, Prejudice and Discrimination to their respective components
Stereotype = Belief component Prejudice = Attitudinal component Discrimination = Behavioural component
Weapon Bias
Study that shows people pictures quite quickly one after the other. More likely to (falsely) see a gun after seeing a black face than a white face.
The Motivational perspective
The existence of group boundaries among any collection of individuals can be sufficient to initiate group discrimination -intergroup hostility can develop in the absence of competition -claim things to be "ours" and want to challenge or run them off
Social dominance orientation
The extent to which a person describes that his or her own group dominate other groups and be socially and materially superior to them
Dominant Response
The response that is most likely to occur in a situation. The response that you are most likely to make, which can be correct or incorrect.
Obedience
a behavioral response to social influence that leads a person to follow a command or a direct order
Self-disclosure
a conversation with people reveal personal information about themselves to others
conflict
a perceived incompatibility of actions or goals
Social Identity Theory
a person's sense of who they are based on their group membership(s).
door-in-the-face
a request is made of someone that will be surely turned down, only to be followed by a lesser, or less demanding request.
Authoritarian personality
a set of personality traits that is linked to bias against members of out-groups
deindividuation
abandoning normal restraints to power of group, loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity (ex: KKK, riots, food fights, tribal masks, etc.)
Storge
affectionate form of love that typically develops between siblings and friends
Situational Causes
causes relating to external or environmental events
Dispositional Causes
causes relating to the internal characteristics or traits of individuals
Agape
altruistic love style that is selfless and giving
passionate love
an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship
Self-efficacy
an individual's belief about his or her ability to bring about a desired outcome
define causal attribution
an inference about what caused a person's behavior
prejudice
an opinion or strong feeling formed without careful thought or regard to the facts
commons
any shared resource including air, water, energy sources and food supplies
Minimal Group Paradigm
assign people to groups by purely arbitrary means. Members never meet other members. They tend to show ingroup favoritism and discriminate in favor of their own group. (Kindergarten study kids split into too groups, one group told they are "good" kids and the other told they are "bad" kids, the good kids behaved good and the bad kids behaved poorly.)
Attribution
assumption about the causes of behavior or events
What is compliance gaining?
attempt to influence others to agree to do something
what is a fear appeal?
attempt to scare people into changing their attitude by showing negative consequences that will occur if they do not comply with the message recommendation.
Is the activation of stereotypes typically a controlled or automatic process?
automatic
Self-concept:
awareness of who one is
Social comparison theory:
comparing oneself to others in order to develop a sense of one's identity. We are motivated to evaluate our own opinions by comparing them to those of others
According to follow-up studies, how did obedience to authority vary as a function of the experimenter's presence? How did obedience change when the study was conducted in downtown Bridgeport? How did obedience change when another participant/confederate began given orders?
compliance increases when the experimenter is present. when in another institution in bridgeport it went down to 48%. when other participant were given orders with them 90% liberated themselves by conforming to the defiant confederates.
Door-In-The-Face Technique
compliance technique in which refusal of a large technique in which refusal of a large unreasonable request is followed by a smaller, more reasonable request
Obedience
compliance with commands or orders issued by others, usually persons in a position of authority
Passion
component of love that consists of romantic feelings and desires resulting from physical attraction
Me:
component of the self that represents the self as the object and gives direction to an act
why does contact fail?
because exposure alone doesn't reduce intergroup conflict. it reinforces stereotypes, sub-typing, and self-fulfilling prophecies
stereotypes
beliefs that certain attributes are characteristic of members of particular groups -some have truth behind them, some don't
Contact hypothesis
contact between members of different groups leads to more positive inter-group attitudes - requires equal status - best if friendships form
What is need for cognition, and how does it relate to elaboration?
direct correlation with motivation to elaborate; relates to how much a person likes to think about stuff
Institutionalized discrimination
discrimination that has been built into the legal political, economic and social institutions of a culture
Out-Groups
groups other than those with which one identifies
Bystander Intervention
helping a stranger in distress
Self-esteem:
individual's evaluation of his or her self-worth
Principle of consistency
individuals need to be consistent in thoughts and actions
Group based social hierarchy
is defined by the social power, prestige, and privilege possessed by individuals by virtue of their ascribed memberships in particular groups
Cognition:
knowledge, opinions or beliefs
Disidentification
long term results from stereotype threat; stereotypes become incorporated into one's self concept
misperception
many conflicts contain a core of truly incompatible goals surrounded by a larger exterior of misperception
Proximity
nearness or propinquity
cooperation
non zero sum games; not competition; common external threats breed cohesiveness; win-win
Comparison level
outcome that a person believes he or she deserves from a particular relationships
ethnocentrism
people believe their own race is best
ingroup bias
people like their own group best
motivational perspective
perspective of discrimination that emphasizes the psychological needs and wishes that leads to intergroup conflict -i.e. social identity theory, frustration-aggression theory
Attitude
positive or negative evaluation of persons, objects, or issues
Looking-glass self:
process by which we view ourselves from the imaginary stance of others
Theories of group formation
psychoanalytic sociobiological social comparison social exchange
John Gottman
repairs, love lab; it is not about fighting but how you fight; wrote the seven principles for making marriage work
Generalized other:
representation of an individual's internalization of society's rules
self-disclosure
revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others
pluralistic ignorance
shared false impressions of another's feelings
Superordinate goals
shared goals that necessitate cooperative effort between ingroup and outgroup
In what way do men and women differ on measures of conformity
small gender differences
idea of groups
social animals that live in groups, cheer for groups, kill for our groups, die for our groups; groups provide people with self-concept, pride, and identity
In-Groups
social, religious, ethnic, or national groups with which one identifies
Organizational Culture
system of shared values and norms within and organization
social psychology
the branch of psychology that studies persons and their relationships with others and with groups and with society as a whole
group polarization
the enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group
Stereotype threat
the feat that one might confirm the negative stereotypes held by others about one's group
Relative deprivation
the perception that one's condition is worse than that of others, who serve as a basis for comparison
frustration aggression theory
the theory that frustration leads to generalized (targeted at no one in specific) aggression
Recategorization Model
transform members in seperate groups to one larger inclusive group. Gardner - large & individual groups have less bias shown than small groups.
Social change
transformation of culture and society over time
Ingroup
us
validity effect
you hear about something often and thus believe it more (ex: I've heard it a lot, so it's probably true)
Evaluating the Motivational Perspective - It builds on which two undeniably important elements of the human condition?
1. People readily draw us/them distinction. Groups are connected to motive to enhance self-esteem. 2. People react to frustration with aggression and direct aggression at least powerful targets.
leadership styles
80% of what leaders do can be accounted for by these task and relationship-oriented roles
Conflict
A perceived incompatibility of actions or goals.
According to modern anthropology from what continent did all humans originally evolve?
Africa
Contact Hypothesis
Allport's belief that under certain conditions, increased intergroup contact helps reduce prejudice and intergroup tension
What does a competitive environment do to cooperation and why?
Competition kindles conflict
What did Festinger's Theory of Cognitive Dissonance (1964) have to say about the relationship between attitudes and behavior?
Countless studies inspired by cognitive dissonance theory revealed that attitudes change as the result of behavior and not the other way around
Evaluation Apprehension
Created by the presence of others. Concern for how others are viewing us.
Solomon Asch
Developed the line test to test for conformity- people conformed 33% of the time
Salience
Different factors are salient(i.e. obvious) for actors and observers. Specifically, as an actor in an event you are very aware of the situational factors that led to your behaviour. If you are the observer of someone else behaviour, what is most salient in the event is the person rather than the situation. When situational factors are salient we are less likely to make a dispositional attribution. The salience of the person influences our attributions, and that usually others are more salient to us than ourselves. Question difficulty may be very salient for observers, and that they take the situational factor into account. When the challenge posed by the situation is highly salient, people take this external factor into account in attributing the cause of contestants wrong answers.
• How does fear affect our attitudes and political beliefs?
Emotion responses can be very effective. It depends on the emotion state of the audience. Carl hovland based his persuasion research on learning theory, the link between stimulus and the response. Actually attitude changes more with the low fear group. Strong fear stimulates a defensive reaction. Fear appeals are persuasive if it doesn't paralyze the audience with fear. Written warning and pictures are sixty times more likely to inspire the smoker to quit.
Functional Scripts
Enable us to anticipate goals, behaviors and outcome likely to occur in a particular setting; help us understand other people's verbal or nonverbal behavior
measurement of facial muscles
Expressions influence our attitudes and feelings. we our emotions follow our behavior, i.e., that we infer emotions by observing our actions.
Indirect intergroup contact
Extended contact: Knowing that an ingroup member has a close relationship with an outgroup member Vicarious contact: Observing an ingroup member interact with an outgroup member Imagined contact: Imagining oneself interacting with an outgroup member Parasocial contact: Interacting with an outgroup member through the media
Integrative Complexity
Extent to which a person demonstrates simplified black and white categorical thinking, as opposed to acknowledgement of all sides of an issue
FAE (Fundamental Attribution Error)
External attribution for our group behavior and internal attribution for other groups
Verbal Abilities
Females talk earlier than do males Females have a larger vocabulary during childhood Girls have better reading and writing skills in grade school
Ethnocentrism
Glorifying one's own group while vilifying other groups.
Superordinate Goals
Goals that transcend the interests of 1 group and that can be achieved more readily by 2 or more groups, working together.
Word presented and stereotype
Groups of high and low prejudiced participants on the basis of their scores on the Modern Racism Scale. She present each participant a set of words, one at a time, to briefly that they could not be consciously identified. Some participants were shown neutral words and some were shown related to blacks. Participants were then presented with written description of individual who acted in ambiguously hostile manner, target individuals refused to pay his rent until his apartment was repaired. Result: He was primed more hostile and more negative by participants who had earlier been primed by words designed to activate their stereotypes of blacks. This was equally true of prejudiced and nonprejudiced participants. The stimulus words unconsciously activated their stereotypes, the nonprejudiced participants were unable to suppress the automatic processing of stereotypical information.
Misperception
Groups see own goal as extremely important, take pride in 'us' and devalue 'them'. Believe themselves to be victimized, elevate loyalty to group's needs, celebrate self-sacrifice and suppress criticism. Arises from small piece of true incompatibility and larger piece of misperception.
Social Roles
Groups teach us about how we are expected to behave, how we're supposed to treat others, and how we expect others to treat us.
Inter-group competition heuristic
Groups, tendency is to be competitive, have conflict.
Derogating outgroups to bolster self-esteem
Half of the participants had their self-esteem threatened by being told they hand just performed poorly on an intelligence test, the other half were told they had done well. The participants then watched a videotaped interview of a job applicant. The content of the videotape made it clear to half of the (non-Jewish) participants that the applicant was Jewish, but not to the other half. When later asked to rate the job applicant, those who thought she was Jewish rated her more negatively than did those who were not told she was Jewish, but only if they had earlier been told they had performed poorly on the intelligence test. In addition, the participants who had had their self-esteem threatened and had "taken it out" on the Jewish applicant experienced an increase in their self-esteem from the beginning of the experiment to the end. Stereotyping and derogating members of outgroups, it appears, serve to bolster self-esteem.
Psychological androgyny
Having the social and psychological and social traits typically associated with both males and females, e.g., Men being nurturing if the situation calls for it Women being assertive if the situation calls for it
Explain the concept of psychological androgyny.
Having the social and psychological traits typically associated with both males and females, e.g., capable of both assertiveness and nurturance. Men being nurturing if the situation calls for it Women being assertive if the situation calls for it
Social Perception
How people form impressions of and make inferences about other people. Although the process of making attributions about someones attitudes and behaviour may seem like a very rational and straightforward process, we aren't always very accurate at assessing the cues of another persons behaviour. People from individualistic cultures often focus too much on the role of personal factors, while ignoring \, or minimizing, the often considerable influence of the situation.
Gender
In psychology, the characteristics, whether biological or socially influenced, by which people define male and female.
Scientific Method: Distinctiveness and Illusory Correlation (Hamilton and Gifford) Results and Conclusion
Members of minority groups were thought responsible for negative behaviours and were rated more highly on negative traits. Illusory correlation was obtained when positive behaviours were less common. Participants OVERESTIMATED how often a NEGATIVE behaviour was performed by a member of group B, the smaller group and they UNDERESTIMATED how often a NEGATIVE behaviour was performed by a member of group A, the larger group. As a result, they also rated members of the larger group more favourably.
Describe the part of mirror-image perceptions in fueling conflict.
Mirror-Image Perceptions are reciprocal views of each other often held by parties in conflict. In conflict, each party may view itself as moral and peace-loving and the other as evil and aggressive.
Concrete vs. Abstract Construal
More concrete descriptions say less about individuals involved. If people's evaluations are guided by preexisting stereotypes, they describe actions consistent with stereotypes in ABSTRACT TERMS, reinforcing it, and action inconsistent with preexisting stereotype in CONCRETE TERMS, avoiding potential challenge to stereotype.
What makes disputants stubborn?
Most disputants are made stubborn by optimistic over-confidence. Successful mediation is hindered when, as often happens, both parties believe they have a two-thirds chance of winning a final-offer arbitration.
Tit for Tat Strategy
Most stable, one responds to competitiveness with competitiveness and cooperation with cooperation
How and why do people deny problems with the environment?
Motivated attributions, confirmation biased
define prosocial behavior
Obeying rules, conforming to socially acceptable behaviors, having concern and empathy for others.
Understanding
One's own way is only one of many
Leon Festinger
Proposed the cognitive dissonance theory
What are the two routes to persuasion described in Petty and Cacioppo's Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)? Compare and contrast these routes.
The Central Route- elaboration is high. Individuals ponder context and logic of the message. Engage in extensive issue-relevant thinking. Compare the info to their own attitudinal positions. Brains are very active. Central cues= ideas and supporting data that bear directly upon the quality of the arguments developed in the message. The Peripheral Route- elaboration is low. Individuals engage in little/no issue-relevant thinking. Cognitive responses are much less likely to occur, because the receiver is not carefully considering the pros and cons of the issue. Peripheral persuasion cues include: attractiveness of source and expertise of the source
Why is authority sometimes a plausible explanation for people pursuing appalling behaviors?
The Milgram experiments -a re-enactment - 450 voltage Important findings: Authority -is a strong persuasive stimulus that affects our behavior -makes people more inclined to follow through with a request with which they disagree -is an explanation of crime, corruption, cruelty
• What is the strongest motivator for self knowledge?
The desires to learn the truth about one's self, learn good things, and get feedback on what someone already believes.
Wisdom of Crowds
The group will, on average, do better than the majority of any individual.
What are characteristics of groups in intractable conflict, according to Staub & Bar-Tal (2003)?
The group: -sees its own goals as supremely important -takes pride in "us" and devalues "them" -believes itself victimized -elevates patriotism, solidarity, and loyalty to their groups' needs -celebrates self-sacrifice and suppresses criticism
contact hypothesis
The idea that stereotypes and prejudice toward a group will diminish as contact with the group increases.
Deindividuation
The loss of individual self-awareness and individuality that tends to happen in groups. This loosens the normal constraints against deviant behavior.
Paired distinctiveness, David Hamilton and Robert Gifford 1976
The pairing of two distinctive events that stand out even more because they co-occur. Participants were shown a series of 39 slides, each of which described a positive or negative action initiated by a member of "group A" or "group B." The groups were completely mythical, and so any judgments made about them could not be the result of any preexisting knowledge or experience on the part of the participants. Two-thirds of the actions were attributed to group A, making A the majority group. Most of the actions attributed to each group were positive, and this was equally true of both groups. There was thus no correlation between group membership and the likelihood of positive or negative behavior. After viewing the entire series of slides, the participants were shown just the behaviors they had seen earlier and were asked to indicate the group membership of the person who had performed each one. They were also asked to rate the members of the two groups on a variety of trait scales. Both measures indicated that the participants had formed a distinctiveness-based illusory correlation. They overestimated how often a negative behavior was performed by a member of group B (the smaller group), and they underestimated how often such a behavior was performed by a member of group A (the larger group). As a result, they also rated members of the larger group more favorably. Hamilton and Gifford showed that an illusory correlation was also obtained when it was positive behaviors that were less common. Under these circumstances, participants overestimated how often a positive behavior was associated with the smaller group. The first is that their results are particularly impressive because they were obtained in a barren context that excluded elements that might encourage illusory correlations in everyday life. Their analysis predicts that people should be prone to develop illusory correlations between any two variables that are jointly distinctive. But that does not happen. They overpredicts and where their analysis falls short, then, is in specifying which jointly distinctive pairings are likely to form the core of commonly held stereotypes, and which are not.
Research Focus on Neuroscience: The Special Processing of Eye Contact
The power of eye contact as a social cue is very strong. In fact, research suggests that particular parts of the brain respond to receiving eye contact. Research findings indicated that a mutual gaze led to greater activity in the superior temporal sulcus (STS) region of the brain, compared to an averted gaze. These results suggest that different parts of the brain are involved in processing general information about faces. The STS is involved in processing the social information that is conveyed in eye gaze. The authors argue that the STS region plays a role in social perception and social cognition and is sensitive to the degree to which the action signals approach or avoidance.
How does the presence of others affect performance?
The presence of others increases your chances of going with the group. The more you put increases obedience and conformity, but it does level off at a point.
Alertness
The presence of others makes us more alert.
Priming
The procedure used to increase the accessibility of a concept of schema (for example, a stereotype)
Integration => Impression Formation
The process of integration information about a person to form a coherent impression
scapegoating
The tendency for individuals, when frustrated or unhappy, to displace aggression onto groups that are disliked, visible, and relatively powerless
Outgroup Homogeneity Effect
The tendency for people to assume that within-group similarity is much stronger for outgroups than for ingroups.
What is the mere exposure effect?
The tendency for people to come to like things simply because they see or encounter them repeatedly
Define diffusion of responsibility
The tendency for people to feel that responsibility for acting is shared, or diffused, among those present. (bystanders are less likely to intervene as the size of the group increases, as they feel less personal responsibility)
Covariation Theory
The theory that people determine the cause of a person's behaviour by focusing on the factors that are present when a behaviour occurs and absent when it doesn't occur, with specific attention on the role of consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency.
Self-perception theory
The theory that proposes when an attitude is weak or uncertain we assess the attitude by recalling past behavior and the circumstances under which it occurred
What is self-perception theory's explanation of why behaviors changes attitudes?
The theory that proposes when an attitude is weak or uncertain we assess the attitude by recalling past behavior and the circumstances under which it occurred. the acts we freely commit are self revealing.
cognitive dissonance
The theory that we act to reduce the discomfort we feel when two of our thoughts are inconsistent. For example, when our awareness of our attitudes and our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes.
Describe Fishbein & Ajzen's theory of planned behavior. How do attitudes toward the behavior, subjective norms and perceived control affect behavioral intentions?
Theory of planned behavior is is knowing peoples intended behaviors, and their perceived self-efficacy and control. Inducing new intentions induces new behavior. Relevent attitudes do predict intended and actual behavior. An attitude predicts behavior better when the attitude is potent.
Self-Reference Effect
They displace their team members work as their own.
Frustration and Displaced Aggression Study - Carl Hovland and Robert Sears Cotton in the South
They examined relation between cotton price and black lynchings in South between 1882 and 1930. Times good and frustrations low led to high cotton price. Times bad and frustrations high led to low cotton price. Strong negative correlation between cotton price and lynchings number in a year. Lean times saw many lynchings and good times saw few.
How do groups affect deindividuation and what are the results of this?
They make it feel like you won't be taken responsible. Like the Halloween candy experiment. Kids with a big group took more candy, than alone.
Covariation Theory: (3.) Consistency
Third, we consider the *consistency* of the persons attitude or behaviour (i.e., whether the persons attitude and/or behaviour is similar over time). If a persons behaviour is highly consistent over time and across situations, we are likely to make a *dispositional attribution*. On the other hand, if a given behaviour is unusual for a particular person, we are likely to make a *situational attribution*.
Individualists
Try to maximize own personal gain, without regard to group
Robbers Cave Experiment, Muzafer Sherif, 1954
Twenty-two fifth-grade boys were taken to Robbers Cave State Park. They had signed up for 1.5 weeks summer camp experience and also unknown, a study of intergroup relations. 22 boys were average in nearly every respect and none of them knew each other beforehand, were divided into two groups of 11 and taken to separate areas of the park. 1. Neither differences in background, nor differences in appearance, not prior histories of conflict are necessary for intergroup hostility to develop but groups into competition for goals. 2. Competition against outsiders often increase group cohesion. 3. Intergroup conflict can be diminished with superordinate goals that keeps everyone's eyes on the prize and away from meddlesome subgroup distinction.
How can multiple social identifies enable social cohesion?
We acknowledge our subgroup identity (as parent of child) and then transcend it (sensing our superordinate identity as a family). People my balance their ethnic identities with their national identities by having a bicultural or omnicultural identity, one that identifies with both the larger culture and one's own ethnic and religious culture. Bicultural people typically have a strongly positive self-concept.
Illusory Correlation
When people see correlations/relationships between events, characteristics or categories that are not related.
The Jigsaw Classroom (Elliot Aronson)
When public school system in Austin, Texas was integrated in 1971, physical confrontations took place between black, Hispanic and white children. Aronson wanted to unite students in common goal of mastering material instead of competing for the highest grades and teacher's attention. In jigsaw classroom, students are divided into small groups of 6. Efforts are made to balance ethnicity, ability level, leadership Material on a topic is divided into 6 parts. Each student is required to master 1 part and teach it to others. By doing this, he ensured that no student could learn entire lesson without help from peers.
What did Herlocker & colleagues (1997) find contributes to the Tragedy of the Commons?
When resources are not partitioned, people often consume more than they realize. As a bowl of mashed potatoes is passed around a table of 10, the first few diners are more likely to scoop out a disproportionate share than when a platter of 10 chicken drumsticks is passed.
When do attitudes predict behavior? Discuss the effects that attitude strength and attitude specificity have in predicting behavior. How can social influences affect whether an attitude is verbally and behaviorally expressed?
When social influences on what we say are minimal When other influences on behavior are minimal When the attitude is strong When attitudes specific to the behavior are measured
Simplistic Thinking
When tension rises rational thinking becomes more difficult Views of the enemy become more simplistic and stereotyped
Describe the part of simplistic thinking in fueling conflict.
When tension rises, rational thinking becomes more difficult. Views of the enemy before more simplistic and stereotyped.
How do tension and conflict affect thinking?
When tensions rise-as happens during an international crisis-rational thinking becomes more difficult. Views of the enemy become more simplistic and stereotyped, and seat-of-the-pants judgments become more likely. Even the mere expectation of conflict can serve to freeze thinking and impede creative problem solving.
Cautious Shift
When the members' tendencies are to be cautious, group deliberation will produce an even more cautious decision.
Risky Shift
When the members' tendencies are to be risky, group deliberation will produce an even riskier decision.
Integrative Agreements
Win-win agreements that reconcile both parties' interested to their mutual benefit.
What are "integrative agreements"?
Win-win agreements that reconcile both parties' interests to their mutual benefit.
How do women and men compare in terms of their persuasability?
Women are more persuadable than men. differences are not very large
As a general rule, are men or women better at accurately decoding others' emotional messages?
Women tend to be better at decoding non-verbal behavior and the emotional states of others
Health interventions are more effective if they are tailored to what?
Work better if they target their audience. Diet and exercise (black churches) abstinence education. Pictures with written sayings
John Darley
Worked with Bibb Latane to decipher why people performed better when being watched by others (ex: emergencies)
Bibb Latane
Worked with Darley about people's behavior when watched by others, was French. WEIRD name.
Describe Milgram's original study on obedience? What percent of participants delivered shock all the way to 450 volts?
Would the average person harm an innocent victim if ordered to do so by an authority Cover Story: The effect of punishment on the learning process 63 or 65% obeyed all the way to 450 volts
Provide examples of zero-sum games and non-zero-sum games.
Zero-sum games: performance reviews come up. It used to be possible for everyone to get a good review, then management decides there must be a curve, and some employees must be weaker than others. This creates competition. Non-zero-sum games: prisoner's dilemma/"mixed-motive" situations. There's a potential gain in confessing your guilt, but you also want to cut your losses. Hypothetically both people could win or both could lose.
• What were the findings and some problems with Zimbardo's prison experiment?
Zimbardo's experiment was where there were two different roles. One being a security guard and one being a prisoner. It was supposed to go on for two weeks but zimbardo had to call if off after six days. The role turned into reality, the guards were brutal and the prisoners became silent and zombie like, and some had to be taken out. Then some guy brought in halfway though resisted, should have been hero, but actually looked like the bad guy because the guards punished everyone else for his actions. Another experiment ran was dressing women in white coats and hoods (anonymous). Or without a uniform and with a name tag. Women shocked a person (confederate). Women with uniforms pressed the shock button twice as long as those, without. Just like the KKK. Basically, it shows the evilness that people can become by given a role, with power.
bystander responsibility
a phenomenon in which the greater the number of people present, the less likely each individual is to help someone in distress
define sufficient external justification
a reason or an explanation of dissonant personal behaviors that resides outside of the individual. - maybe you're paid for doing something
social trap
a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior [we maximize immediate individual gains, which leads to a long-term loss for the group]
Cognitive dissonance theory
a state of mental tension or anxiety that occurs when two cognition's relevant to ones self concept are psychologically inconsistent.
benevolent sexism
a subjectively favorable, chivalrous ideology that offers protection and affection to women who embrace conventional roles -however, we are likely to disparage those who don't fulfill that positive stereotype
The Implicit Association Test (IAT)
a technique researchers use to indirectly asses prejudice, the IAT requires that users rapidly categorize two target concepts with an attribute (e.g. the concepts "male" and "female" with the attribute "logical"), such that easier pairings (faster responses) are interpreted as more strongly associated in memory than more difficult pairings (slower responses).
Balance theory:
a theory that explains interpersonal relationships in terms of the positive or negative relationships (consistency) among attitudes and people
Social dominance theory
a theory that prejudice involves a group-based social hierarchy, which is maintained by a number of social processes
Realistic group conflict theory
actual competition for resources or competing goals between groups leads to conflict that then fosters stereotyping and prejudice (Motivational explanation of why we harm others)
conformity
adjusting behavior and thinking toward a group standard, Chartrand studied the chameleon effect where humans copycat and Asch developed the line test
According to your textbook, how does social status predict who is more likely to initiate intimacy?
advances in intimacy are usually suggested by the higher status person.
mediation
an attempt by a neutral third party to resolve a conflict by facilitating communication and offering suggestions; mediator is trusted
Social control
an attempt to regulate human behavior that involves various strategies for producing conformity to social norms
reciprocity norm
an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them
Minimal group paradigm
an experimental paradigm in which researchers create groups based on arbitrary/meaningless criteria and then examine how the members of these minimal groups are inclined to behave toward one another (people favor minimal ingroup)
hostile sexism
antipathy toward women who are viewed as usurping men's power
equity
both partners receive in proportion to what they give
identify an example of quickly changing attitudes
cognitive differences 1. experience dissonance 2. cannot explain with external justification 3. use internal justification for behavior 4. attitude and behavior becomes more similar 5. attitude change
Induced compliance:
cognitive dissonance research design that shows how people react when they are persuaded to behave in a way that is consistent with a privately held attitude
define stereotypes
cognitive schemas that allow for easy, fast processing of information about people based on their membership in certain groups
Informational influences
conformity occurring when people accept evidence about reality provided by other people
Compliance
conformity that involves publicly acting in accord with an implied or explicit request while privately disagreeing
Is subtyping often a conscious or unconscious process?
conscious
• What are the three components of experimental research?
control, random assignment,....and? measurement of dependent variable
Groups: define social norms
conventions about how to behave in your group or in different situations. they are beliefs, rules, and expectations shared within a group of people
Jigsaw classroom
cooperative learning technique developed to reduce feelings of prejudice. Every member of the group is needed to make the group complete.
Jackie Robinson and how to reduce prejudice
creates a perception that change is inevitable; establish equal status contact with a superordinate goal; puncture the norm of prejudice (pee wee reese put arm around robinson); practice nonviolence to stop violence
Subtyping
creating a category for exceptions to our stereotypes (Gay in the NFL)
companionate love
deep affectionate attachment, comes after passionate stage
Self-identities:
descriptions of the traits that people associate with their self-concept
frustration-aggression principle
frustration creates anger which may create aggression
Stereotype
generalized belief about members of a certain group that ignores the distinct traits of individual members of the group
stereotype
generalized belief about members of social groups
Groups: what's the impact of high arousal?
it increases motivation to take action and decreases motivation to stop and reflect
Groups: define social facilitation
it refers to the positive or negative effect of the presence of other people on task performance.
Groups: define group cohesiveness and its implications
it refers to the qualities of a group that bind members together and promote liking between members. increased group cohesiveness leads to members: 1. staying in the group 2. taking part in group activities 3. trying to recruit new, like-minded members 4. and then if a task requires close cooperation between group members, cohesiveness will help performance (think of sport teams, for example)
What's the bystander effect?
it states that a person is less likely to help a victim when there are other people around
Groups: talk about arousal relative to cognitive resources and thinking
it takes up cognitive resources and people are less able to think flexibly
Calder's theory of leadership
leadership is an inference people draw about a person (based in impression management) •If you want to be a leader, you need to act like a leader; people will not draw an inference that you a leader unless you act like one •Korda's suggestions
Identity salience:
level of importance attached to a particular identity
Bargaining Trap/Psychological entrapment
linked to escalation of commitment (when someone becomes more committed to a failing course of action. Entrapment occurs when they are so invested in reaching agreement, they no longer care if it's a good agreement
Companionate marriage
marriage based on the values of friendship and equality
Romantic marriage
marriage characterized by primarily by passionate sexual relationship and partners beliefs they are destined to be together
Authoritarianism
over-deferential to authority figures, hostile toward out groups, threat sensitive (suck-up player on a team)
Stereotypes
oversimplified generalizations about the characteristics, attitudes, and behaviors of members of a particular group
Social Identity
part of our psychological identity that involves our sense of ourselves as members of particular groups
blaming the victim
people think that the victim is partly to blame for their situation
conflict
perceived incompatibility of actions, goals or ideas
economic perspective
perspective of discrimination that identifies the roots of much intergroup hostility in the competing interests that set many groups apart from one another -Groups develop prejudices about one another and discriminate against one another when they compete for material resources. (Cain and Abel) -i.e. realistic group conflict theory
cognitive perspective
perspective of discrimination that traces the origin of stereotyping to the same cognitive processes that allow us to categorize objects into distinct classes -i.e. paired distinctiveness, biased information processing, outgroup homogeneity effect
passionate love
physical arousal and cognitive appraisal, temporary, beginning of a love relationship
discrimination
predisposition to action (the prejudiced beliefs may influence such acts)
Socio-functional model
prejudice is not the same for every group, instead prejudice based on the threat posed by the group. ex: black people = physical threat, run gay people = moral threat, ostracize (Motivational explanation of why we harm others)
Realistic Conflict Theory
prejudice stems from competition over scarce resources; individual differences: authoritarianism, social dominance orientation
Reciprocity
principle that people tend to like others who like them back
Social Perception
processes by which we form impressions, make judgements, and develop attitudes about the people and events that constitute our social world
automatic processing
processing that takes places unconsciously -rapid stereotyping = distinctiveness-based illusory correlations and the outgroup homogeneity effect. -often happens with stereotyping because there is greater activation in the amygdala when shown a member of another group than when shown an image of a member of your own group (we naturally react to stereotypes)
sources of intergroup conflict
realistic group conflict theory social categorization conflict spiral
Groups: define risky shift and group polarization
risky shift: the tendency for groups to make riskier decisions than individuals would group polarization: individual attitudes tend to become more polarized after group discussions
Group structure
roles intermember relations norms
culture norm
rules for accepted and expected behavior
cross racial friendship
shelton and richeson; apply findings of fear of breaking racial boundaries in new student orientation
Groups: what do social norms lead to?
social roles: the part we play in a social situation; rooted in role-specific behaviors, attitudes, and cognitions. - we all have multiple social roles that depend on the situation that we're in (ex: teacher and student)
Preparatory Stage:
stage in meads theory of symbolic interactionism in which a child simply
Play stage:
stage in meads theory of symbolic interactionism in which child takes role of specific people and imagines the world from their perspectives
Social Norms
standards that define what is socially acceptable in a given situation
tribal roots
started with group formation all the way back when tribes existed and competed against one another
define counter-attitudinal advocacy
stating an opinion or attitude that runs counter to one's private belief or attitude again, in the absence of sufficient external justification, stating becomes believing.
Jigsaw classroom
strategy for reducing prejudice in schools that involves the cooperative learning of small groups of racially mixed students
The "Jigsaw" classroom
students divided into multi-ethnic and multi-ability groups, students rely on each other to learn material. - more positive attitudes toward different ethnicities - better academic performance - increase in self-esteem - greater empathy
talk more about social identity theory relative to the Cialdini et al study of 1976
students were observed after a football victory. students were more likely to wear school colors after a football victory than after a football defeat. also, they were more likely to use first person pronouns, such as "we won" after a victory, compared with a defeat, such as "they lost". overall, there is a slight change in identification or how much you identify with a group to boost your personal image
quasi-experiment
study in which researcher can manipulate an independent variable but cannot use random assignment...example...you cant make people get married
Social Psychology
subfield in psychology that deals with how our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by our social interactions with others
Group Polarization
tendency for members of decision-making groups to shift toward more extreme views in whatever direction they were initially learning
other-race effect
tendency to recognize your own race more accurately
Selective exposure:
tendency to seek out or pay attention to information that suggests that we hold the correct attitudes
Self-Serving Bias
tendency to take credit for our accomplishments and to explain away our failures or disappointments
Social Validation
tendency to use other people's behavior as a standard for judging the appropriateness of one's own behavior
Power
the ability to dominate a relationship by controlling the receipt of rewards
dispositional attribution
the assumption that a person's behavior is the result of his or her personality (disposition) rather than of pressures existing in the situation
Conformity: oftentimes we may find ourselves in social situations where the right behavior is not clear. what's the "powerful and useful source of knowledge available to us" that was discussed during lecture?
the behavior of other people. basically, asking other people what they think or simply watching what they do helps use make decisions in a given situations
win-lose orientation
the belief that conflicting parties are drawing from a fixed pie so that the more one party receives, the less the other party will receive
illusion of transparency
the belief that your feelings are leaking out, and that other people can see them
social identity
the beliefs and feelings we have toward the groups to which we see ourselves belonging
Intimacy:
the closeness and affectionate feelings of connection that people experience in relationships
remember the titans: equal status contact
the coach put all the players all on equal status; not one player was more important than another
Behavioral component:
the component of an attitude that refers to a person's actions with respect to an attitude object
Affective component:
the component of an attitude that refers to person's emotions or feelings toward an attitude object
Social Dominance Orientation
the degree to which individuals desire and support group-based hierarchy and the domination of "inferior" groups by "superior" groups. High on this desire social and economic status, value egalitarianism less, and are less concerned with others. (Greek life, look at non-greek life members as inferior.)
define attitude
the evaluations of people, objects, and ideas - the degree to which a person likes or dislikes an object - includes affective, behavioral, and cognitive components
Know evolutionary theory- how evolution works, examples of evolved social psychology, and the ways in which the environment we evolved to live in is different from today and how this affects our psychology
the evolution theory proposed by Charles Darwin in the 1800's, focuses on how change occurs in nature. We as animals need food and water and sleep, shelter and warmth. There is the process of natural selection which chooses which traits will disappear and which will endure. It acts based on survival until reproduction and reproduction itself, (survival of the fittest). Mutation, a new gene or combination of genes. Reproduction producing babies that survives long enough to also produce. Evolution would likely select me to want more sex partners than women.
Multiple selves:
the idea that an individual has many social selves or different relationships with various people
Ego-defensive function:
the idea that attitudes can protect a person's ego or self-image
Paired distinctiveness
the pairing of two distinctive events that stand out even more because they co-occur - overestimated negative behavior in smaller group - underestimated negative behavior in larger group
scapegoating
the process of blaming members of other groups for one's frustrations and failures
Stereotyping
the process of categorizing an individual as a member of a particular group and then inferring that he or she possesses the characteristics generally held by members of that group
role
the set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave
social traps
the situation in which the conflicting parties by each rationally pursuing its self interests become caught in a mutually destructive behavior
Primacy Effect of the Implicit Personality Theory
the tendency for information presented early in a sequence to have a greater impact on impressions than info presented later. Once we think we've formed an impression of someone, we pay less attention to subsequence information; people differ in their need for closure (desire to reduce ambiguity)
Define fundamental attribution error
the tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition
social loafing
the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable (tug-of-war)
Basking in reflected glory
the tendency for people to take pride in the accomplishments of those with whom they are in some way associated, as when fans identify with a winning team
Basking in Reflected Glory
the tendency for people to take pride in the accomplishments of those with whom they are in some way associated, as when fans identify with a winning team.
hindsight bias
the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (Also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon)
ingroup bias
the tendency to benefit members of one's group over members of other groups
ingroup bias
the tendency to favor one's own group
gender prejudice
the tendency to hold a hostile attitude toward an individual because of his or her gender
authoritarianism
the tendency to submit to those having greater authority and to denigrate those having less authority
social exchange theory
the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs
scapegoat theory
the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame
attribution theory
the theory that we tend to give a casual explanation for someone's behavior, often by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition
What else can be done to persuade people other than motivation, relevance, and asserting strong arguments?
the use of heuristics
Empathy
the vicarious experience of another feelings, putting ones self in another shoes.
Outgroup
them
Social exchange theory:
theory of interpersonal relationships that views people as rational bookkeepers who assess the costs and benefits of a particular relationship
Attachment theory:
theory that ability to develop healthy adult relationships is affected by the kind of attachment that develops between a child and a care-giver during infancy
Social identity theory
theory that an individuals self-esteem can be reinforced by identification with an in-group when the individual believes that the in-group is superior to other groups
Contact theory
theory that contact between members of different groups can reduce prejudice when they have equal status, intimate contact, institutional support, and cooperative interdependence
Reasoned action model:
theory that explains the psychological processes that link peoples attitude to their behavior
Social learning theory:
theory that people learn behaviors by observing models
Group position model
theory that prejudice involves the classification of people into racial categories
Realistic conflict theory
theory that prejudice is a consequence of groups competition for scarce resources and power
what are some of the reasons for prosocial behavior?
there are genetic factors, it is apart of one's personality, and it results from being emphathetic
remember the titans; superordinate goals
they all want to win the championship, regardless of race
Describe the experiment by Freedman and Frasier (196) on the foot-in-the-door phenomenon presented in lecture. What percent of the people agreed to allow a four hour product inventory in their home and why? In other words, what was the difference in compliance rates between the experimental and control groups?
they where asked if they would be willing to allow a team to conduct a four hour inventory of household products.22% complied. 52%control group who had previously answered questions on household products complied with request.
Conformity: talk more about the Asch's line experiment, which supported normative social influence
this study was conducted because Asch wanted to debunk Sherif's study. he argued that an individual would not conform if an answer was clearly right overall, the study showed that people will provide the wrong answers, even when the correct answer was very clear. and this even happened when the individuals in the group were strangers. as a result, he could not debunk Sherif's experiment
Groupthink
to preserve good feelings dissents are self-censored, desire for harmony in a group- Janis came up with this
Disidentify
to reduce in one's mind the relevance of a particular domain to one's self-esteem
contact hypothesis
to reduce prejudice interracial contacts should be between persons equal in status; unequal status breeds conflict
Central Traits of the Implicit Personality Theory
traits that exert a powerful influence on overall impression, such as warm/cold, polite/blunt
definition of a group
two or more people who influence one another through social interaction
Risky-Shift Phenomenon
type of group polarization effect in which a group discussion leads to the adoption of a riskier course of action than the members would have endorsed initially
Are distinctiveness-based illusory correlations a conscious or unconscious process?
unconscious
Is the outgroup homogeneity effect a conscious or unconscious process?
unconscious
Discrimination
unfair or biased treatment of people based on their membership in a particular group or category
discrimination
unfair treatment of members of a particular group based on their membership in that group
altruism
unselfish regard for welfare of others
Conformity: how does expertise relate to the obedience to authority theory?
usually, expertise is associated with reliable + better information. however, experts are not always reliable sources of information.
ethnic identity
we associate ourselves with a certain ethnicity and contrast ourselves with others (?)
social identity
we associate ourselves with certain groups and contrast ourselves with others
dispositional attribution
we attribute something to our personality
situational attribution
we attribute something to the situation
reciprocity norm
we help others who have helped us - expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them
social-responsibility norm
we help others who need our help, expectation that people will help those dependent upon them
self-serving bias
we like to skew our perceptions to make ourselves seem better, like attributing good things to ourselves and bad to the situation
What does it mean that we are cognitive misers?
we often take quick and easy answers rather than thinking long and hard about thing. A lot less effort to make internal attributions than external
fundamental attribution error
we overestimate the influence of personality
normative social influence
we understand social norms because the price for being different is severe, influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval
What is psychological reactance?
we want things even more when our freedom to attain them is threatened
define external/situational attribution
when a person infers that a person's behavior is due to situational factors
bystander effect
when more people share the responsibility to help, any single observer is less likely to help
fundamentalism
when one has a certainty in the absolute truth of one's religious beliefs
intrinsically religious
when one hopes to live their religion and internalize its teachings
when does implicit bias result in discimination?
when people lack the motivation or opportunity to consider whether their automatic reactions are accurate or appropriate. people must be motivated to prevent such stereotypes from coming to mind
Define illusory correlation
when we expect two things to be related, we fool ourselves into believing that they are actually related - minority groups or instances are distinctive, so their behavior is remembered. an illusory correlation between the group and behavior we encounter is created
Big Question: if most reasonable people can agree that prejudice and discrimination is bad, why does it still exist?
• Three classes of approaches to this question o Economic perspective o Intrinsic Motivational Perspective o Cognitive Perspective • All three perspectives emphasize that people "gain" certain things through stereotyping and prejudice, however the exact nature of what is being gained differs as a function of each perspective
In Sherif's Robber's Cave study, how was conflict introduced, what was the result of it and how was it ultimately resolved?
• Two groups of boys created who called themselves the Eagles and the Rattlers • Set up to like each other • Competition introduced -Conflict resulted • Groups didn't get along until induced to cooperate on a superordinate goal o Pooled money to rent a movie o Combined strength to pull the bus out of mud • Became good friends after working together to achieve some bigger goal
What is the tragedy of the commons? What problems does it create?
• Wasting shared resource by acting in one's self-interest • The "commons" is any shared resource, including air, water, energy sources, and food supplies. The tragedy occurs when individuals consume more than their share, with the cost of their doing so dispersed among all, causing the ultimate collapse -- the tragedy -- of the commons. • Game invented by Kaori Sato (1987) o Gave Students in a more collective culture, Japan, opportunities to harvest - for actual money - trees from a simulated forest. o The students shared equally the costs of planting the forest. The result was like those in Western cultures. More than half the trees were harvested before they had grown to the most profitable size.
trait approach to leadership
•Expectation states theory •All of the different traits that make up a good leader •Stodgill—did research concerning traits and leadership --The only trait that predicts leadership is participation rate (correlation was .49) --Conclusion is that it is quantity not quality
Compensatory (Steiner's typology of tasks)
•you average the individual inputs to get the group output •in general, people do better in part of a group
Which is more important, expertise or trustworthiness?
"-the combination of the two predicts consistently high credibility ratings -communicators who are high in one but low in the other are unreliable persuaders" Credibility is the essential source factor
What is the goal of the GRIT model? Describe its features. Describe its real-world applications.
"Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension reduction" - a strategy designed to de-escalate international tensions. real world applications??
How do pluralistic ignorance and illusion of transparency prevent relationships from forming?
"Many Whites and Blacks say they would like more contact but misperceive that the other does not reciprocate their feelings" so they avoid each other instead of getting to know one another.
Schachter's study
"Misery Loves Company" Women waiting to receive electric shocks in either a low anxiety condition ("shock would not be painful") or high anxiety condition ("shocks will be extremely painful"), Low anxiety condition = prefer to wait alone, High anxiety condition = prefer to wait with others
Benevolent racism and sexism
"Women are more kind" "Asians are smarter" tend to also hold negative stereotypes, keeps us further from equality
entrapment
((anyone have a good definition for "entrapment"?))
How do the personal relevance of the topic and the timing of identification of the communicator relate to credibility?
(1)Personal relevance of issue is important - Source characteristics have less impact as personal relevance increases (2) Timing of identification of communicator is important - Source characteristics have less impact when introduced after message exposure (so introduce the speaker before they talk, not after
Cognitive misers
(?) humans use stereotypes to save cognitive time
What kind of love is better for romantic relationships- passionate or companionate?
(Answer is more complicated than just one). - In the beginning it is passionate love. Then its Companionate, is overall more important because with time passionate will decrease.
Stereotype Threat
* An outcome of the Stereotype Threat Self-Fulfilling Prophecy * people who are targets of negative Stereotype Threats can confirm those Stereotype Threats (paradoxically) by trying to disconfirm them * This may occur through feeling apprehensive about the Stereotype Threats which in turn interferes w/ your performance (ex: Black students being apprehensive about Stereotype Threat for poor academic performance in turn causes them to under-perform * For Tx: creating an alternative mindset that counters the stereotype (remind yourself that you are a good student individually; think of positive role models in your Stereotype Threat group) has been shown to boost performance ex: math test performance by men and women when the test was described as one that yields gender differences (aroused stereotype threat among women) or was described as one that does not yield gender differences -merely indicating race at the top of the page of a test resulted in worse performance
Intergroup Attribution
*Making attributions about one's own and other's behaviours based on group membership.* Attribution theories are generally framed within the context of individuals (i.e., individual making attributions about themselves or other individuals). But attributions can also be made on an intergroup basis, which is when individuals make attributions for their behaviour based on the others being members of a different group (i.e., an intergroup, from the perspective of the person making the judgement). Stated differently, when behaviour is explained in terms of characteristics ascribed on the basis of group membership, an *intergroup attribution* is being made. One of the characteristics of intergroup attribution is *ethnocentrism*, which refers to attributing desirable characteristics to ones own group while attributing undesirable characteristics to members of outgroups. Intergroup attributions are essentially attributions based on stereotypes, and as they are often ethnocentric they are part of the broader subject of prejudice and discrimination, which are defined in terms of making judgements about a person based on group membership rather than individual characteristics.
Belief in a Just World
*The phenomenon in which people believe that bad things happen to bad people and that good things happen to good people.* This belief is another strategy that helps maintain our idealistic self-views because it lets us see ourselves as relatively safe from harm (since surely we all see ourselves as good people) and even if we know that we have done some bad stuff, we may attribute it situationally, thereby protecting our self-image. People who have a strong belief in a just world are more likely to hold negative attitudes toward poor people, and therefore see them as deriving their plight. Belief in a just world has more than one facet: people believe in a just world because this belief allows them to commit to long-term goals that are seen as deserved. The more people preserve their belief in a just world by blaming innocent victims, the more they focus on long-term and deserving goals.
Fundamental Attribution Error (or Correspondence Bias)
*The tendency to overestimate the role of personal causes and underestimate the role of situational causes in explaining behaviour.* This type of error is a very common type of attribution error made in Western cultures. Although people may use various pieces of information about the situation (e.g., choice or distinctiveness) to interpret behaviour, individualistic cultures have a strong tendency to focus on the role of personal causes in explaining behaviour while ignoring situational influences.
Actor-Observer Effect
*The tendency to see other people's behaviour as caused by dispositional factors, but see our own behaviour as caused by the situation.* Although we have a general tendency to see peoples behaviour as caused by dispositional factors, we are much less likely to see our own behaviour in this way. In fact, we are very likely to focus on the role of the situation in causing our own behaviour, a phenomenon called the *actor-observer effect*. Prisoners tend to see their crimes as caused by the situation, whereas guards tend to see the crimes as caused by dispositional factors.
Should persuaders make their conclusions explicit or implicit?
*implicit- mainly just a picture (usually no slogans or words.) *Explicit conclusions/recommendations are more persuasive. Possible explanation: Assimilation effect- the message is closer to what he or she believes than it actually is and contrast effects.
Sherif's Robber's Cave Experiment
- 2 groups of 11-12 yr. old boys. - Rattlers vs. Eagles (group identity) - Groups found each other on "their" baseball field. - Competition ensued. - Derogation of and conflict w/ other group. - Resources are limited, outgroup is a competitor, strong ingroup cohesiveness, negative images of outgroup. *Competition creates conflict.*
Method
- 64 boys, 14 and 15 years old from Bristol grammar school 1. Boys brought together in lecture room and were told that the experimenters were interested in the study of visual judgements (how they find pictures by artists) 2. Were shown slides of pictures by Klee and Kandinsky (6 of each painter, but mixed randomly so that they were actually not deciding between two different painters all the time!) then told they are divided on the basis of their preference (though actually divided randomly) 3. Participants were taken to separate cubicles and told which group they were in 4. Given a booklet of "matrices" and told that their task is to allocate points (one point = 0.1 penny) to other people. 5. All they know is the group each person is in
• What is the difference between an independent variable and a dependent variable?
- An independent variable is any observable event that causes the person to do something. It has two levels/types like Alcoholic and non alcoholic. It is manipulated by the researcher that is assumed to lead to changes in the dependent variable. The dependent variable is the variable in a study that represents the result of events and processes. Like the study of alcoholic, does alcohol cause "aggression", that would be the dependent variable.
Automatic and Controlled Processing
- Controlled processing is our conscious mind, and includes thoughts we are aware of, and plan out in a linear manner. Automatic processing is our intuitive or instinctual subconscious thoughts and feelings, which we often do not expect and cannot predict... -some cognitive processes that give rise to stereotyping and prejudice are deliberate and mindful -sometimes stereotyping automatic -patricia devine study -stereotypes can be triggered even if we don't want them to be
• Know the duplex mind- what are the two systems, what are they like, examples of how they influence our behavior
- Duplex mind is the idea that the mind has two different processing systems (conscious and automatic). The automatic system is the part of the mind outside of the consciousness that performs simple operations. It is very helpful; it does things like interpreting, organizing and categorizing all the info through your eyes and ears. Then there is the conscious system which is the part of the mind that performs complex operations. This is what turns you on when you wake up and turn off when you go to sleep. The automatic usually runs almost everything. Walking, for example is purely automatic. The automatic system can learn, think, choose and respond simple ideas and emotions. Most experts think that the conscious system doesn't really do anything. The book disagrees; think that biological it has to be important. The conscious system does have some advantages like being more flexible, it can figure out really unfamiliar things. The conscious system is also able to combine information, like a math problem. Conscious is basically careful reasoning. They often work together. The automatic system also works as an alarm system that signal to the consciousness when something is wrong and needs more conscious thinking. Sometimes they work against each other, like aggression, the conscious can restrain the automatic system, like someone taking your last donut.
• What is the goal of correlational research and what is the goal of experimental research?
- Experimental research is to find out reasons for us acting a certain way, or to fix a problem. Scientists prefer experimental research, sometimes is just can't be used. Recall the two hallmarks of an experiment are control and random assignment. For example you can't force people to smoke or not. So in this approach it is a non experimental method in which the researcher merely observes whether variables are associated or related.
Allocation Strategies
- Fairness: give the same amount to both people (13:13) - Maximum ingroup profit: Give the maximum to your own group (e.g. 25:19). But this includes giving more points to the outgroup. - Maximum joint profit: Give the maximum when the two are added together (e.g. 25:19) - Maximum difference: Go for the maximum difference in favour of your group (e.g. 1:7) Tajfel did not expect anyone to use the maximum difference strategy
• Are we ever fully self aware? What were the examples we talked about in class that demonstrated this?
- In the 1970's we started studying this seriously. Private vs. public. Self-awareness is comparing oneself against these standards. Standards are ideas (concepts) of how things might possibly be. It is often unpleasant because people compare themselves to high standards. Like young girls comparing themselves to super models. People feel good when compared to average people. There are the two reactions: change or escape. Self-awareness has had a lot of evidence improving behavior. Self-awareness helps greatly in helping people getting along. But not always, terrorists. Escaping self-awareness, like drinking alcohol. Suicide is also a way of escaping. But the two we went over in class was alcohol and the movie avatar. Noticing your Socks don't match and hot girl on an ugly car are examples of self regulation and fixing the problem.
• What groups typically have more interdependent or independent cultures and what does this affect?
- Independent cultures emphasize what makes the self different and sets it apart from others; interdependent emphasizes what connects the self to other people and groups. Asians tend to be more interdependent, and westerns seem to be more independent. Westerner tries to be a self-made person, who works alone to create or achieve something. Asians want to be a team player, what's good for the group.
What is aversive racism?
- Is the conflicted response towards black people. Depends on deserving vs. undeserving, either way whites were still given more help. Jobs, if they were qualified there was no difference, but in moderate qualifications, more whites were hired.
• What can we not infer from correlational research?
- It does not allow the researcher to conclude that changes in one variable caused the changes in the other variable. Like if you counted the amount of ice cream eaten in one day and the number of people who drowned there each day, you might find a correlation, that is, there were more deaths on days in which ice cream was eaten. Cant tell what causes what. There might be another variable. Like maybe its summer and more people go swimming increasing the chances of an accident, or chances of eating too much
• What is the fundamental attribution error and how does it affect our perceptions of other people?
- It is the tendency for observers to attribute other people's behavior to internal or dispositional causes and to downplay situational causes. People tend to look more at a person's personality traits and attitudes more than they should look at the situation, constraints of the social environment. Is it a rude cashier or a bad day? Pro/anti speeches of Fidel Castro, written by students, figure out true attitude. Participants were more likely to judge essay (behavior) and attitude (disposition). There are four explanations for the fundamental attribution error. Behavior is more noticeable than situational factors. Second, people assign insufficient weight on the situational causes even when made aware. Third, they are often to make quick easy answers rather than thinking hard on it. Fourth, language is richer in trait-terms to explain behavior than situational terms.
• How do different levels of meaning affect our ability to carry out behaviors that have negative consequences for other people or the environment?
- Like if someone puts a gun to your head and wants you to say you don't believe in god, but to show a point and look good in front of other people you say yes, and get shot. Not wearing helmets, smoking, drinking, and not wearing condoms. Making a good impression sometimes produces bad results like death.
Realistic Group Conflict
- Occupy Wall Street, 99% vs. 1% - Other countries: no jobs, no money, no way to change outcomes. - Competing for scarce resources.
Perceived Injustice
- People perceive justice as equity.
Resolving Social Dilemmas
- Regulation - safeguard the common good. - Keep group small. - Communication - Change the payoffs/rewards. - Appeal to the altruistic norms.
• What is the limited resource model of self control?
- Self regulation=self control=willpower, monitoring and processing ones thoughts, feelings and behaviors. Initial acts deplete one's resources, anything that requires a lot of self guidance. Avoid a lot of self-control before test. Things at the same time, dieting and smoking=bad. TOTE= TEST-OPERATE-TEST-EXIT
Misperceptions of Others' Motives & Goals
- Self-serving bias - Self-Justification - Fundamental Attribution Error - Filtering information to fit preconceptions - Group Polarization - Groupthink - Ingroup Bias - Negative stereotypes of the outgroup
• What is social psychology, what do social psychologists study?
- Social psychology is the psychology that seeks a broad understanding of how human beings think, act, and feel. Social psychologists study the three building blocks- Behavior, affect and cognition. A.) They are interested in how people feel about themselves (self-esteem), how they feel about others (pre-justice) and how they feel about various issues (attitudes). B.) social psychologists are interested in the various behaviors people engage in, such as joining groups, helping others, hurting others, liking others and loving others. C.) they are interested in what people think about themselves (self-concept) what they think about others (stereotypes), and what they think about various problems and issues in social world (environment).
• What is error-management theory and how is it adaptive?
- The idea that both men and women seek to minimize the most costly type of error, but that men's and women's goals, and hence worst errors, differ. Women goal is to get the best possible mate and having sex to readily can defeat that goal, while men will have few or no opportunities to reproduce at all, and so in order to pass along their genes they should take advantage of every chance. Men can impregnate multiple women, while a woman has one chance. Evolution has prepared men and women to use different fuidelines for making sexual decisions.
talk more about how emotions can be used as a heuristic
- advertisers and retailers want to create good feelings about their product 1. products are paired with appealing music and/or pleasant images 2. the hope is that people will attribute feelings to the product - note that it may be important to "fight fire with fire" 1. if an attitude is cognitively based, then try and change it with rational arguments 2. if it is affectively based, then try and change it with emotional appeals
define behaviorally based attitude
- an attitude based on observations of how one behaves toward an attitude object example: you ask a friend how much they like to run. they reply that they guess that they like it, given that they run a lot. their attitude here is based more on their behavior than on their emotion, or affect, or cognition, or thought about running
define a cognitively based attitude
- an attitude based primarily on people's beliefs about the properties of an attitude object; based entirely on the facts example: a car - what's the mpg? - does it have side-impact air bags?
Decreasing Bias
- decrease in enhancing evaluations of former out-group members - in seperate individuals conditions, decrease evaluations of former in-group members.
Groups: when is group cohesiveness bad?
- it can be bad when maintaining good relations among group members becomes more important than finding good solutions. - Group think - when cohesiveness interferes with optimal performance (ex: politicians making a decision where they put group allegiances first)
define affectively based attitude
- it's an attitude based more on people's feelings and values than on their beliefs about the nature of an attitude object - determining if an attitude is "affective" 1. gut reaction 2. tied to intrinsic values 3. not governed by logic 4. very intense emotions
talk more about IAT
- looks at the reaction times and the pairings and mistakes that the individuals will make to calculate a level of "bias" or d-score - some issues: 1. construct validity 2. age and cognitive differences 3. a person's score changes over time
why do social psychologists care about explicit and implicit attitudes?
- often due to social influence - attitudes shape our social behavior - social factors cause attitude change
Reducing stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination
- role models - greater representation - contact/inter-group exposer (contact hypothesis, cooperation) - knowledge of stereotype threat (and related effects)
where do attitudes come from?
- some studies, like twin studies, state that we are born with a disposition to develop them - some come from our experiences MERE EXPOSURE HYPOTHESIS: people come to have positive attitudes toward those stimuli to which they are frequently exposed - note that any one attitude can be based more on one type of experience than another
define social identity theory
- states that people draw self-concept and self-esteem partly based on status and accomplishments of the groups that they belong to - motivated to elevate our ingroup over outgroups - increases ingroup status associated with increased self-esteem - participants who show ingroup favortism reports higher self-esteem afterward
talk more about the self perception theory
- under certain circumstances, people do not know how they feel until they see how they behave - people infer their attitudes from their behavior only under certain conditions 1. when initial attitude is weak or ambiguous 2. when no other plausible explanation for behavior
Additive (Steiner's typology of tasks)
--sum up individual inputs, but the group output is less than the individual inputs •Ringelmann effect—the inverse relationship between the number of people in a group and the amount of individual effort (the more people in a group, the less people will try) •Social loafing—the reduction of individual effort when you're in a group (you don't try as hard when you're in a group) •Coordination losses—in a group, there is a loss of coordination; physical aspect --people do better in a group
Be familiar with how the Extended Parallel Process Model explains the message factors that characterize fear appeals, and how fear appeals lead to danger-control or fear-control processes.
-2 key constructs -perceived threat: whether you perceive you are in danger -perceived efficacy: person's perception about the response that is recommended in the fear appeal -perceived self-efficacy: beliefs about whether you believe you can perform task -perceived response efficacy: beliefs about whether recommendation works -upon exposure to fear appeal, audience will appraise with 2 ways and respond in 3 ways -if no threat is perceived, no action is taken -strong self-efficacy and response efficacy → control the danger -danger control process -doubt either self-efficacy or response efficacy → control their fear -fear control process
The Robbers Cave Experiment
-22 fifth grade boys participating in what they think is a two-and-a-half week summer camp. Divided into two groups of 11, and neither knows the other exists Competition and Intergroup Conflict -first phase: two groups independently engage in activities designed to foster group unity. A consistent hierarchical structure also emerged within each group -second phase: groups were brought together and participated in a tournament. The competitive nature of the tournament was designed to encourage each group to see the other as an impediment to the fulfillment of its own goals and hence as a foe, which is what happened -The two groups hurled insults at each other, but the intergroup hostility was not limited to words Reducing Intergroup Conflict through Superordinate Goals -Third phase: assessing ways to reduce conflict between the two groups -first try was to bring them together in noncompetitive settings to see if hostility lowered, which it did not -next try was to make them work together to solve a number of crises -superordinate goals-> goals that transcend the interests of any one group and that can be achieved more readily by two or more groups working together -Study results: neither differences in background nor differences in appearance nor prior histories of conflict are necessary for intergroup hostility to develop; competition against outsiders often increases group cohesion; to reduce the hostility that exists between certain groups, make them work together to fulfill common goals
II. The Economic Perspective
-According to the economic view, groups develop prejudices about one another and discriminate one another when they compete for material resources
Aspects of Confirmation Bias
-Belief perseverance -Confirmatory hypothesis testing -Self-fulfilling prophecy
Where to Attribution Errors Come From?
-Cognitive misers -Self-esteem concerns, chorent understanding of the world leading to victim blaming
How specifically does communication lead to cooperation?
-Communication: To resolve a social dilemma, people must communicate. Communication enables cooperation. Discussing the dilemma forges a group identity, which enhances concern for everyone's welfare. It devises group norms and expectations and pressures members to follow them. Especially when people are face-to-face, it enables them to commit themselves to cooperation. Open, clear, forthright communication between two parties reduces mistrust. Without communication, those who expect others not to cooperate will usually refuse to cooperate themselves. One who mistrusts is almost sure to be uncooperative (to protect against exploitation). Noncooperation, in turn, feeds further mistrust. In experiments, communication reduces mistrust, enabling people to reach agreements that lead to their common betterment.
What does a competitive environment do to cooperation and why?
-Competition kindles conflict.
What is conflict and what are the factors that breed conflict?
-Conflict - A perceived incompatibility of actions or goals. -Factors: social dilemmas, competition, perceived injustice, misperception
Why do misperceptions lead to conflict? What psychology factors lead to these misperceptions?
-Conflict is a perceived incompatibility of actions or goals -Often, there is little actual incompatibility -Misperceptions about another group/person is what drives most conflict
What are the main ways that peace can be achieved (the 4 C's) and how do they do so? (from lecture and book)
-Contact: Friendship, Equal-Status Contact -Cooperation: Common External Threats Build Cohesiveness, Superordinate Goals Foster Cooperation -Communication: bargaining, mediation, arbitration, integrative agreements • Bargaining - Seeking an agreement to a conflict through direct negotiation between parties. • Mediation - An attempt by a neutral third party to resolve a conflict by facilitating communication and offering suggestions. • Arbitration - Resolution of a conflict by a neutral third party who studies both sides and imposes a settlement • Integrative agreements - win-win agreements that reconcile both parties' interests to their mutual benefit -Conciliation: GRIT
What are the different definitions of fairness and how can they lead to conflict?
-Equity: the distribution of rewards in proportion of contribution -Equality: everyone receives the same rewards -Fulfillment of Needs: everyone gets what they need -Lead to conflict if their is perceived injustice
What are the main ways that peace can be achieved (the 4 C's) and how do they do so?
-Four C's of Peacemaking: Contact, Cooperation, Communication, Conciliation -Contact: Friendship, Equal-Status Contact -Cooperation: Common External Threats Build Cohesiveness, Superordinate Goals Foster Cooperation -Communication: bargaining, mediation, arbitration, integrative agreements bargaining - Seeking an agreement to a conflict through direct negotiation between parties. mediation - An attempt by a neutral third party to resolve a conflict by facilitating communication and offering suggestions. arbitration - Resolution of a conflict by a neutral third party who studies both sides and imposes a settlement. integrative agreements - Win-win agreements that reconcile both parties' interests to their mutual benefit. -Conciliation: GRIT
How can GRIT-like strategies reduce conflict? (from lecture and book)
-GRIT - Acronym for "graduated and reciprocated initiatives in tension reduction" - a strategy designed to de-escalate international tensions. - Put simply, it is a technique whereby sides, at an impasse, decide to: i. Announce a concession ii. Make the concession iii. Wait for the other side to reciprocate -They alleviate tension in cases where communication is impossible by each side making increasingly larger steps towards peace
How can GRIT-like strategies reduce conflict?
-GRIT - Acronym for "graduated and reciprocated initiatives in tension reduction" -- a strategy designed to de-escalate international tensions. Put simply, it is a technique whereby sides, at an impasse, decide to: Announce a concession Make the concession Wait for the other side to reciprocate -They alleviate tension in cases where communication is impossible by each side making increasingly larger steps towards peace
Summarize the steps of the GRIT approach.
-GRIT requires one side to initiate a few small de-escalatory actions, after announcing a conciliatory intent. The initiator states its desire to reduce tension, declares each conciliatory act before making it, and invites the adversary to reciprocate. Such announcements create a framework that helps the adversary correctly interpret what otherwise might be seen as weak or tricky actions. They also bring public pressure to bear on the adversary to follow the reciprocity norm. -Next, the initiator establishes credibility and genuineness by carrying out, exactly as announced, several verifiable conciliatory acts. This intensifies the pressure to reciprocate. Making conciliatory acts diverse keeps the initiator from making a significant sacrifice in any one area and leaves the adversary freer to choose its own means of reciprocation. If the adversary reciprocates voluntarily, its own conciliatory behavior may soften its attitudes.
How do common external threats and superordinate goals foster cooperation?
-Having a common enemy unifies a group -superordinate goal - A shared goal that necessitates cooperative effort; a goal that overrides people's differences from one another. -Having a common goal that's larger than your individual groups makes you work together and accomplish the job
How do common external threats and superordinate goals foster cooperation? (from lecture and book)
-Having a common enemy unifies a group -Superordinate goal - A shared goal that necessitates cooperative effort; a goal that overrides people's differences from one another. -Having a common goal that's larger than your individual groups makes you work together and accomplish the job
Functions of Dispositions
-Help predict and control environment -Help determine our own thoughts, feelings and behaviors -Influence expectations for the future -Impact own performance
What is the prisoner's dilemma and what does it teach us about conflict vs. cooperation? Know the premise of how the game works.
-If Prisoner A confesses and Prisoner B doesn't, the DA will grant immunity to A and will use A's confession to convict B of a maximum offense (and vice versa if B confesses and A doesn't). -If both confess, each will receive a moderate sentence. -If neither prisoner confesses, each will be convicted of a lesser crime and receive a light sentence.
Measuring Attitudes about Groups The Implicit Association Test (IAT)
-Implicit Association Task (IAT)-> a technique for revealing nonconscious prejudices toward particular groups -A series of words and/or pictures are presented on a computer screen, and the respondent is told to press a certain key depending if the picture or word conforms to one rule or another rule. Idea that respondents would be faster to press on key for members of a particular groups and words stereotypically associated with that group than to press the same key for members of that group and words that contradict the stereotype associated with that group -There is evidence that IAT responses do correlate with other measures of prejudice (but the system has its critics)
What are outcomes of cooperative learning (such as interracial learning teams or jigsaw classrooms)?
-In one experiment, White youth on 2-3 week Outward Bound expeditions (involving intimate contact and cooperation) expressed improved attitudes toward Blacks a month after the expedition if they had been randomly assigned to an interracial expedition group. -Those of different races who play and work together are more likely to report having friends of another race and to express positive racial attitudes. -Compared with students at traditional, competitive schools, those at schools with interracial "learning teams" had more positive racial attitudes. -In experiments in Texas and California elementary schools, the researchers assigned children to racially and academically diverse 6-member groups. The subject was then divided into six parts, with each student becoming the expert on his or her part. In a unit on Chile, one student might be the expert on Chile's history, another on its geography, another on its culture. First, the various "historians," "geographers," and so forth got together to master their material. Then they returned to the home groups to teach it to their classmates. Each group member held, so to speak, a piece of the jigsaw. Self-confident students therefore had to listen to and learn from reticent students who, in turn, soon realized they had something important to offer their peers. "Children in the interdependent, jigsaw classrooms grow to like each other better, develop a greater liking for school, and develop greater self-esteem than children in traditional classrooms."
Minimal Group Paradigm AKA in group-out group bias
-In-group similarity, out-group dissimilarity -In-group Variance, out group homogeneity If you are randomly divided in a group, you will automatically like the people in your group more than the other group
What is the difference between inoculation and refusal skills training?
-Inoculation-based approach provides cognitive defenses, strengthen initial attitude -Refusal skills - aims at equipping receiver with communicative abilities Refusal-skill training involves training people in DISCOURSE skills. -This is about talking to people and refusing their requests/beliefs that you don't believe/agree with/in. - You can equip people with discourse skills.
Distinguish between instrumental and symbolic attitude functions and appeals.
-Instrumental (I.F.)= attitude linked to product/object quality. -Symbolic (S.F.)= attitude linked to the image conveyed by the product/object.
Give an example of changing the payoffs.
-Laboratory cooperation rises when experimenters change the payoff matrix to reward cooperation and punish exploitation. Changing payoffs also helps resolve actual dilemmas. In some cities, freeways clog and skies collect smog because people prefer the convenience of driving themselves directly to work. Each knows that one more car does not add noticeably to the congestion and pollution. To alter the personal cost-benefit calculations, many cities now give carpoolers incentives, such as designated freeway lanes or reduced tolls.
What group size may be helpful and why?
-Make the Group Small: In a small commons, each person feels more responsible and effective. As a group grows larger, people become more likely to think, "I couldn't have made a difference anyway"-a common excuse for noncooperation. In small groups, people also feel more identified with a group's success and individuals are less likely to take more than their equal share of available resources. In a much larger commons-say, a city-voluntary conservation is less successful. Because the harm one does diffuses across many others, each individual can rationalize away personal accountability.
Attributional Ambiguity
-Members of groups that often experience SOCIAL STIGMA find it challenging to determine whether feedback is based upon their actual behavior or membership in a stereotyped stigmatized group -Discredits positive feedback as a FORM OF SYMPATHY rather than seeing it as the result of their ability and achievement Study: white and black participants were criticized or praised (randomly) by a white student either through a one way mirror or would not be seen -whether or not they could be seen had no effect on white students but had an effect on black students -this study indicated that members of stigmatized groups live in a less certain world, not knowing whether to attribute positive feedback to their own skill or to others condescension and not knowing whether to attribute negative feedback to their own error or to others' prejudice
Distinctiveness and Illusory Correlations
-People sometimes "see" correlations between events, characters, or categories that are not actually related-- a phenomenon referred to as illusory correlation -distinctive events-> capture our attention and we more likely to remember them better -by definition, minority groups are distinctive to most members of the majority, so their actions are, particularly negative ones, are doubly distinctive and doubly memorable, so negative actions by the minority are likely to seem more common than they really are -paired distinctiveness-> the pairing of two distinctive events that stand out even ore because they co-occur -Study: Participants were shown a series of slides, each of which described a positive or negative action initiated by a member of group A or group B. Two-thirds of the actions were attributed to group A, making A the majority group. Most of the actions attributed to each group were positive. Results: members of the minority group were thought to be disproportionately responsible for the negative behaviors. Members of the minority group were rated more highly on negative traits and less highly on positive traits than member of the majority group. Conclusion: Jointly distinctive events (minority status and rare behavior) stand out and form the basis of illusory correlations
Group Conflict--Prisoner's Dilemma
-People start off playing nice and then things can quickly turn (10 point, 5 point win lose punnett square game) -Competition can breed conflict
How does reactance relate to scarcity?
-Psychological Reactance- we want things even more when our freedom to attain them is threatened. -"Forbidden fruit is sweeter" - scarcity -results in boomerang effect where people react in opposite manner than recommendation
What are some of the ways in which thinking becomes more simplistic when people are engaged in conflict with another group?
-Rational thinking becomes more difficult -Views of the enemy become more simplistic and stereotyped -Seat-of-the-pants judgments become more likely
What are some of the ways in which thinking becomes more simplistic when people are engaged in conflict with another group? (from book)
-Rational thinking becomes more difficult -Views of the enemy become more simplistic and stereotyped -Seat-of-the-pants judgments become more likely
Summarize five ways of minimizing destructive entrapment in social dilemmas.
-Regulation: We develop rules to safeguard our common good. In everyday life, however, regulation has costs-costs of administering and enforcing the regulations, costs of diminished personal freedom. -Make the Group Small (discussed in another flashcard) -Communication (discussed in another flashcard) -Changing the Payoffs (discussed in another flashcard) -Appealing to Altruistic Norms: On one hand, just knowing the dire consequences of noncooperation has little effect. Outside of the laboratory, warnings of doom and appeals to conserve have brought little response. Attitudes sometimes fail to influence behavior. Knowing what is good does not necessarily lead to doing what is good. Still, most people do adhere to norms of social responsibility, reciprocity, equity, and keeping one's commitments. The problem is how to tap into such feelings. One way is through the influence of a charismatic leader who inspires others to cooperate. Another way is be defining situations in ways that invoke cooperative norms. Communication can also activate altruistic norms-"If you defect on the rest of us, you're going to have to live with it for the rest of your life." To summarize, we can minimize destructive entrapment in social dilemmas by establishing rules that regulate self-serving behavior, by keeping groups small, by enabling people to communicate, by changing payoffs to make cooperation more rewarding, and by invoking compelling altruistic norms.
Automatic and Controlled Processing
-Research has shown that our reactions to different groups of people are to a surprising degree guided by quick and automatic mental processes that we can override but not eliminate -Study: Presented participants ranging from high to low scored on the Modern Racism Scale a set of words, one at a time, so briefly that they could not be consciously identified. Hypothesized that although the stereotypical words were presented too briefly to be consciously recognized, they would nonetheless prime participants stereotypes of blacks. Next presented the participants with a written description of an individual who acted in an ambiguously hostile manner. Results indicated that he was seen as more hostile-- and more negative overall-- by participants who had earlier been primed by words designed to activate stereotypes of blacks. This result was found equally for prejudiced and non-prejudiced participants. To demonstrate that prejudiced and non-prejudiced individuals differ primarily in their controlled cognitive processes, participants were asked to list characteristics of black Americans. Found that the prejudiced used more negative words than non-prejudiced participants -Study: participants were exposed to white and black faces. When shown faces for only 30 milliseconds, the participants exhibited greater activation in the amygdala (which registers emotional response) after exposure to black faces than after exposure to white faces. But when faces were shown for 525 milliseconds, participants showed no difference in amygdala activation, suggesting that participants (all of whom avoid prejudice) initially had an automatic response to black versus white faces that they then tried to control -Study: White participants were shown a white face or black face. Immediately after viewing a face, participants were shown an object and asked to identify it as a gun or a tool as quickly as possible. Results: Participants identified guns more quickly and mistook tools for guns more often after being primed with black faces. Conclusion: Implicit stereotypes influence identification and categorization
Group Conflict--Robber's Cave Study
-Sherif -11 year old boys were participants -Broken into 2 groups; boys kept apart for 1 week; didn't know about each other -Boys asked that counselors set up competitions between them; offered prizes -Boys got very competitive and very nasty -Researchers set up a super ordinate goal—common goal toward which both teams had to work •i.e. broke water main—boys had to work together
What is the prisoner's dilemma and what does it teach us about conflict vs. cooperation? Know the premise of how the game works.
-Social Trap: A situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing it's own self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior. • People could do better by cooperating with other prisoner but don't because unable to trust each other -If Prisoner A confesses and Prisoner B doesn't, the DA will grant immunity to A and will use A's confession to convict B of a maximum offense (and vice versa if B confesses and A doesn't) -If both confess, each will receive a moderate sentence. (i.e. 5 years) -If neither prisoner confesses, each will receive a less harsh conviction (i.e. 1 year)
Social Identity Theory
-Social identity theory-> a theory that a person's self-concept and self-esteem derive not only from personal identity and accomplishments but also from the status and accomplishments of the various groups to which the person belongs
IV. The Cognitive Perspective
-Stereotypes are a natural result of the way our brains are wired to store and process information Stereotypes and the Conservation of Mental Reserves -we should be particularly inclined to use stereotypes when we are overloaded, tried, or mentally taxed in some way-- that is, when we are in need of a shortcut
Derogating Outgroups to Bolster Self-Esteem
-Study: Participants were either given positive or negative feedback on an intelligence test. Participants were then asked to watch a video of a job applicant interviewing. Half found out the applicant was Jewish, the other did not. Found that participants who had received negative feedback derogated the Jewish job candidate, and as well, the negative ratings of the Jewish candidate served to boost the participants' own self-esteem. -Study: Participants were either praised or criticized by a black doctor. They were then asked to identify if a string of letters was a word. Some were medical terms, some where black stereotypical terms. Found that when participants received negative feedback from the black doctor, they were faster at subsequently recognizing words related to the African-American stereotype. When participants received positive feedback form the black doctor, they were faster at recognizing words related to medicine
What is the tragedy of the commons? What problems does it create?
-The "commons" is any shared resource, including air, water, energy sources, and food supplies. The tragedy occurs when individuals consume more than their share, with the cost of their doing so dispersed among all, causing the ultimate collapse -- the tragedy -- of the commons. -Game invented by Kaori Sato (1987) -Gave Students in a more collective culture, Japan, opportunities to harvest - for actual money - trees from a simulated forest. The students shared equally the costs of planting the forest. The result was like those in Western cultures. More than half the trees were harvested before they had grown to the most profitable size.
Explain the three similar features of the Prisoner's Dilemmas and the Tragedy of the Commons.
-The Fundamental Attribution Error: Both games tempt people to explain their own behavior situationally and to explain their partners' behavior dispositionally. Most never realize that their counterparts are viewing them with the same fundamental attribution error. People with self-inflating, self-focused narcissistic tendencies are especially unlikely to empathize with others' perspectives. -Evolving Motives: Motives often change. At first, people are eager to make some easy money, then to minimize their losses, and finally to save face and avoid defeat. -Outcomes Need Not Sum to Zero: Most real-life conflicts are non-zeo-sum games (games in which outcomes need not sum to zero. With cooperation, both can win; with competition, both can lose). Each game pits the immediate interests of individuals against the well-being of the group. Each is a diabolical social trap that shows how, even when each individual behaves "rationally," harm can result.
What is necessary for contact to reduce conflict?
-The contact encourages emotional ties with individuals identified with an outgroup, and when it is structured to convey equal status -equal-status contact - Contact on an equal basis. Just as a relationship between people of unequal status breeds attitudes consistent with their relationship, so do relationships between those of equal status. Thus, to reduce prejudice, interracial contact should ideally be between persons equal in status.
What is necessary for contact to reduce conflict? (from lecture and book)
-The contact encourages emotional ties with individuals identified with an outgroup, and when it is structured to convey equal status -Equal-status contact- Contact on an equal basis. Just as a relationship between people of unequal status breeds attitudes consistent with their relationship, so do relationships between those of equal status. Thus, to reduce prejudice, interracial contact should ideally be between persons equal in status.
Describe evidence consistent with the idea that contact can reduce prejudice.
-The more interracial contact South African Blacks and Whites have, the less prejudice they feel, and the more sympathetic their policy attitudes are to those of the other group. -The more friendly contact Blacks and Whites have with one another, the better their attitudes toward one another-and toward other outgroups, such as Hispanics. -The more contact straight people have with gays and lesbians, the more accepting they become. -The more contact Dutch adolescents have with Muslims, the more accepting of Muslims they are. -Even vicarious indirect contact, via story reading or imagination, or through a friend's having an outgroup friend, tends to reduce prejudice. This indirect contact effect, also called "the extended-contact effect," can spread more positive attitudes through a peer group.
Social Perception
-The process by which people come to understand one another -Consider Observations (raw data of social perception), Attribution (how we explain and analyze behavior), Integration (how we integrate our observations into coherent impressions of other people) and How our impressions can subtly create a distorted picture of reality
Describe the seeds of such misperception (in other words, explain the social psychological factors that contribute to people's misperceptions of groups they are in conflict with).
-The self-serving bias leads individuals and groups to accept credit for their good deeds and shirk responsibility for bad deeds. -A tendency to self-justify inclines people to deny the wrong of their evil acts ("You call that hitting? I hardly touched him!") -Thanks to the fundamental attribution error, each side sees the other's hostility as reflecting an evil disposition. -One then filters the information and interprets it to fit one's preconceptions. -Groups frequently polarize these self-serving, self-justifying, biasing tendencies. -One symptom of groupthink is the tendency to perceive one's own group as moral and strong, and the opposition as evil and weak. Acts of terrorism that in more people's eyes are despicable brutality are seen by others as "holy war." -Indeed, the mere fact of being in a group triggers an ingroup bias. -Negative stereotypes of the outgroup, once formed, are often resistant to contradictory evidence.
Construal Processes and Biased Assessments
-The upside of stereotypes is that they conserve cognitive resources, but it leads to occasional inaccuracy and error -if people suspect that a particular group of people might differ from other groups in some way, it is shockingly easy to construe pertinent information is such a way that their suspicion is confirmed and solidified
In Sherif's Robber's Cave study, how was conflict introduced, what was the result of it and how was it ultimately resolved?
-Two groups of boys created who called themselves the Eagles and the Rattlers -Set up to like each other -Competition introduced -Conflict resulted -Groups didn't get along until induced to cooperate on a superordinate goal -Pooled money to rent a movie -Combined strength to pull the bus out of mud -Became good friends after working together to achieve some bigger goal
When do we make attributions?
-When behavior is unexpected -When behavior is negative -When there are uncertain consequences
Fielder's contingency theory
-Whether the group needs a task or a relationship-oriented leader depends on 3 or is contingent on 3 situational variables: --leader-member relations relationship between leader and members --task structure the task is either very structured or very unstructured --position power the leader's position relative to the group members; Some leaders believe that their position gives them power over others, but a good leader believes that they have power with others -If the combo of these 3 situational variables is very favorable or very unfavorable, then you need a task-oriented leader -If the combo of the variables is moderate, then you need a relationship-oriented leader -LPC scale—least preferred coworker scale --Purpose is to determine if you tend to be task-oriented or relationship-oriented --If you give bad ratings to your lpc, you're task-oriented --If you give person pretty good ratings in spite that they're your lpc, you're relationship oriented
Accentuation of Ingroup Similarity and Outgroup Difference
-arbitrary categorical boundaries can have significant effects on the human mind -studies have shown that dividing a continuous distribution into two groups leads people to see less variability within each group and more variability between the two -people make these assumptions even when the groups are arbitrary*** that is the interesting thing (like race)
How does authority compare to credibility?
-authority comes from a person's position in a social structure, and control over rewards and punishments -credibility has to do with perceptions of a person's knowledge and character
Basking in Reflected Glory
-basking in reflected glory-> the tendency to take pride in the accomplishments of those with whom they are in some way associated, as when fans identify with a winning team. -We have an incentive (boosting self-esteem) to identify with such groups when they do well but to distance ourselves from them when they lose
Expectations and Biased Information Processing
-because of the outgroup homogeneity effect, people are more likely to assume that in individual action is typical of a group if the group is not their own -people are more likely to generalize behaviors and traits that they already suspect may be typical of the group's members -stereotypes can therefore be reinforced -stereotypes also influence how the details of events are interpreted ex: participants watched video, had to code behavior of actors, in one video a white man shoved another man (was coded as playing around), in another video a black man shoved another man (was coded as aggressive behavior)-> the participants were influenced by their own stereotypes -when the situation is seen and viewed through the stereotype then retold then the situation changes with the stereotype -people do not evaluate info even-handedly
Benevolent Racism and Sexism
-by rewarding women and minorities for conforming to the status quo, benevolent sexism and racism inhibit progress toward equality; in other words, those who hold ambivalent attitudes tend to act positively toward members of outgroups only if they fulfill the idealized image of what such people should be like
Measuring Attitudes about Groups
-can't just ask people, because you get the honest answer -either it is unconscious or inappropriate to share -use the IAT to measure attitudes
Modern Racism
-change in norms about how different groups of people are to be viewed and treated has created conflict in many people between what they really think and feel and what they think they should think and feel -recent research has shown some of out reactions to other groups are unconscious and automatic, and these responses may differ from our more thoughtful beliefs and attitudes -modern racism-> prejudice directed at other racial groups that exists alongside rejection of explicitly racist beliefs -Study: Participants were in a position to aid a white or black individual in need of medical assistance. If the participants thought they were the only one who could help, came to the aid of the black victim (91%) more than they did for the white victim (81%). When they thought that other people were present and their inaction could be justified on nonracial grounds, they helped the black victim much less often than the white victim (38% versus 75%) -prejudice or discrimination is "masked" and the individual remains comfortably unaware of being racist -When the desire to appear unprejudiced is sufficiently strong the opposite result is sometimes observed: bias directed at the ingroup
What is conflict and what are the factors that breed conflict?
-conflict - A perceived incompatibility of actions or goals. -Factors: social dilemmas, competition, perceived injustice, misperception
When it comes to cultural truisms vs. nontruisms, how do the research findings on inoculation theory compare?
-cultural truisms: refutational more effective than supportive, but combo of supportive and refutational treatment is most effective -nontruisms: refutational not more effective than supportive (because the motivation to support your belief is already there- you know the idea is not supported universally) , but combo it still most effective - The difference is with non truisms, refutational alone is not more effective than supportive when standing alone.
The Economic Perspective
-different groups vying for the same resource -have difficulty getting along because of this **Groups develop prejudices about one another and discriminate against one another when they compete for material resources** -can be racial, religious, cultural
Boosting the Status of the Ingroup
-feeling better about the group leads us to feel better about ourselves -Studies: People allowed to display intergroup discrimination reported higher self-esteem than those who had not been given the opportunity. People who take particularly strong pride in their group affiliations are more prone to ingroup favoritism when placed in a minimal group situation. People who are highly identified with a particular group react to criticism of the group as if it were criticism of the self
Frustration-Aggression Theory
-frustration-aggression theory-> a theory that elaborates the idea that frustration leads to aggression -people are particularly likely to vilify outgroups under conditions that foster frustration and anger From Generalized to Targeted Aggression -by itself, the link between frustration and aggression cannot explain the origins of prejudice and discrimination because frustration leads to generalized aggression; however, often we cannot lash out at the true source of our frustration without getting into further difficulty, so we displace our aggression onto a safer target. Thus frustration-aggression theory predicts that hardship will generate malevolence directed at minority groups that, by virtue of being outnumbered and in a weaker position, constitute particularly safe and vulnerable targets
Expectations and Biased Information Processing
-in general, people are more likely to generalize behaviors and traits that they already suspect may be typical of the group's members; stereotypes can therefore be self-reinforcing -Actions that are consistent with an existing stereotype are noticed, deemed significant, and remembered, whereas those at variance with the stereotype may be ignored, dismissed, or quickly forgotten -Study: participants shown a video of two people in a heated discussion. For half the participants a black man did the shoving, for the other, a white man did the shoving. Participants coded the white man shoving as playing around, but coded the black man shoving as aggressive behavior -The influence of stereotypes is likely to be even greater when the episode is presented to people secondhand and is therefore more open to differential construal -Studies show that people do not evaluate information even-handedly. Instead, information that is consistent with a group stereotype typically has more impact than information that is inconsistent with it
VI. Reducing Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination
-increased day-to-day interactions between members of different groups makes it easier to see one another more as individuals and less as representatives of particular groups -contact between different groups is likely to be more positive and more productive if certain conditions are met -different groups need to have equal status -have a shared goal that requires cooperative interaction-- and thus promotes a common ingroup identity -a community's broader social norms need to support intergroup contact -contact should encourage one-on-one interactions between members of the different groups. Doing so puts each person's identity as an individual in the foreground and downplays a person's group membership
Describe how credibility, liking, and persuasive effectiveness are connected.
-liking can be overridden by credibility. -when topic is more personally relevant, it doesnt matter as much if you like them. -a disliked person can sometimes be more persuasive
Patricia Devine
-measured on the modern racism scale -wanted to demonstrate that people still have stereotypes but that they resist the stereotype showed how automatic and controlled processing can result in incompatible attitudes in the same person towards members of outgroups -unprejudiced people primed by words designed to activate stereotypes-> caught off guard and unable to suppress automatic processing --> the judgements of "unprejudiced people" could be found prejudiced when studied by a technique that examines the unconscious processing of information -they do this because these associations are present in our culture
How do self-esteem, intelligence, and sensation-seeking relate to persuasability?
-medium self-esteem and low intelligence are most easily persuaded -those high in sensation-seeking may go against a recommendation and suffer the consequences of their actions in order to experiences more sensation
Self-Fulfilling Prophecies
-members of a stigmatized group often feel trapped in invalid and unfair stereotypes because the majority's stereotypical beliefs can create a self-fulfilling prophecy-- that is, people act toward members of certain groups in ways that encourage the very behavior they expect, making the stereotype self-fulfilling
V. Being a member of a Stigmatized Group Attributional Ambiguity
-members of stigmatized groups live in a less certain world, not knowing whether to attribute positive feedback to their own skill or to others' condescension and not knowing whether to attribute negative feedbacks to their own error or to others' prejudice -Study: white and black students were received flattering or unflattering feedback from a white student in the adjacent room. Half were told the comment giver could see them. Whether or not they could be seen had no effect on how white students reacted to the feedback. When black students thought the other person could not see them (and therefore didn't know their race) their self-esteem went down from the unflattering feedback and was boosted by positive feedback. When they thought the other person could see them, their self-esteem was not injured by the bad news, nor was It enhanced by the good news.
What are mirror-image perceptions, why do they happen, and what are some examples?
-mirror-image perceptions - Reciprocal views of each other often held by parties in conflict; for example, each may view itself as moral and peace-loving and the other as evil and aggressive. -When two sides have clashing perceptions, at least one of the two is misperceiving the other. It is a psychological phenomenon without parallel in the gravity of its consequences for it is characteristic of such images that they are self-confirming. -If A expects B to be hostile, A may treat B in such a way that B fulfills A's expectations, thus beginning a vicious circle. -Israelis and Palestinians -Both sides tend to view themselves as victims, think they are the indigenous people and the others are invaders, and that they are defending themselves and the others are the aggressors. -Protestant/Catholic funeral at Northern Ireland's University of Ulster -Terrorism in the Middle East between Palestinians and Isrealis
Distinctive and Illusory Correlations
-not always clear where impartial processing leaves off and passions, motives, and self-interest begin -distinctive events capture attention and remember them better-> become overrepresented in our memory -minority groups are more salient because they are different from the majority group -negative behavior from a minority group is doubly memorable -illusory correlation can occur because of something that stands out to it is associated with another event that may have nothing to do with one another -paired distinctiveness
The Outgroup Homogeneity Effect
-outgroup homogeneity effect-> the tendency for people to assume that within-group similarity is much stronger for outgroups than for ingroups -Easy to see why this effect occurs: 1) we typically have much more contact with fellow members of an ingroup than with members of an outgroup, so we have greater opportunity to encounter evidence of divergent opinions and habits among ingroup members 2) we do not treat an ingroup member as a representative of a group
Accentuation of Ingroup Similarity and Outgroup Difference
-people assume more similarity between members within a group than across groups -people make such assumption even when the groups are formed arbitrarily or when they are formed on the basis of a dimension that may have no bearing on the particular attitude or behavior under consideration
social comparison theory (+ study example)
-people join groups to get information i.e. Women placed in high anxiety and low anxiety conditions; women who were placed in high anxiety condition chose to wait with other women because they wanted information about the study -provides a way of getting information
Priming and Implicit Prejudice
-priming-> a procedure used to increase the accessibility of a concept or schema (for example, a stereotype) -an implicit measure of prejudice can be derived by comparing a person's average reaction time to positive and negative words preceded by faces of members of the target category. Studies using these methods show that people often have subtle prejudices against various target groups that they would steadfastly deny having
Realistic Group Conflict Theory
-realistic group conflict theory-> a theory that group conflict, prejudice, and discrimination are likely to arise over competition between groups for limited resources -predicts that prejudice and discrimination increase under conditions of economic difficulty and should be strongest among groups that stand to lost the most from another group's economic advance -pronounced ethnocentrism-> glorifying one's own group while vilifying other groups
Boosting the Status of the Ingroup
-self esteem associated to groups we belong to -want to boost the status of the ingroups -leads to ingroup favoritism Ex: -study assessed participants self-esteem after they have had an opportunity to exhibit ingroup favoritism in the minimal group situation -those who had been allowed to engage in intergroup discrimination had higher self-esteem than those who had not been given the opportunity -can react to criticism of that group as criticism to the self
Characterizing intergroup bias
-stereotypes -prejudice -discrimination -refer to the belief, attitudinal, and behavioral components of negative intergroup relations -they often go together -people more inclined to hurt those they hold in low regard -ingroup favoritism can arise in absence of outgroup enmity -possible to be prejudice but not discriminate-> cultures that don't allow discrimination-> civil rights movement-> laws-> uncouple prejudice and discrimination
Stereotypes and the Conservation of Mental Reserves
-stereotypes facilitate recall of stereotype-consistent information and conserve cognitive resources that can be used to aid performance on other tasks -stereotypes allow people to process info efficiently -more likely to invoke stereotypes at the low point of their circadian rhythm -ex: pair a group of words with the stereotype (skin head), and have them watch a video on indonesia with a pop quiz on the country afterward and recall of the words, those that had the skin head prompt were better able to recall the descriptive words and did better on the pop quiz-> stereotyping saves cognitive space
I. Characterizing Intergroup Bias
-stereotypes-> beliefs that certain attributes are characteristic of members of particular groups -involves thinking about a person not as an individual, but as a member of a group, and projecting what you think you know about the group onto your expectations about the individual -prejudice-> a negative attitude of affective response toward a certain group and its individual members -involves prejudging others because they belong to a specific category -discrimination-> unfair treatment of members of a particular group based on their membership in that group -stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination refer to the belief, attitudinal, and behavioral components, respectively
Derogating Outgroups to Bolster Self-esteem
-stereotyping and prejudice can boost or maintain self-esteem Ex: -study -1/2 participants told they had done horribly on an intelligence test-> self-esteem threat -then shown video of job interview where the applicant was jewish -those who had their self-esteem threatened and thought she was jewish rated her more negatively than those who were not told she was jewish -increase in their self-esteem
transactional model
-three overlapping circles; point where they intersect is locus of leadership -leader, followers, & situation represented by circles -you can be a leader with certain followers in certain situations, but someone else can be a leader with different followers in a different situation
What might happen if fear appeals arouse too little or too much fear?
-too little fear, dont care to change -too much fear, can go into fear control process -individual engage in psychological defense mechanisms like defensive avoidance, denial, or reactance -focus on controlling the unpleasant arousal of fear rather than changing behavior
What three misperceptions does White (2004) suggest have contributed to wars during the last century?
-underestimating the strength of one's enemy -rationalizing one's own motives and behavior -demonizing the enemy
Being a member of a stigmatized group
-unfair price -aware of the stereotypes associated with their group -social psychologists have focused on two things: 1) attributional ambiguity 2) stereotype threat -members of stereotyped groups can also have a difficult time dispelling common stereotypes because those who hold the stereotypes act in ways that tend to elicit the very behavior that lies at the heart of the stereotype
Racial Faces Study
-white participants shown black and asian faces -examined area of that brain that was activated Results: -participants who had desire to not be prejudice initially had an automatic response to black versus white faces -black faces caused more activity in the prefrontal cortex (part of the brain associated with cognitive and behavioral regulation)
How does media exposure to violence affect aggression?
. Like video games, the Bodo the doll experiment. Showed that the kids reacted to what was shown in the model, flung it in the air, kicked it, and used weapons like the gun, even though it wasn't shown in the model video. They picked up the model aggressive language.
According to your textbook, compared to other species are humans more or less restricted to their genes?
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Describe Sherif & Sherif's study that took place at Robbers Cave State Park, Oklahoma (Rattlers, Eagles, 3 weeks, superordinate goals). Also, do you know how Sherif was able to gather so much data on the campers? He got himself hired onto the janitorial staff.
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Describe how attitudes can be learned by way of classical conditioning and operant condition? Provide an example of each to support your answer.
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Describe the Robber's Cave study and its significance for understanding conflict.
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Describe the classic Prisoner's Dilemma (specifically see figure 13.1), the Tragedy of the Commons, and social traps in general.
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Describe the difference between affectively based, behaviorally based and cognitively based attitudes.
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Describe the way in which the bogus pipeline, the implicit association test and the measurement of facial muscles have been used to improve the veracity of responses in attitude assessment.
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Did the results of Ashe's conformity study merely reflect a historically conservative era? Would contemporary Americans still be as inclined to conform as did the participants in Ashe's original study? Describe the replication of Ashe's conformity study conducted by Pratkanis presented in lecture. What were the results? Ask paul
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Discuss the effects that attitude strength and attitude specificity have in predicting behavior.
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What is GRIT and how does it work?
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informational attribution
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normative attribution
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Socialization
..., the lifelong social experience by which people develop their human potential and learn culture
Steps of Model of Attribution Process
1) Automatic observation 2) (with time) effortful attention to the situation
Motivation to Maintain Stereotypes
1) Heartfelt dedication to equality and a corresponding belief that stereotypes are wrong 2) Expressing stereotypes could lead to social disapproval
Implicit motivation to control prejudice
1) Recognition that you have implicit bias 2) Negative attitude towards being prejudiced
Explain two different ways of defining justice. What question does Rawls (1971) pose, and how do students often answer, according to Mitchell and colleagues (1993)?
1) Some people perceive justice as equity-the distribution of rewards in proportion to individuals' contributions. (My outcomes and my inputs = your outcomes and your inputs). 2) Some non-capitalist cultures define justice not as equity but as equality of fulfillment of needs. On what basis should rewards be distributed? Merit? Equality? Need? Some combination of those? Rawls invited us to consider a future in which our own place on the economic ladder is unknown. Which standard of justice would we prefer?
Stereotype Threat appears to undermine performance in a number of ways
1) stereotype threat leads to increased arousal-> interfere with performance on complex tasks 2) serve as a source of distraction that interferes with concentration 3) knowing one's group is "suspect"-> undermine performance and lead to individuals to "play it safe" 4) can result in poorer overall academic achievement-> undermines confidence -it is a vicious cycle can lead to disidentification
Reduce Conflict
1. Appeals e.g. sherif gave sermons 2. Superordiante groups 3. Contact Hypothesis 4. Conflict Reduction Models
The 3 Attitude Scale Measures
1. Attitudes toward Blacks scale 2. Modern Racism scale 3. Internal motivation to respond without prejudice scale.
3 Phases of RCT
1. Group formation 2. Conflict 3. Intergroup cooperation
When contact reduces prejudice: Six conditions
1. Social norms 2. Equal status 3. Common goals 4. Mutual interdependence 5. Friendly, informal settings 6. Multiple contacts
What is the difference between supportive and refutational treatment?
1. Supportive treatment -give receivers arguments supporting the truism 2. Refutational treatment (inoculation) -show receivers a weak attack on the truism, then refute the attack Research findings: 1. Refutational more effective than supportive treatments (inoculation>supportive) 2. Resistance-creating effect of refutational treatments generalizes to new arguments Ex: If Ben and Jerry's wants to inoculate me by exposing me to counter arguments, they could say..."Well Hagen-Daz is really classy..but you're cool and fun, and cool and fun people eat Ben and Jerry's!" When exposed to another argument, such as "But Hagen-Daz has high quality ingredients!"- It's not going to really matter to you. This will make you a more loyal customer. 3. Combo of supportive & refutational more effective than refutational alone lack of motivation to defend it Refutation provides the motivation - introduces the idea it needs to be defended
Implicit Association Test: you be the subject (Anthony Greenwald and Mazarin Banaji).
1. Tap left index finger if word is FEMALE NAME or WEAK WORD and right index finger if MALE or STRONG. 2. Tap left index finger if FEMALE or STRONG and right index finger if MALE or WEAK. Results: Respondents are faster to press key for members of group and words stereotypically associated with it than same key for members of group and words that contradict stereotype.
Factors Influencing Attributions
1. View of personality as changeable 2. Stronger focus on the situation 3. The impact of distraction
define perspective taking and giving and indicate whether or not its effective
1. actively contemplate the psychological experiences of other people 2. people share their experiences of being targets of discrimination it does appear to be effective. but the minority v majority group membership matters for who is taking v giving
Groups: why may group polarization happen
1. because of attitude polarization, which refers to the polarization of attitudes the more time spent thinking about them 2. social comparison: to fit in, a person may suggest extreme options to seem even more supportive of the group 3. confirmation bias: people are more likely to be exposed to arguments in favor of the group's overall position. as a result, people may become more convinced about the group's position
outline the three stages of attribution
1. behavior is observed 2. behavior is determined to be deliberate 3. behavior is attributed to internal or external causes
how can prejudice be reduced?
1. counter-stereotypes 2. contact hypothesis 3. jigsaw classroom 4. perspective taking + giving do these actually work, though?
According to your textbook, what are the five universal dimensions of social beliefs reported by Leung and Harris Bond (2004)?
1. cynicism 2. social complexity 3. reward for application 4. spirituality 5. Fate control
Conformity: what are some of the consequences of resisting normative social influence
1. group will try to bring you back into the fold via teasing or long discussions etc. 2. if discussions don't work, the friends may say negative things about you + start to withdraw
Groups: what are some causes of group think
1. highly cohesive and insular group - shielded from outside criticism or comments - disconnected from the real-world 2. strong or imposing leader - may intimidate dissenters and stifle discussion - advocate or pressure for consensus 3. drive for consensus - pressure or need for the group to reach a unanimous agreement - possibly due to high stress or poor discussion methods
Groups: what are some symptoms of group think?
1. illusion of invulnerability - belief that group is infallible - belief that group will not and cannot make mistakes 2. belief in the inherent morality of the group - belief that the group's decision is the right one 3. reducing outgroup members to stereotypes or caricatures 4. pressuring dissenters to conform 5. collective rationalization - focus on justification of group's decisions - missing the important details of the problem 6. self-censorship - withholding information or opinions in group discussions 7. illusion of unanimity
Groups: there are three primary reasons as to why people join groups. indicate what these reasons are
1. important sources of information - help us resolve ambiguity in the social world 2. important aspect of identity - help us define who we are - help us feel distinct from other groups 3. groups help develop social norms
Groups: what are the potential costs of social roles
1. individual identities and personalities can get lost 2. there are also some extreme cases in which social roles awry
another example of changing one's attitude quickly is counterattitudinal advocacy. define and further explain it.
1. induce public statement of an opinion opposite of own private attitude 2. dissonance created 3. if there's no sufficient justification, then there's a change in private attitude
under what conditions can contact reduce prejudice? (6 conditions)
1. mutual interdependence 2. common goal 3. equal status 4. friendly, informal setting 5. knowing multiple out-group members 6. social norms of equality
what are some of the steps to helping to combat the bystander effect? (5-step process)
1. notice the event 2. interpret the situation as an emergency 3. assume responsibility 4. know what to do 5. decide to help
Groups: how can groupthink be avoided
1. remain impartial - the leader should make it so that the leader does not take on a directive role 2. seek outside opinions - the leader should invite outside opinions from people who are not members of the group 3. create sub-groups 4. seek anonymous opinions
indicate some of the consequences of stereotypes
1. self-fulfilling prophecies (won't discuss too much, as there is a previous FC that discusses it) treating an outgroup member as if stereotypes about them are true may result in behaviors that confirm the stereotype. overall, you have an expectation about what a person or group is like and therefore that will dictate your behavior towards them 2. Stereotype threat 2. Subtyping - the process of explaining away exceptions for a stereotype by creating a subcategory of that group - it allows people to say their stereotypes are correct on average, though there can be some exceptions. and these exceptions are made explicitly. for example, scientists exist, though it is a male-dominated career. when someone sees a woman who is a scientist, as opposed to adjusted one's category or schema of scientists to include women, a subcategory is created: woman scientist
what causes prejudice?
1. social categorization: us vs them 2. normative rules 3. competition
when measuring attitudes, why are people less likely to report their true attitudes or conditioned views?
1. social desirability/political correctness 2. unwilling to be honest (private/ uncomfortable topic) 3. actually not aware of their true biases 4. reporting in a non-depleted state (having self-control)
where do affective-based attitudes come from?
1. values that you hold dear or grew up with 2. sensory experiences (an experience with food poisioning) 3. aesthetic reactions 4. conditioning
why do we stereotype people?
1. we like categories - people categorize people into ingroups and outgroups, which are socially constructed 2. illusory correlations 3. social identity theory
Groups: what factors contribute to social loafing?
1. when individual efforts can't be identified (deindividuation) 2. when individual contributions are not unique 3. low group cohesion (when you don't care about the group) 4. low intrinsic involvement (when you're indifferent to the task) 5. individual differences (gender + neutral)
Conformity: when will people conform to normative social influence?
1. when the group is important and/or immediate 2. highly cohesive groups can make less logical decisions - no one wants to upset relationships
Conformity: there have been replications of the Milgram study. indicate what the results of the study were
1. when the location of the study changed, no longer on Yale's campus, the compliance rate dropped to 45% 2. compliance rate also decreases when instructions are given over the phone
talk more about the AMP
1. you will see pairs of of pictures, one flashed one after the other. the first one will be a real-life image + second will be a Chinese character 2. the purpose of the real-life image is to serve as a warning for the Chinese character. your job is to judge the pleasantness of each character 3. note that some images can bias one's response to the character, but your job is to try your best not to let the image bias your response the actual study: - participants will misattribute the rating of the image to the chinese character,
According to lecture, what are the four "caveats" that need to be considered when trying to understand documented gender differences?
1.There is greater variation within groups than between groups 2.The differences are small 3.The differences change as a function of age 4.Differences do not denote superior vs. inferior status
Robbers Cave Experiment - Competition and Intergroup Conflict Phase 1 Which boys were rated most popular?
2 groups independently engaged in activities designed to foster group unity and took part in playing baseball, swimming and putting skits. Cohesion developed. Each gave itself name: Rattlers or Eagles. Hierarchical structure emerged within each group: effective initiators who made suggestions that others accepted were rated most popular.
The Robbers Cave Experiment
22 boys 12 years of age from similar backgrounds were chosen to participate. As they became aware of the opposite group, tension mounted and each group expressed the desire to compete with the other. Superordinate goals--goals that couldn't be achieved by either group alone but could be accomplished by both working together--groups started to work together -sherif
Robbers Cave Experiment Set-up Description (Muzafer Sherif)
22 grade 5 boys were taken to Robbers Cave State Park in S. E. Oklahoma. Boys signed up for 2.5 week summer camp that, unbeknownst to them, was an intergroup relations study. Research team spent over 300 hours screening boys from Oklahoma City area to find 22 who were average: 1. no school problems 2. intact middle class families 3. no notable ethnic differences Boys, none of whom knew each other beforehand, were divided into groups of 11 and taken to separate park areas.
How did obedience change when the participants were placed in the same room as the learner? How did obedience change when the participants were instructed to place the learner's hand on a shock plate?
40% obeyed to 450 volts while in the same room 30% when told to use shock plate
Derogating Outgroups to Bolster Self-Esteem Jewish Study
50% had self-esteem threatened when told they performed badly on intelligence test. 50% told they did well Participants watched videotaped interview of job applicant. 50% thought she was Jewish and 50% did not. All participants were non-Jewish and were asked to rate applicant.
What is "final-offer arbitration" and why is it used?
A "final-offer arbitration" is when the third party chooses one of the two final offers. Final-offer arbitration motivates each party to make a reasonable proposal.
Conformity
A change in belief or behavior as a result of real or imagined group pressure
Implicit association test
A computer driven assessment of implicit attitudes. The test uses reaction times to measure peoples automatic associations between attitude objects and evaluative words. easier parings and faster responses are taken to indicate stronger unconscious associations.
the implicit association test
A computer driven assessment of implicit attitudes. The test uses reaction times to measure peoples automatic associations between attitude objects and evaluative words. easier parings and faster responses are taken to indicate stronger unconscious associations.
Define peace.
A condition marked by low levels of hostility and aggression and by mutually beneficial relationships.
Peace
A condition marked by low levels of hostility and aggression and by mutually beneficial relationships.
peace
A condition marked by low levels of hostility and aggression and by mutually beneficial relationships.
Attitude
A favorable or unfavorable evaluative reaction toward someone or something exhibited in one's beliefs, feelings or intended behavior
How does your book and lecture define attitude? Describe the difference between affectively based, behaviorally based and cognitively based attitudes.
A favorable or unfavorable evaluative reaction toward someone or something exhibited in one's beliefs, feelings or intended behavior.
According to the "just world hypothesis" how are people likely to reduce dissonance when an innocent person has been harmed?
A form of defensive attribution wherein people assume that bad things happen to bad people and that good things happen to good people. Blaming the victim. The incident at Kent State Rape victims blamed for their rape Battered women blamed for their abuse
Asch's conformity
A group of 6 students had to decide where the standard line was on a card with three lines. The theory is that people conform to a group's opinion when put under group pressure.
priming
A mental activation procedure used to increase the accessibility of a concept or schema (for example, a stereotype). -i.e. If I show you the word "butter" and then ask you to tell me, as quickly as you can, whether a subsequent string of letters is a word, you'll recognize that "bread" is a word more quickly than you'll recognize that "car" is a word because of your preexisting association between bread and butter.
Two-Stage Model of Attribution
A model in which people first automatically interpret a person's behaviour as caused by dispositional factors, and then later adjust this interpretation by taking into account situational factors that may have contributed to the behaviour.
Prejudice
A negative attitude or affective response toward a certain group and its individual members. Not necessarily negative.
prejudice
A negative attitude or affective response toward a certain group and its individual members. (how we feel about members of a group) -involves prejudging others because they belong to a specific category. (can also be positive)
Prejudice
A negative attitude or affective response toward a certain group and its individual members. Negative attitudes received most attention, but it's possible to be positively prejudiced toward particular group. Prejudice involves prejudging others because they belong to a specific category.
Implicit Personality Theories
A network of assumptions that we make about the relationships among traits and behaviors
Define conflict in social psychological terms, and provide examples.
A perceived incompatiblity of actions or goals.
Priming(预言)
A procedure used to increase the accessibility of a concept or schema (e.g. a stereotype). Prejudices that individuals might not know they have, or that they may wish to dent, by using number of priming procedures. When giving a word previously, one was asked to recognize two new words, one is related with the previous word and one does not. Individuals recognize the related words quicker than the other one. An implicit measure of prejudice can thus be derived by comparing a person's average reaction time to positive and negative words preceded by faces of members of the target category. People are not lying when they deny such prejudices and they do not have conscious access to many of their attitudes and beliefs.
Frustration Aggression Theory
A psychological theory on prejudice which argues that people who are frustrated in their attempts to achieve highly desired goals, act out in aggressive ways. The aggression is targeted at a substitute, since the real source of their frustration is difficult to pinpoint, and thus the target is made into a scapegoat. Minority groups are often made into scapegoats due to their negative stereotypes that exist about them and due to their lower position in the ethnic hierarchy. Example: In the 1980's, two laid-off autoworkers murdered a Chinese American man named Vincent Chin, blaming him for their unemployed status (they targeted Chin, assuming he was Japanese, and they blamed Japanese car imports for their job loss).
Social Dilemmas
A situation in which an individual profits from selfishness unless everyone chooses the selfish alternative, in which case, the whole group loses
zero sum games
A situation in which one actor's gain is by definition equal to the others loss,
What is a social trap?
A situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing its self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior. Examples include the Prisoner's Dilemma and the Tragedy of the Commons.
Public goods dilemma
A situation in which the whole group can benefit if some of them give something for the common good but individuals profit from free riding if enough others contribute
Social Trap
A situation is which the conflicting parties. by each rationally pursuing its self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior. Ex.'s: Tragedy of the Commons and The Prisoner's Dilemma
Implicit Association Test, Anthony Greenwald and Mazarin Banaji, 1995
A technique for revealing non-conscious prejudices, even those parts who advocate universal equality and high regard for all groups. Series of words and/or pictures are presented on computer screen, and respondent is told to press key with left hand if the picture or word conforms to one rule and press another key with the right hand if it conforms to another rule. Result: responders would react faster when they were to press one key for members of particular group and words stereotypically associated with group than when they were to press the same key for members of that group and words that contradict the stereotype associated with that group.
Implicit Association Test
A technique for revealing subtle, unconscious prejudices toward particular groups, even on the part of those who advocate universal equality and high regard for all groups -The technique works like this: a series of words and/or pictures are presented on a computer screen, and the respondent is told to press a key with the left hand if the picture or word conforms to one rule and to press another key with the right hand if it conforms to another rule. reenwald and Banaji argued that respondents would react faster when they were to press one key for members of a particular group and words stereotypically associated with that group than when they were to press the same key for members of that group and words that contradict the stereotype associated with that group. -there is considerable evidence that a person's responses on the IAT are predictive of behavior that is more significant than pressing computer keys
social identity theory
A theory that a person's self-concept and self-esteem not only derive from personal identity and accomplishments, but from the status and accomplishments of the various groups to which the person belongs.
Social identity theory
A theory that a person's self-concept and self-esteem not only derive from personal identity and accomplishments, but from the status and accomplishments of the various groups to which the person belongs. Because our self-esteem is based in part on the status of the various groups to which we belong, we might be tempted to do what we can to boost the status and fortunes of these groups and their members. By giving advantage to fellow members of an ingroup, we boost the group's standing and thereby potentially elevate our own selfesteem. Thus, feeling better about the group leads us to feel better about ourselves. Assessed participants' self-esteem after they have had an opportunity to exhibit ingroup favoritism in the minimal group situation. Those who had been allowed to engage in intergroup discrimination had higher self-esteem than those who had not been given the opportunity to discriminate. Other research has shown that people who take particularly strong pride in their group affiliations are more prone to ingroup favoritism when placed in a minimal group situation. And people who are highly identified with a particular group react to criticism of the group as if it were criticism of the self.
Frustration-Aggression Theory
A theory that elaborates the idea that frustration leads to aggression.
Frustration-Aggression Theory
A theory that elaborates the idea that frustration leads to aggression. Ex: the probability of blaring the horn or swearing at a nearby motorist is much higher when the smooth transit to one's destination is blocked. Ex: the person who is denied a raise at work takes it out on the kids at home, thus frustration aggression theory predicts that hardship will generate malevolence directed at minority groups that, by virtue of being outnumbered and in a weaker position, constitute particularly safe and vulnerable targets.
realistic group conflict theory
A theory that group conflict, prejudice, and discrimination are likely to arise over competition between groups for limited resources. -The theory predicts, correctly, that prejudice and discrimination should increase under conditions of economic difficulty.
Realistic group conflict theory
A theory that group conflict, prejudice, and discrimination are likely to arise over competition between groups for limited resources. It acknowledges that groups sometimes confront real conflict over what are essentially economic issues. Prejudice and discrimination often arise from competition over limited resources. and should increase under conditions of economic difficulty. They should be strongest among groups that stand to lose the most from another group's economic advance. eg. People in the working class in the United States exhibited the most antiblack prejudice in the wake of the civil rights movement.
Self Awareness Theory
A theory that maintains that when people focus their attention inward on themselves, they become concerned with self evaluation and how their current behavior conforms to their internal standards and values.
A Variation of Weiner's Attribution Theory Model
A variation of the three-dimensional model of attribution uses the dimensions of *internal/external*, *stable/unstable* (whether the same outcome would occur again or whether this was an isolated occurrence of this outcome), and *global/specific* (whether the same outcome would occur in other situations or is specific to this situation only). This model was used in a theory addressing the cognitive aspects of depression, or depressive thoughts,. The suggestion is that if a person habitually explains negative outcomes (i.e., bad events), using attributions that are internal (I am to blame), stable (I always mess up!), and global (I can't do anything right), then this will be associated with depression. There is some support for the idea. Although it presents an attractive idea that makes intuitive sense, support for the theory is mixed as it isn't clear how generalizable the theory is.
Summarize what Myers refers to as a communitarian synthesis.
A way to balance individual rights with the collective right to communal well-being. Speed limits on roads are one example of society accepting some adjustments to individual rights in order to protect the public good.
Self-Fulfilling Prophecies
A. You make a prediction and based on that prediction you behave accordingly and as a result of your behavior, your prediction is more likely to come true than it would have otherwise B. Self-imposed C. What is expected or predicted by others ex: interview black and white applicants-> interviewers unwittingly treated them differently based on their race -black applicant, interviewer sat farther away, hem and haw throughout the session, terminate the proceedings earlier-> does not inspire self-possession and smooth performance -by placing black applicants at a disadvantage, the white interviewers confirmed their negative stereotypes of blacks
How do symbols of authority influence message receivers?
According to Cialdini there are 3 symbols that trigger authority... -titles: Dr., General, PHD, Senator, Professor, Reverend, VP, Your Honor, Judge -clothing: uniform of authoritative=suits, -trappings (accessories): jewelry, cars, watches, purses, house, landscaping
Heider's Theory of Naive Psychology
According to Fritz Heider (1958), an Austrian psychologist who is often described as the *"father of attribution theory"*, people practice naive psychology as they use casual theories to understand their world and other peoples behaviour. As these theories have similar structure to scientific theories, everyone is therefore a naive scientist. Heider's idea is based on three principles. 1. People have the need to explain the cause of other peoples behaviour in order to understand their motivation. 2. People are motivated to try to figure out why a person acted in a given way so they can predict how the person will act in the future. 3. When people make causal attributions, they make distinctions between internal and external causes of behaviour.
Stereotypes and Conservation of Mental Reserves
According to the cognitive perspective, stereotypes are useful cognitive categories that allow us to process information efficiently. If so, we should be particularly inclined to use them when we are overloaded, tired, or mentally taxed in some way—that is, when we are in need of a shortcut. eg. students were shown to be more likely to invoke stereotypes when tested at low point of their circadian rhythm. "Morning people" were more likely to invoke a common stereotype and conclude, for example, that a person charged with cheating on an exam was guilty if he was an athlete—but only when they were tested at night. "Night people" were more likely to conclude that a person charged with dealing drugs was guilty if he was black—but only when they were tested in the morning. Thus, people are most likely to fall back on mindless stereotypes when they lack mental energy.
Define GRIT.
Acronym for "graduated and reciprocated initiatives in tension reduction"-a strategy designed to de-escalate international tensions.
Findings
Across a range of studies boys adopt a strategy that is a compromise, sacrificing fairness, joint profit and even ingroup profit in order to get a little more than the outgroup. - Mere categorisation can already lead to ingroup differentiation - Is it bound into our psychology to discriminate against outgroups?
Self-fulfilling prophecy
Acting in a way that tends to produce the very behavior we expected in the first place, as when we act toward members of certain groups in ways that encourage the very behavior we expect from them. eg. Teacher who thinks that members of a particular group lack intellectual ability may fail to offer them adequate instructions, increasing the chances that they will indeed fall behind their classmates. Princeton students interviewed both black and white men pretending to be job applicants . The interviews were monitored, and it was discovered that the students (the white interviewers) unwittingly treated black and white applicants differently. When the applicant was black, the interviewer tended to sit farther away, to hem and haw throughout the session, and to terminate the proceedings earlier than when the applicant was white. The second phase of the experiment showed just how difficult it had been for the black applicants. Interviewers were trained to treat new applicants, all of whom were white, the way that either the white or the black applicants had been treated earlier. These interviews were tape-recorded and later rated by independent judges. Those applicants who had been interviewed in the way the black applicants had been interviewed earlier were evaluated more negatively than those who had been interviewed the way the white applicants had been interviewed. In other words, the white interviewers' negative stereotypes of blacks were confirmed by placing black applicants at a disadvantage.
Obedience
Acting in accord with a direct order
Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE)
Active observer effect, self serving bias, self reference effect
Steiner's typology of tasks
Additive Compensatory Conjunctive Disjunctive Discretionary ACCDD
The ABC components (of attitude)
Affect (feelings) Behavior (intentions) Cognition (beliefs)
Prejudice
Affective (feelings) -> Prejudice - a hostile or negative attitude toward people in a distinguishable group, based solely on their membership in that group - When applying Attitude Theory (ABCs) to Prejudice
Contact Hypothesis
Allport: conflict can be reduced by bringing groups into contact through: 1. equal status 2. common goals 3. intergroup cooperation 4. law/authorities support 5. friendship 6. perceived importance of conflict. e.g. Pettrigrew (1988)
Causes of Error in Communication
Although nonverbal communication provides important information about people emotions, several factors can lead to lower accuracy. First, people try to hide their emotions in order to avoid the consequences of letting others know how they are feeling. Second, when facial expressions conflict with information about the situation, we interpret the emotion in line with the situation and not the expression. Finally, people are more accurate when identifying emotions expressed by people within their own culture or by those with greater exposure to that culture.
Types of Attributions
Although the fundamental attribution error is one of the most commonly described biases in the field of social psychology, and until recently was thought to describe a universal human tendency, this error is much harder to find in collectivistic cultures than in individualistic ones. Although people in different cultural contexts believe that dispositions do influence behaviour, people in collectivistic cultures see situations as having more powerful impact on behaviour. It turns out that the fundamental attribution error is not fundamental after all. These cultural differences in reliance on internal attributions are found not only in laboratory studies but also in naturalistic studies that use archival data.
What motivation for helping produces more effective help?
Altruistic helping, because of empathy.
What motivation for helping (egoistic or altruistic) often produces more help?
Altruistic means to expect nothing in return and egoistic means you expect something in return. Altruistic is more likely to help.
Intra-Group Cohesion Norms
Always feeling the need to retaliate or return favor within groups. If one group harm other group...there will be a feeling/need to retaliate.
Kelley's Covariation Theory
An alternative theory of attribution was developed by Harold Kelley (1967). His *covariation theory* focuses on the factors that are present when a behaviour occurs and the factors that are absent when it does not occur. The three main components of the *correspondent inference theory* are *consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency*. In sum, according to the covariation model, we make different attributions depending on the consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency of a persons attitude and/or behaviour. If consensus and distinctiveness are low and consistency is high, we make a *situational attribution*. In cases where a persons attitude or behaviour is low in consistency, we are unable to make any attributions whether dispositional or situational.
Voluntarist
An appeal to people's intrinsic sense of social responsibility
Individuation
An enhanced sense of individual identity produced by focusing attention on the self, which generally leads people to act carefully and deliberately in accordance with their sense of propriety and values.
illusory correlation
An erroneous belief about a connection between events, characteristics, or categories that are not in fact related.
Illusory correlation
An erroneous belief about a connection between events, characteristics, or categories that are not in fact related. Distinctive events capture attention. We attend more closely to distinctive events, we are also likely to remember them better, with the result that they may become overrepresented in our memory. Minority groups are distinctive to most members of the majority, and so minority group members stand out. This means that negative behavior on the part of members of minority groups is doubly distinctive and doubly memorable. And because negative behavior by the majority or positive behavior by the minority is not as memorable, negative actions by the minority are likely to seem more common than they really are. Minority groups are therefore often thought to be responsible for more problematic behavior than they actually engage in.
Illusory Correlation
An erroneous judgement about the relation between two variables. Illusory correlation might play a role in the formation of social stereotypes (a perception that doesn't exist).
robbers cave experiment
An experiment in which normal, similar ten-year-old boys who never met before were divided into two groups to observe how the groups would relate to each other. (A) During the initial phase, the two groups initially partook in activities to foster group unity. A consistent hierarchical structure also emerged within each group. (B) During the second phase of the study when the two groups competed for prizes, they reacted hostilely toward each other. (insults, burning the other's flag, raids) Boys within each group who were either athletically gifted or who advocated a more aggressive stance toward the outgroup tended to gain in popularity. (C) When a truck carrying supplies broke down, however, they worked together to get it moving. The boys in the two groups set aside their difference and became friends after accomplishing the superordinate goal. -this experiment demonstrates that neither differences in background, nor differences in appearance, nor prior histories of conflict are necessary for intergroup hostility to develop.
minimal group paradigm
An experimental paradigm in which researchers create groups based on arbitrary and seemingly meaningless criteria and then examine how the members of these "minimal groups" are inclined to behave toward one another. -Numerous experiments have shown that a majority of participants are interested more in maximizing the relative gain for members of their ingroup than in maximizing the absolute gain for their ingroup.
Minimal group paradigm
An experimental paradigm in which researchers create groups based on arbitrary and seemingly meaningless criteria and then examine how the members of these "minimal groups" are inclined to behave toward one another. Participants first perform a rather trivial task and are then divided into two groups, ostensibly on the basis of their responses. 1. Participants estimate the number of dots projected on a screen. Some participants are told they belong to a group of "overestimators," and others belong to a group of "underestimators." In reality, the participants are randomly assigned to the groups, and they only learn about the group to which they themselves belong--the minimum group team. 2. Participants are taken individually to different cubicles and asked to assign points redeemable for money to successive pairs of their fellow participants. They do not know the identity of those to whom they are awarding points; they only know their "code number" and group membership. Some of the options participants can choose provide slightly more for the member of the outgroup; some maximize what the ingroup member can receive but still result in more points for the members of the outgroup; and some maximize the relative ingroup advantage over the outgroup but don't provide much in the way of absolute reward for members of the ingroup. Majority of participants are interested more in maximizing the relative gain for members of their ingroup than in maximizing the absolute gain for their ingroup. The participants do not know who the ingroup and outgroup members are; the choices are never for themselves; and, of course, the ostensible basis for establishing the two groups is utterly trivial. Yet, they still exhibit a tendency to favor their minimal ingroup! Moreover, they are willing to do so at a cost to the ingroup, which gets less than it would if the focus were on absolute gain rather than "beating" the other group, explains why we slip into thinking in terms of "us" versus "them". The us/them distinction may be one of the basic cuts we make in dividing up and organizing the world. Still, the ingroup favoritism observed in the minimal group situation cannot be the product of cognition alone. People's cognitive processes might lead them to make the us/them distinction, but cognitive processes alone cannot lead to one group being favored over the other.
Minimal intergroup paradigm
An experimental procedure in which short-term, arbitrary, artificial groups are created to explore the foundations of prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination
What did the review of literature conducted by Alan Wicker (1969) reveal about the relationship between attitudes and behavior? Did Wicker find that attitudes were a good or poor predictor of behavior?
An extensive review of literature revealed a weak correspondence between attitudes and behavior Attitudes toward cheating didn't predict cheating Racial attitudes didn't predict behavior Religious attitudes didn't predict church attendance bad predictor
What does Myers suggest is an important challenge facing our divided world?
An important challenge facing our divided world is to identify and agree on our superordinate goals and to structure cooperative efforts to achieve them.
What is an integrative agreement and what are their outcomes?
An integrative agreement is a win-win agreement that reconcile both parties' interests to their mutual benefits. Compared with compromises, in which each party sacrifices something important, integrative agreements are more enduring. Because they are mutually rewarding, they also lead to better ongoing relationships. Orange peel/juice example between two sisters.
Describe the study by Sheriff using the autokenetic effect. Did group norms emerge cause of normative influences or because of informational influences?
An optical illusion whereby a pinpoint of light shown in a dark room appears to move Participants tested alone were asked to estimate how many inches the light moved Participants tested again the next three days with two others who had been previously tested Results: a group norm emerged
Factors Influencing Attributions: (2.) Stronger focus on the situation
Another explanation for the greater prevalence of the fundamental attribution error in individualistic cultures is that people in collectivistic cultures pay more attention to the impact of the situation on behaviour, and therefore see more connection between events. There is an emphasis placed on these different cultures on the salient object versus the background. In sum, collectivistic cultures engage in patterns of holistic thought, and are more attentive to relationships and context, whereas individualistic cultures engage in analytical thought and focus on themselves. Research all shows that when people from collectivistic cultures make the fundamental attribution error, they are better able to overcome this bias than are people from individualistic cultures. Research found that Koreans are as likely as Americans to make dispositional attributions when there is no situational information, and Koreans otherwise make stronger situational attributions and are more responsive to salient situational information than are Americans.
What is the vicious cycle between rejection and antisocial behavior?
Anti social means doing something bad to others or for society. Anti social behavior usually destroys relationships. This leads to rejection. This can cause aggression, and lowered meaning in life.
Biased information processing
As we have just seen, people are more likely to assume that an individual action is typical of a group if the group is not their own. invite it. In general, people are more likely to extrapolate from behaviors they already suspect may be typical of an individual's fellow group members. Stereotypes can therefore be self-reinforcing. Actions that are consistent with an existing stereotype are noticed, deemed significant, and remembered, whereas those at variance with the stereotype may be ignored, dismissed, or quickly forgotten. Stereotypes also influence how the details of events are interpreted. White participants watched a videotape of a heated discussion between two men and were asked, periodically, to code the behavior they were watching into one of several categories (for example, "gives information," "playing around," "aggressive behavior"). At one point in the video, one of the individuals shoved the other. For half the participants, it was a black man doing the shoving; for the other half, it was a white man. The race of the person made a difference in how the action was seen. When perpetrated by a white man, the incident tended to be coded as more benign (as "playing around," for example). When perpetrated by a black man, it was coded as a more serious action (as "aggressive behavior," for example). The influence of stereotypes is likely to be even greater when the episode is presented to people secondhand and is therefore more amenable to differential construal. Participants listened to a play-by-play account of a college basketball game and were told to focus on the exploits of one player in particular, Mark Flick. Half the participants saw a photo of Mark that made it clear he was African-American, and half saw a photo that made it clear he was white. When participants rated Mark's performance during the game, their assessments reflected commonly held stereotypes about black and white basketball players. Those who thought Mark was African-American rated him as more athletic and as having played better; those who thought he was white rated him as having exhibited greater hustle and as having played a more savvy game. Studies such as these make it clear that people do not evaluate information evenhandedly. Instead, information that is consistent with group stereotypes typically has more impact than information that is inconsistent with it.
An ironic implication of the "cognitive load" framework
As we have seen, situations that lead to higher "cognitive load" can exacerbate stereotyping effects Basic idea: when people are under high load they are less able to self-regulate their behavior Higher levels of cognitive load can be triggered by all sorts of things.... Circadian rhythms "noisy environments" Anxiety/distraction
Individual Differences in Detecting Deception
As well as varying in our ability to lie persuasively, we also vary on our accuracy at determining other peoples lies. Those who are most accurate at detecting lies rely both on nonverbal and verbal cues, in contrast to most of us who rely primarily on verbal cues. Finally, yet another factor helps in detecting lying is familiarity with the persons culture, presumable because some non-verbal cues for lying are culture specific. People are better at detecting lies told by a person from their culture than lies told by someone from a different culture.
An irrational opponent
Assume your opponent is not really irrational Recognize it as a strategy and respond by being cooperative Be prepared to walk away
Mediation
Attempt by a neutral third party to resolve a conflict by facilitating communication and offering suggestions
Mediation Communication
Attempt by a neutral third party to resolve a conflict by facilitating communication and offering suggestions. *Unravel misperceptions with controlled communication.
Realistic Conflict Theory
Attitudes & Behaviours of in-group members towards the out-group will reflect the objective interests of in-group. Absence of conflict = harmony Conflict present = hostility & antagonism
affectively based attitudes
Attitudes based more on emotions and values than on objective appraisal. Buying designer labels Liking someone Voting for a candidate
cognitively based attitudes.
Attitudes based on the perusal of facts, whose primary function is object appraisal, i.e., assessments based on rewards vs. punishments Gas mileage Maintenance Repair costs
What is the principle of aggregation? Provide an example to support your answer.
Attitudes better predict behavior when we have an aggregate or "average" of the behavior over time Attending class Going to church Exercising
behaviorally based attitudes
Attitudes that are derived from observing one's past behavior toward an attitude object
implicit attitudes
Attitudes that are involuntary, uncontrollable, and at times unconscious -predict more automatic behavior (i.e. body language)
Intermember relations
Authority relations •Expectation states theory—theory of how someone emerges as a leader; certain expectations we have for someone to be a great leader --specific status characteristics—listing adjectives that describe why person is a great leader --diffuse status characteristics—can't name characteristics of the leader, but you know they're a great leader; gut feeling Attraction relations --Heider's Balance Theory—if you have a positive, positive and a positivepositive (relationships are balanced); a positive, positive, and a negativenegative (unbalanced); a negative, negative, and a positivepositive (balanced)
Manage Negotiation Like a Business Process
Avoid the 'deal maker' mentality. Consider the costs and challenges of executing the agreement Before finalizing an agreement, imagine it's one year from now and ask: How will we know if things are working? What measures will we use? What resources and skills are we using to make it work? Who is supporting the agreement and who has tried to block its implementation?
Tolerance
Awareness and appreciation of differences, but still think their own is best
Minimization
Awareness to difference but focus on similarities, can lead to ignoring differences
Define bargaining. What are possible benefits and risks of tough bargaining?
Bargaining - Seeking an agreement to a conflict through direct negotiation between parties. Tough bargaining may lower the other party's expectations, making the other side willing to settle for less. But toughness can sometimes backfire. Many a conflict is not over a pie of fixed size but over a pie that shrinks if the conflict continues. A time delay is often a lose-lose scenario. When a strike is prolonged, both labor and management lose. Being tough is another lose-lose scenario. If the other party responds with an equally tough stance, both may be locked into positions from which neither can back down without losing face.
Explain how bargaining, mediation, and arbitration can be used to resolve differences between opposing parties.
Bargaining: seeking an agreement to a conflict through direct negotiation between parties. Mediation: attempt by a neutral third party to resolve a conflict by facilitating communication and offering suggestions Arbitration: resolution of a conflict by a neutral third party who studies both sides and imposes a settlement
What's the difference between bargaining and mediation? Where does arbitration fit into the mix - is it the same (how so) or different (how so)?
Bargaining: seeking an agreement to a conflict through direct negotiation between parties. Mediation: attempt by a neutral third party to resolve a conflict by facilitating communication and offering suggestions Arbitration: resolution of a conflict by a neutral third party who studies both sides and imposes a settlement
Universal Dimensions
Based on two dimensions: competence (intelligence) warmth (social)
Why can the link between frustration and aggression by itself NOT explain the origins of prejudice and discrimination?
Because frustration leads to generalized aggression.
Nonverbal Behaviors
Behavioral cues are used to identify an indvidual's inner states and action
Correspondent Inference Theory; Factor 2: Is the behaviour *expected* based on the social role or circumstance?
Behaviour that isn't necessarily required, but is largely expected in a situation, doesn't tell us much about the person.
Stereotype threat
Being at risk of confirming, as self-characteristic, a negative stereotype about one's group, even though you don't believe it. *criteria: 1. stereotype must exist 2. the person must be aware of it 3. the person identifies with the domain
Distraction-Conflict Theory
Being aware of another person's presence creates a conflict between attending to that person and attending to the task at hand. This overloads our cognitive resources and leads to arousal.
Conflict Spiral View
Belief that escalations of international threat lead an opponent to feel more threatened and that leaders should thus demonstrate peaceful intentions to reduce the opponent's own defensive hostilities
Deterrence View
Belief that signs of weakness will be exploited by the opponent and that leaders need to show their willingness to use military force
Stereotypes
Beliefs that certain attributes are characteristic of members of particular groups. Stereotyping involves thinking about person not as an individual, but as member of group, and bringing to bear what you know about the group onto your expectations about the individual. Most concern with stereotyping has focused on those thought to be the most questionable and those most likely to give rise to the most pernicious forms of prejudice and discrimination.
Stereotypes
Beliefs that certain attributes are characteristic of members of particular groups. They can be positive or negative, true or false. Whether valid or not, they're a way of categorizing people.
Benevolent Racism and Sexism
Benevolent sexism: a subjectively favorable, chivalrous ideology that offers protection and affection to women who embrace conventional roles often coexists with hostile sexism (antipathy toward women who are vied as usurping men's power) Those who hold ambivalent attitudes tend to act positively toward members of outgroups only if they fulfill their idealized image of what such people should be like. -ambivalent sexism/racism resistant to change -those who hold ambivalent attitudes tend to act positively toward members of outgroups only if they fulfill their idealized image of what such people should be like. Those who deviate tend to be treated with hostility
Weiner's Attribution Theory
Bernard Weiner developed a framework for attribution based on achievement. According to Weiner, people attribute their achievements (i.e., success or failures) in terms of three dimensions: *locus* (whether the location of the cause is internal or external to the person),*stability* (whether the cause stays the same or can change), and *controllability* (whether the person can control the cause). This produces eight different types of explanation for achievement. According to his theory, people often attribute their own success to internal factors (e.g., skills) and others success to external factors (e.g., task difficulty) and others failures to internal factors (e.g., ability). His theory is based on the assumption that people want to maintain a positive self-image. People therefore attribute success and failure to factors that enable them to feel good about themselves.
GRE test, Claude Steele and Joshua Aronson, 1995
Black and white Stanford University students were given a difficult verbal test taken from the Graduate Record Exam. Half of the students were led to believe that the test was capable of measuring their intellectual ability, and half were told that the investigators were in the early stages of trying to develop the test and that nothing could be learned about intellectual ability from their scores. This manipulation had no effect on the performance of white students. African-American students did as well as white students when they thought it was the test that was being tested, but they performed much worse than white students when they thought their intellectual ability was being tested. Moreover, a blatant manipulation was not required to produce a significant effect on the performance of African-Americans. It was enough simply to have them indicate their race at the top of the page to cause their performance to be worse than in a control condition in which they did not indicate their race
old fashioned racism
Blatantly negative stereotypes based on racial superiority and open opposition to racial equality
Henri Tajfel
Born in Poland, 1919 - Studied chemistry during WW2 - Joined French armies and was captured by germans. Spent war in a prisoner of war camp. - Later worked for UNESCO reuniting families separated by the holocaust - Took up chair in social psychology at Bristol in 1967 where he remained until his death - Advocate of European social psychology and cofounder EASP
Implicit/Explicit stereotypes
Both the conscious and unconscious parts of the mind contribute to making stereotypes about people
Muzafer Sherif
Boy scout experiment- created conflict and then used superordinate goals to override it
Sherif Study
Boys at Robbers Cave 1. boys into 2 groups encouraging cooperation 2. boys put into conflict, by objective conflict of interest introduced
How do high and low elaboration levels map onto central and peripheral processing routes? Be able to identify examples of central vs. peripheral cues.
Central route: elaboration is high Individuals ponder content and logic of the message, engage in extensive issue-relevant thinking, compare the info to their own attitudinal positions A variety of cognitive responses occur because their brains are very active Central cues = ideas and supporting data that bear directly upon the quality of the arguments developed in the messages use a lot of logos (data) to make this claim Peripheral route: elaboration is low individuals engage in little/no issue-relevant thinking cognitive responses are much less likely to occur, because the receiver is not carefully considering the pros and cons of the issue peripheral cues include: attractiveness of source, expertise of source, number of arguments presented, message factors of imagery, emotions celebrity, spokespeople, music uses pathos example: perfume commercial in class (no message)
operant
Changes in behavior that result from the consequences that follow the behavior, e.g., reward and punishment. Racism Gender roles Ethnocentrism
Modern racism
Changes with forms of discrimination, sociallly acceptable of expressing prejudices and stereotypes has created conflict in many people between what they really think and feel and what they think they should think and feel. It also created conflict between competing beliefs and values or between competing abstract beliefs and good level reactions. Old fashioned racism has largely disappeared in the US but has been supplanted by subtler, more modern counterpart, for similar accounts of homophobia and sexism, respectively. Prejudice directed at other racial groups that exists alongside rejection of explicitly racist beliefs. Beliefs fuel modern racism whether they are true or not. Many Americans hold strong egalitatian values that lead them to reject prejudice and discrimination. And whether they act in a prejudiced or discriminatory manner depends on the details of the situation.
consequences of intergroup conflict
Changes within the ingroup •greater internal cohesion •greater outgroup rejection •i.e. summer school class Changes in intergroup perception •diabolical enemy—tend to think other group is enemy •moral group image—we think of ourselves as "angels" and moral •virile group image—we think that nothing will happen to us •mirror images—we think we're the best at everything; the other group is thinking the same thing
Benevolent Sexism
Chivalrous ideology that offers protection and affection to women who embrace conventional roles.
Describe how the Jigsaw Classroom works, and results of the Jigsaw Classroom intervention.
Class members are divided into groups. Each group learns one part of a lesson plan - one piece of a puzzle. Then the groups are rearranged, with new groups being made up of one member from every former group. Members of the new groups teach their group members the part of the lesson they had learned previously, and learn from what each of their new group members have to offer. This way each member of the class has learned the complete lesson. This essentially creates an opportunity for equal-status contact among group members, as each class member has something to contribute and something they can learn from their group members.
What are climax order and anticlimax order? Which is better?
Climax order= most important arguments go LAST, near the end. Anticlimax order= most important arguments go FIRST, near the beginning. Order seems to be of little consequence. Negligible benefits to arranging argument in climax order.
How can cognitive dissonance affect the continuation of atrocities?
Clinically normal people commit horrible acts of violence, once they have done it once; it's easier to continue to do it. And if it is so bad, they can somehow rationalize it, kill more to make it more expectable. The role pole experiment.
Stereotypes
Cognitive (beliefs) -> Stereotype - a generalization about a group of people, in which certain traits are assigned to virtually all members of the groups, regardless of actual variation among the members - When applying Attitude Theory (ABCs) to Prejudice
What is cognitive complexity?
Cognitive Complexity - the degree of nuance in people's systems of personal constructs A person low in cognitive complexity would tend to believe that people are either good or evil. A person high in cognitive complexity would argue that there are lots of variations between good and evil Cognitive complexity does not equal intelligence People high in cognitive complexity... -tend to send more person-centered messages Person-centered messages: adapt to another person's perspective, take into account the listener, focus on the listener's goals and wants
What are the ABCs of attitudes?
Cognitive component,Affective component, & Behavioral component are the Abc's.
Moving Past Stalemate
Cognitive resolution (self-serving bias): requires change of perceptions & reframing Emotional resolution: requires forgiveness & rebuilding trust Process resolution: requires change of behavior, negotiators, or communication
Irving Janis
Coined the term "groupthink", studied how it affected politics
Perceptual Dilemmas
Combinations of a social dilemma and an outgroup bias, which each side believes its best to cooperate but want "us" to cooperate and "them" to defected
Cooperation
Common external threats Superordinate goals Cooperative learning Group and superordinate identities
Cooperation
Common external threats build cohesiveness; superordinate goals foster this; shared goal that necessitates cooperative effort Ex.'s) Sherif's Robber's Cave - water supply ran low, Rattlers and Eagles worked together.
Why Put a Deal in Writing?
Communication - make sure all heard the same deal Commitment - signing the deal shows investment Contract - evidence of deal may be binding
How can communication help to resolve social dilemmas?
Communication enables people to cooperate. Discussing dilemma forges group identity. It devises group norms and consensus expectations and puts pressure on members to follow them.
What do communitarians propose?
Communitarians aim to balance individual rights with the collective right to communal well-being. They welcome incentives for individual initiative. However, they also question rugged individualism and self-indulgence. Unrestrained personal freedom, they say, destroys a culture's social fabric; unregulated commercial freedom, they add, has plundered our shared environment and produced the recent economic collapse. They propose a middle ground between the individualism of the West and the collectivism of the East, between the mach independence traditionally associated with males and the caregiving connectedness traditionally associated with females, between concerns for individual rights and for communal well-being, between liberty and fraternity, between me-thinking and we-thinking.
part 2What are the biological differences between males and females presented in lecture and in your textbook?
Compared with females, the average male is... slower to enter puberty, by two years three times more likely to commit suicide four times more likely to take Ritalin for ADHD five times more likely to become an alcoholic
part 1What are the biological differences between males and females presented in lecture and in your textbook?
Compared with males, the average female... Has 70% more fat and 40% less muscle Is five inches shorter Is more sensitive to sights and smells Is more vulnerable to depression and anxiety
Robber's Cave Study
Competition based on groups in boys' camp Separated based on minimal group differences Bonding within each group separately Conflict outside of regular organized camp activities Tried to Reduce Conflict Info about other Group Failed Contact with other group failed Common Goals Worked Common Enemy's Worked
When is competition especially likely to breed conflict?
Competition breeds conflict especially when people perceive that resources such as money, jobs, or power are limited and available on a zero-sum basis (others' gain is one's loss) and when a distinct out group stands out as a potential competitor.
Cultural Chauvism
Complete unawareness leads to bad intentions of others
Evaluating the Economic Perspective - The Classroom and Curved Grading
Conditions of intergroup contact are not as favourable in classroom as in battlefield. Students rarely feel cooperative bond with classmates. Reliance on curved grading encourages competitive struggle of all against all in which another student's triumph is seen as a threat.
Halloween Study
Conducted on halloween. Experimenters placed a bowl of candy in the living room, and when trick or treaters came up, they excused themselves to the kitchen. An unseen observer recorded whether the children were alone or in groups, whether the experimenter asked them for identifying information, and how many pieces of candy the children took (they were instructed to take only one piece). Individuated children who were alone transgressed (took more candy than they were supposed to) less than individuated children in groups, and individuated children in general transgressed less than deindividuated children. Deindividuated children who were alone transgressed less than ones in groups.
What is the confirmation bias?
Confirmation bias is the tendency to notice and search for information that confirms one's beliefs and to ignore information that disconfirms one's beliefs
Define conflict. What can be positive about conflict?
Conflict - A perceived incompatibility of actions or goals. Conflict signifies involvement, commitment, and caring. If conflict is understood and recognized, it can end oppression and stimulate renewed and improved human relations. Without conflict, people seldom face and resolve their problems.
How do misperceptions lead to conflict?
Conflict is a perceived incompatibility of actions or goals. Many conflicts contain but a small core of truly incompatible goals; the bigger problem is the misperceptions of the others' motives and goals. Misperceptions magnify differences between groups.
Three Kinds of Covariation
Consensus (how other people are reacting to the same stimulus), Consistency (is the person's behavior consistent over time) and Distinctiveness (does the person react the same or differently to different stimuli) **This will require multiple observational points
Ways of seeking Conflict Resolution
Contact Cooperation Communication Bargaining Mediation Arbitration Conciliation GRIT
Ways to Reduce Prejudice
Contact Hypothesis; Cross Group Friendships, Indirect Contact/Extended Contact Effect, Jigsaw classroom experiment.
Contact between different groups
Contact between different groups is likely to be more positive and more productive if certain conditions are met. First, the different groups need to have equal status. If one group feels superior and the other resentful, it is unlikely that harmonious, productive interactions will be the norm. Second, as we saw in the Robbers Cave study, productive intergroup interactions are facilitated if the different groups have a shared goal that requires their cooperative interaction. Third, broader social norms should be supportive of intergroup contact. Finally, the contact should encourage one-on-one interactions between members of the different groups. Doing so puts each person's identity as an individual in the foreground and downplays a person's group membership. Studies with thousands of students in over 25 different nations, found that when most of these conditions are met, contact between members of different groups does indeed tend to be effective in reducing prejudice. Even if increased intergroup contact were entirely effective in eliminating prejudice, even if the level of intergroup hostility were reset to zero, the ideas discussed in this chapter make it clear that new prejudices and animosities might soon arise.
Equal-Status Contact How to Achieve Peace
Contact on an equal basis; contact should be between people who are equal in status.
How do contact, cooperation, and competition affect liking?
Contact: Contact is associated with more liking, unless it is a negative encounter. Then it can backfire. Competition: inverse relationship. More competition between parties decreases liking. Cooperation: facilitates liking between groups
Choice of Words
Culture also influences how people talk about emotion. It was found that European Americans used fewer social words than chinese americans who were not very oriented toward american culture. chinese americans who were oriented toward american culture used a pattern that was more similar to that of european americans.
How does culture relate to social perception?
Culture not only influences how people see themselves but also how they see and make sense of the social world. Cross-cultural research shows that the tendency to attribute behaviour to dispositional factors that is commonly seen in western cultures is much less common in other cultures. Culture impacts the types of attributions people make, the factors that influence these attributions, and the expression of emotion.
What is modern racism?
Denial of racism and resentment made by blacks, blacks push themselves where they are not wanted.
How can unstable power positions affect decisions of those in power?
Depending on how you and your partners do you could lose power. And this creates high power motivation.
Demand Characteristics
Did people feel pressured or encouraged to follow what they thought the experiment wants? - No, people can't predict how people will behave and increasing demand characteristics does not increase MD strategy
How do we think about why other people do what they do?
Different types of attributions can impact approaches to resolving a conflict as well as marital satisfaction. There are four major theories that describe how we think about why people engage in particular types of behaviour: the theory of naive psychology, correspondent inference theory, the covariation theory, and Weiner's attribution theory. .
Distinctiveness, Negative Behaviour and Minorities
Distinctive events capture attention and may become overrepresented in memory. Negative behaviour by minority groups is doubly distinctive and memorable.
Factors Influencing Attributions: (3.) The Impact of Distraction
Distraction also has a different impact on attribution errors in people from different cultures. People tend to make dispositional errors when they are distracted and therefore can't adjust for the situational pressure on behaviour. When people in individualistic cultures are busy, they make dispositional attributions whereas collectivistic cultures don't make this error, even when they are busy.
When Wisdom of Crowds Works
Diversity of opinion; There are independent thought processes and judgments, instead of pressure to conform; Pooled information; Leaders can help or harm the process
Stanford Prison Study
Do people make places violent, or do places make people violent? Normal men were assigned to the conditions guard or prisoner. The prisoners were "arrested" and brought to the fake stanford prison. Prisoners and guards quickly settled into their roles and the study had to be cancelled. Suggests that the place makes people violent.
How can couples argue constructively?
Do these things: Define the issue. Repeat the other's argument in your own words. Share positive and negative feelings. Be open to feedback about your behavior. What do you agree on? Disagree on? What matters most to each of you? Ask questions that help the other find words to express the concern. Be patient with spontaneous, intense feelings and don't retaliate. Offer positive suggestions for mutual improvement. Don't do these things: Evade, walk out, or give the silent treatment. Use intimate knowledge of the other person in a hurtful manner, to humiliate or harm them. Talk about unrelated issues. Feign agreement while harboring resentment. Tell the other person how they are feeling. Attack or criticize someone or something the other person values. Undermine the other by intensifying that person's insecurity or threatening disaster.
Frustration
Dollard et al. (1939) Frustration-aggression hypothesis, role of cognitive/appraisal processes
What does the dissociation model of stereotypes tell us about the use of stereotypes even if we don't endorse them?
Dr. Devine's model, when people cannot or do not actively control the stereotypes, they influence responses. Knowledge=endorsement.
How has Western individualism changed during the last half-century?
During the last half-century, Western individualism has intensified. Parents have become more likely to prize independence and self-reliance in their children and are less concerned with obedience. Children more often have uncommon names. Clothing and grooming styles have become more diverse, personal freedoms have increased, and common values have waned.
what are the two types of attitudes?
EXPLICIT ATTITUDE: attitudes that we consciously endorsed and can easily report (depicted in the words that we say) IMPLICIT ATTITUDE: attitudes that are involuntary, uncontrollable, and unconscious, making them difficult to report (depicted in the way that we feel) the two can contradict one another
Palio
Each participant was shown a number of sketches depicting a member of their own contrada or of the rival contrada engaged in an action. The contrada membership of the person depicted was established simply by having the color of the protagonist's shirt match that of one contrada or another. Some of the sketches portrayed desirable actions (for example, helping someone), and some portrayed undesirable actions (for example, littering). After inspecting each sketch, the participants were asked to describe what it depicted, and their responses were scored for level of abstraction. Actions consistent with a participant's preexisting orientation (that is, positive actions by a member of one's own contrada; negative actions by a member of the rival contrada) were described at a more abstract level than actions at variance with a participant's preexisting orientation (that is, negative actions by a member of one's own contrada; positive actions by a member of the rival contrada). This asymmetry feeds the tendency to perceive the ingroup in a favorable light.
The Jigsaw Classroom (Elliot Aronson) - Results
Each student's dependence on others in group dampens competitive atmosphere and encourages students to work cooperatively toward common goal. Members of different ethnic groups gain experience of working with one another as individuals instead of representatives of ethnic groups.
Robbers Cave Experiment - Competition and Intergroup Conflict Phase 2
Eagles and Rattlers were brought together for tournament. Boys were told each member of winning team would receive medal and pocket knife and losers nothing. Activities were baseball, touch football, tug-of-war, cabin inspections and a treasure hunt. Tournament designed to encourage each group to see other as foe.
Cognitive Miser Perspective on stereotypes
Easier to clump everyone into a stereotype than get to know them.
Jones and Davis's Theory of Correspondent Inference
Edward Jones and Keith Davis (1965) developed a theory to explain why people make the attributions they do. *Correspondent inference theory* is based on their observation that people often believe that a persons disposition corresponds to his or her behaviour. This theory predicts that people look at various factors related to a persons actions to try to infer whether an action is caused by the persons internal disposition. Correspondent inference theory proposes that there are three factors that influence the extent to which you attribute behaviour to the person rather than the situation: 1. Does the person have the *choice* to engage in the action? 2. Is the behaviour *expected* based on the social role or circumstance? 3. What are the *intended effects* or *consequences* of the persons behaviour?
• What is the domain specificity theory of emotion and what does emotion serve to motivate?
Effect of emotion is dependent upon specific emotion. Emotion serves to motivate behavior. Love- maintains relationship, disgust- avoid disease, sadness- seek social support.
What is the meaning of "elaboration" in the ELM?
Elaboration=issue-relevant thinking involving activation of relevant cognitions and careful analysis on the arguments.
Motivational Perspective
Emphasizes psychological needs and wishes that lead to intergroup conflict.
What is the difference between enduring receiver characteristics and induced receiver characteristics?
Enduring: natural characteristics like sex and personality traits Induced: States that may influence persuasive effects (creatable circumstances)
How does evolutionary theory best explain the existence of mental disorders?
Environmental mismatch, ancestral neutrality, may have initially increased fitness, and result of mutations. Anxiety disorders exist because back in the day, being nervous and aware of what was going on increased your chances of survival. Mental disorders, bulimia was useful back in the day for women to not have children and also to commit suicide to help benefit the group. Mental disorders make us more shocked to snakes than guns, since snakes were scarcer back in the day and has primed us
Concrete versus Abstract Construal
Events that are consistent with preexisting stereotypes are encoded at a more abstract, and therefore more meaningful, level than events that are inconsistent with preexisting stereotypes -abstract terms consist of state verbs or trait terms (for example, hate, hateful), and concrete terms consist of descriptive and interpretive action verbs (for example, hits, hurts) ex: see someone helping another who has fallen-> concrete: "lifting" (less stereotype)-> abstract: "helping"-> even more abstract: "altruistic or helpful person" (more stereotype) -often a conscious process
What are the two dimensions of source credibility?
Expertise= the communicator's perceived knowledge, skills or ability. Truth-worthiness= the communicator's perceived honesty, characters, integrity.
Sub-typing
Explaining away exceptions to a given stereotype by creating a subcategory of the stereotyped group that can be expected to differ from the group as a whole.
Subtyping
Explaining away exceptions to a given stereotype by creating a subcategory of the stereotyped group that can be expected to differ from the group as a whole., -evidence that supports the stereotype is treated differently than evidence that refutes it -supportive taken at face value specific categories within larger categories that helps us deal with exceptions (people who do not fit your stereotype) (if you have a stereotype that all girls are emotional, likes shopping and the color pink & you meet a woman who like sports, it is inconsistent with your stereotypes so you make another category for them) "Exceptions that prove the rule" (which they don't)
How does emotion influence expressions of emotion?: Emotional Display Rules
Facial expressions of emotion are universal and cultural factors do nonetheless have an influence on emotion. One difference involves *cultural display rules*, meaning the rules in a culture that govern how to express universal emotions. It was found that participants from collectivistic cultures reported expressing more positive emotions than negative emotions toward in-group members. In contrast, individuals from individualistic cultures reported expressing more negative emotions and fewer positive emotions toward their in-group members, reflecting their lesser importance of maintaining harmony and adhesion in in-groups in these societies, which makes it more acceptable to display negative emotions. people in individualistic cultures are also more commutable in expressing self-reflective emotions, such as pride and guilt, as there is more focus on the person and individual uniqueness and more value was given to the expression of self-reflective emotion. People from collectivistic cultures show more socially engaging emotions, such as friendliness and shame, than people from individualistic cultures, who show more disengaging emotions, such as anger and disdain. This reflects the importance of harmony within groups and affiliation to a group in collectivistic cultures. Emotions that don't disturb the social connections between group members are accepted while those that are harmful are discouraged and rejected.
What does feeling better about the group lead us to feel? Those who engaged in intergroup discrimination had opportunity to exhibit ingroup favouritism in which situation? What did those allowed to engage in intergroup discrimination have? People highly identified with a particular group react to criticism of the group as if it were what?
Feeling better about group leads us to feel better about ourselves. Those who engaged in intergroup discrimination had opportunity to exhibit ingroup favouritism in minimal group situation. Those allowed to engage in intergroup discrimination had higher self-esteem than those not given opportunity. People highly identified with a group react to criticism of the group as if it were of the self.
How does evolutionary theory inform the study of stress?
Fight or flight increases respiration, circulation and metabolism and releases adrenaline and non adrenaline and cortisal. For men could just haul ass, women would tend and befriend, and they had a kid to look after, so sometimes this forced them to hide. Stress is different for past to present. Needing food and watching over your back so you didn't get eaten, were stressful in the past. Now, work and other social things stress us out nowadays. Men handle stress by wanting to be alone and more likely to take his stress out on his family. Women want to be more involved with the family, have more physical contact with family.
Emphasis on Tone
Finally, cross-cultural research reveals differences in peoples focus on verbal content versus verbal tone. It was found that americans tended to focus on verbal content over verbal tone. Japanese participants showed the opposite pattern as they emphasized the tone of the delivery of the word over the words meaning. Once again, this study provides evidence of cultural difference in the importance of different types of communications.
Observation
First impressions are subtly influenced by superficial aspects of a person's appearance; We prejudge people based on facial features (baby faced vs mature faced, Senate and House experiment)
How do our social/cultural institutions reinforce stereotypes or condone discrimination?
Formal-Sanctioned discrimination, Jim Crow laws. Informal- its ok to fire people for being gay. "red-lining" failure to show houses to blacks in white neighborhoods. It is condoned by role models and characters and children's books with gender roles. America=white, finally they had a black princess in a movie. Media is more likely to show a criminal's face if it was black (vs. white)
formal and informal groups
Formal—groups that you are assigned to be a part of; appointed Informal—groups that choose to be together; often times, informal groups develop from formal groups
The Robbers cave experiment
Formation of ingroup, competition with the outgroup, cooperation between groups forms with superordinate goals
The Analysis of the Robbers Cave experiment
Found that hostility between groups could be created and overcome. Created: two groups, seperated and then pitted against eachother in competetive games. Overcome: when they worked together towards a common goal. Important lessons: -neither differences in background nor differences in appearance nor prior hostilities of conflict are necessary for intergroup hostility to develop -all that is required: two groups entering competition for goals that only one can achieve -competition against outsides often increases group cohesion -intergroup conflict can be diminished-> work together (getting to know one another usually isn't enough)
Distinguishing Truth and Deception
Freud: "No mortal can keep a secret...betrayal oozes out of him at every pore" meaning that lies can be used
List, and describe, the conditions under which close contact reduces hostility between opposing parties. Provide examples
Friendship - those who form friendships with outgroup members develop more positive attitudes toward the outgroup. Equal-Status Contact (contact on an equal basis) - to reduce prejudice, interracial contact should be between persons equal in status. Common external threats build cohesiveness, and superordinate goals foster cooperation.
Cognitive perspective
From the cognitive perspective, stereotyping is inevitable. It stems from the ubiquity and necessity of categorization. All categorizing works to simplifies the task of taking in and processing the incredible volume of stimuli that confronts us. Stereotypes provide us with those simpler models that allow us to deal with great blooming, buzzing confusion of reality. According to cognitive perspective, stereotypes are a natural result of way our brains are wired to store and process information.
Cognitive Perspective and Stereotyping
From this perspective, stereotyping stems from necessity of categorization. People categorize natural, artificial and things with continuous variation in electromagnetic wavelength. Categorizing simplifies task of processing the stimuli that confronts us. Stereotypes are a natural result of the way our brains are wired to store and process information.
Displacing our aggression onto a safer target.
Frustration-aggression theory predicts that hardship will generate malevolence directed at minority groups that, by virtue of being outnumbered, constitute safe and vulnerable targets.
Construal processes and biased assessment
Gained in efficiency is paid by occasional inaccuracy and error. Invoking the stereotype may save time and effort, but it can lead to mistaken impressions and unfair judgments about individuals. Inaddition, biased information processing can help explain why even stereotypes completely lacking in validity nevertheless develop and endure. If we suspect—because of what we've been told, or the implications of a joke we heard, or a hard-to-interpret performance difference—that a particular group of people might differ from the mainstream in some way, it is shockingly easy to construe pertinent information in such a way that our suspicion is confirmed, solidified, and elaborated. The cognitive perspective on stereotyping does more than point out the obvious fact that stereotypes can distort our perceptions of others.
How does non-zero sum contribute to conflict?
Games in which outcomes need not sum to zero. With cooperation both can win; with competition both can lose. Most real-life conflicts like the Prisoner's Dilemma and the Tragedy of the Commons are non-zero sum games.
non-zero sum games
Games in which outcomes need not sum to zero. With cooperation, both can win; with competition, both can lose. (Also called mixed-motive situations).
Non-Zero-Sum-Games
Games in which the outcome need not sum to zero. With cooperation, both can win, with competition, both can lost. (Mixed-motive situations.) Each game pits the immediate interests of individuals against the well-being of the group. Cooperation = win-win Competition = win-lose Ultimately = lose-lose
What is the best thing to do in an emergency situation to facilitate helping?
Give direct orders; make it clear what you need and now.
ethnocentrism
Glorifying one's own group while vilifying other groups.
Conflict between groups: Ethnocentrism
Glorifying one's own group while vilifying other groups. People in the outgroup are often thought of in stereotyped ways and are treated in a manner normally forbidden by one's moral code. At the same time, loyalty to the ingroup intensifies. Consider the 9/11 attack, telling white students that the attacks were directed at all Americans, regardless of race and class, served to reduce prejudice toward African-Americans
Superordinate Goals
Goals that transcend the interests of any one group and that can be achieved more readily by two or more groups working together.
superordinate goals
Goals that transcend the interests of one individual group and that can be achieved more readily by two or more groups working together.
Superordinate goals reduing intergroup conflict
Goals that transcend the interests of one individual group and that can be achieved more readily by two or more groups working together. Two groups were simply brought together in various noncompetitive settings to ascertain whether their hostility would dissipate which does not work. Investigator then contrived to confront boys with number of crises that could only be resolved through cooperative effort of both groups. Result: relations between the two groups quickly showed the effects of these superordinate goals. When returned back home, boys insisted that everyone return on the same bus rather than on the separate buses by which they had arrived. When the bus pulled over at a roadside diner, the group that had won $5 in the bean collection contest decided to spend their money on malted milks for everyone, Eagles included. The hostility produced by five days of competition was erased by the joint pursuit of common goals, resulting in a happy ending.
What is the relationship between facial and body expressions and attitude? Specifically, how can imitating another's expression affect us emotionally? Describe the study by Vaughan & Lanzetta (1981) presented in lecture and in your textbook.
Going through a motion can trigger an emotion. They asked students to observe someone receiving electric shock. They told some of the observers to fake a pained expression whenever the shock came on. Compared with other students who did not act out the expressions, these grimacing students perspired more and had faster heart rates whenever they saw the shock being delivered. Acting out the persons emotion enabled the observers to feel more empathy. To sense other people are feeling, let your own face mirror their expressions.
just-world phenomenon
Good behavior is rewarded and bad behavior is punished, believe that other people get what they deserve
GRIT
Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction, strategy designed to decrease international tensions.
What is social identity theory and how does it relate to the video we watched on "A class divided".
Group membership can be a positive support of self-esteem. Favor our in-groups. Examples, fans of a football team (little boy flicking off the gators). It's basically just separating people to groups creating in-group bias. Give more points to your group even though there is no reason. A class divided separated them into eye color (brown eye vs. blue eye) and one was smarter than the other and other all better than the other one day then reversed. People respond with prejudiced to feel good about themselves. Give false feedback on intelligence test.
Economic Perspective
Groups develop prejudices about one another and discriminate against one another when they compete for economic resources. Religious, racial and cultural groups protect and promote their interests by lashing out at those they perceive as threats
What is the minimum and maximum number of people needed to produce conformity effects?
Groups of 3 to 5 can product conformity effects
Reducing Intergroup Conflict through Superordinate Goals - Final part of Robbers Cave Experiment
Groups were brought together in noncompetitive settings to dissipate hostility. It did not and led to jeering, food fights and insults. Researchers disrupted water supply to camp, with entire length of pipe from reservoir to campgrounds having problem source. Truck carrying supplies for campus at a distant area in park broke down. Researchers left large rope near truck expecting boys to pull it to get it started. Both groups intermingled throughout rope and pulled it. Friendships developed. Boys insisted that everyone return to Oklahoma on same bus. Winners spend money on malted milk for everyone.
Be familiar with types of behaviors that would characterize low vs. high self-monitors.
High self-monitors: Act according to demand of social setting. Are attuned to image that they project. Adapt self-presentation to situation and context. Low self-monitors: Rely more on attitudes, beliefs and values to guide behaviors. Show greater constituency in behavior.
how does status of the group affect conformity rates?
Higher status groups have a greater impact than lower status groups People may sometimes avoid agreeing with low status or stigmatized groups Swim, Ferguson & Hyers (1999)
Explaining away exceptions
How people respond to stereotype disconfirmation varies with factors such as how emotionally involved they are in the stereotype, whether they hold the stereotype in isolation or belong to a group that preaches it, and so on. One thing is clear, however: people do not give up their stereotypes easily. As numerous studies have demonstrated, people evaluate disconfirming evidence in a variety of ways that have the effect of dampening its impact. The first thing to note is that no stereotype contains an expectation of perfectly invariant behavior. Groups thought to be dishonest, lazy, or carefree are thought to be dishonest, lazy, or carefree on average, or more dishonest, lazy, or carefree than other groups. It is not expected that all of their members behave in those ways all the time.
frustration-aggression
Hypothesis that states that frustration--the perception that you are being prevented from obtaining a goal--will increase the probability of an aggressive response
Stereotypes and Categorization Study
Hypothesis: Social attitudes can influence basic categorization processes Research Method: 1) White participants were shown a white or black face 2) Immediately after viewing a face, participants were shown an object and asked to identify it as a gun or a tool as quickly as possible Results: Participants identified guns more quickly and mistook tools for guns more often after being primed with black faces Conclusion: Implicit stereotypes influence identification and categorization -Experiment after this one found that it is not just negative stereotypes, but also positive stereotypes that we associate with race (sports equipment and hand guns)
Distinctive and Illusory Correlations Study
Hypothesis: Two distinctiveness events stand out, are better remembered, and leave even more of an impression because they co-occur Research Method: 1) Participants were shown a series of slides, each of which described a positive or negative action initiated by a member of group A or group B 2) 2/3's of the actions were attributed to group A, making A the majority group. Most of the actions attributed to each group were positive (equally true of both groups) Results: Members of the minority group were thought to be disproportionately responsible for the negative behaviors Members of the minority group were rated more highly on negative traits and less highly on positive traits than members of the majority group Conclusion: Jointly distinctive events (minority status and rare behavior) stand out and form the basis of illusory correlations Impressive because: -obtained in a laboratory context Critique: -doesn't fit real world stereotyping -their analysis predicts that people should be prone to develop illusory correlations between any two variables that are jointly distinctive (being left handed and a vegetarian), but we just don't do that-> over predicts
Derogating Out-groups to Bolster Self-Esteem Doctor Study - Lisa Sinclair and Ziva Kunda Results
If participants were criticized by black doctor, they recognized of the black stereotype words faster. If participants were praised by black doctor, they recognized doctor words faster.
Energy and stereotypes
If the use of stereotypes conserves intellectual energy, then encoding information in terms of relevant stereotypes should furnish extra cognitive resources that can be applied to other tasks. Resources not used on one task can be applied to another. Students were asked to perform two tasks simultaneously. One required them to form an impression of a (hypothetical) person described by a number of trait terms presented on a computer screen (for example, "rebellious," "dangerous," "aggressive"). The other task involved monitoring a tape-recorded lecture on the economy and geography of Indonesia. For half of the students, the presentation of the trait terms was accompanied by an applicable stereotype (for example, skinhead); for the remaining students, the trait terms were presented alone. The key questions were whether the applicable stereotype would facilitate the students' later recall of the trait terms they had seen and, more important, whether it would also release extra cognitive resources that could be devoted to the lecture on Indonesia. Students were given a brief quiz on the contents of the lecture. As the experimenters anticipated, the use of stereotypes eased the students' burden in the first task and thereby facilitated their performance on the second.
Example of Modern Racism
If unambiguous evidence is presented to a jury, whites and blacks are convicted equally. If ambiguous (some is viewed as inadmissible but usually used by the jury anyways) if participants have option of helping black and white person in need of medical assistance they will help the black person, unless they are with others, then they will help white person more because they "thought somebody else with more expertise would intervene"
Correspondent Inference Theory; Factor 1: Does the person have the *choice* to engage in the action?
If you want to know that the person was forced to engage in a given behaviour, it is reasonable to assume that the action is due to the situation and not the person.
IAT
Implicit Association Test A computerized reaction-time task designed to measure the strength of association between target concepts (e.g., flowers and insects) and attribute concepts (e.g., pleasant and unpleasant). -a technique for revealing nonconscious prejudices towards a particular group -times how quick you are to respond -evidence that IAT responses do correlate with other measures of prejudice -predicts discrepancy between how much one spoke to the white versus the black experimenter, how often they smiled at the black versus the white experimenter, and the number of speech errors and hesitations they exhibited when interacting with the white versus the black experimenter
How does Zero-Sum contribute to conflict?
In a zero-sum situation, for one side to win the other must lose; for one side to lose the other must win. Sherif shows that win-lose competition quickly made strangers into enemies If the conflict is over who is going to get picked for a soft ball team it is a zero sum conflict- there only a certain number of spots for people to play. If the conflict is about who gets more praise/ cheers from the coach/ crowd it is a non zero sum conflict because there is not a limited amount of cheering a crowd can do or praise a coach can give.
What positive outcomes tend to result from classroom ethnic diversity?
In colleges and universities, informal interactions enabled by classroom ethnic diversity pay dividends for all students. Such interactions tend to be intellectually growth-promoting and to foster greater acceptance of difference. Such findings informed a U.S. Supreme Court 2003 decision that racial diversity is a compelling interest of higher education and may be a criterion in admissions.
Describe cooperative learning and describe how it helps to reduce conflict.
In cooperative learning, students must work in groups to complete tasks collectively toward academic goals. Unlike individual learning, which can be competitive in nature, students learning cooperatively capitalize on one another's resources and skills (asking one another for information, evaluating one another's ideas, monitoring one another's work, etc.). Everyone succeeds when the group succeeds.
How do the GRIT elements work in laboratory dilemma games?
In laboratory games, announcing cooperative intent does boost cooperation. Repeated conciliatory or generous acts do breed greater trust. Maintaining an equality of power does protect against exploitation.
Attribution predicament
In one study, African-American and white students received flattering or unflattering feedback from a white student in an adjacent room. Half the participants were led to believe that this other student could see them through a one-way mirror, and half were led to believe they could not be seen (because a blind covered the mirror). Whether or not they could be seen had no effect on how white students reacted to the feedback. But it did affect how black students reacted. When black students thought the other person could not see them—and therefore didn't know their race—their self-esteem went down from the unflattering feedback and was boosted by the positive feedback. When they thought the other person could see them, their self-esteem was not injured by the bad news, nor was it enhanced by the good news. Result: members of stigmatized groups quite literally live in a less certain world, not knowing whether to attribute positive feedback to their own skill or to others' condescension and not knowing whether to attribute negative feedback to their own error or to others' prejudice.
Under what conditions does intergroup contact actually reduce prejudice?
In situations where the group members hold equal-status positions.
What does Etzioni and colleagues (2005) describe as a middle ground between multiculturalism and assimilation?
In the space between multiculturalism and assimilation lies "diversity within unity," an omnicultural perspective: "It presumes that all members of a given society will fully respect and adhere to those basic values and institutions that are considered part of the basic shared framework of the society. At the same time, every group in society is free to maintain its distinct subculture-those policies, habits, and institutions that do not conflict with the shared core."
How did Shelton and Richeson (2005) find that misperceptions prevent cross-racial contact?
In their first study, University of Massachusetts White students viewed themselves as having more than average interest in cross-racial contacts and friendships, and they perceive White students in general as more eager for such than were Black students. Black students had mirror-image views-seeing themselves as more ager for such than were White students. "I want to have friendships across racial lines," thought the typical student. "But those in the other racial group don't share my desire." Would this pluralistic ignorance generalize to a specific setting? To find out, Shelton and Richeson's second study asked White Princeton students to imagine how they would react upon entering their dining hall noticing several Black (or White) "students who live near you sitting together." How interested would you be in joining them? And how likely is it that one of them would beckon you to join them? Again, Whites believed that they more than those of the other race would be interested in the contact. Page 499 for the remaining studies
Consequences of the jigsaw classroom
Increased respect and liking for each other Decreased prejudice and stereotyping Increased academic performance Increased self-esteem and liking for school More intermingling among the various racial/ethnic groups in the schoolyard
Deindividuation and Social Norms
Increases adherence to group norms whatever they may be. Group norms of deviant behavior will be encouraged, and group norms of prosocial behavior will be encouraged.
Reducing Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination
Increasing day to day interaction with all groups and increasing, common group identity, knowing someone in the outgroup (reduces), one on one interactions reduce playing of persons group membership, overome fear that outgroup members dont want to interact with us-- with contact reduces group boundries significance. Positive interactions negate slanted media portrayal, one on one contact and equal status contact create positive associations. -different groups NEED to have equal status -cooperative interactions
How do ability and motivation influence elaboration? Be familiar with factors that affect ability and motivation.
Influences on one's motivation: Personal relevance of the issue (involvement), responsibility for evaluating the message, expectation of having to discuss the message, presentation of message in unexpected format, need for cognition (how much do you like to think about stuff). Influences on one's ability to process: Distractions (inverse relationship), message complexity (inverse relationship), amount of time a person has (direct correlation), number of opportunities to scrutinize the arguments (direct correlation), knowledge of the message topic (direct correlation).
Mutual interdependence
Ingroup and outgroup members cooperate to achieve one goal that is important to each (i.e., superordinate goal)
Common goals
Ingroup and outgroup members work on the same problem/issue
Using the biological metaphor, explain the basic premise of inoculation theory.
Inoculation Theory The Biological Metaphor (O'Keefe, 2002) "supportive" treatments (a good diet, vitamins, being fit) vs. inoculation (weak dosage of disease to build up immunity) supportive - giving info that supports that attitude inoculation - weak counter-persuasive event and then refute it -> message receivers can be inoculated with small doses of the opposing view the way that people can be inoculated against a virus (has to be SMALL doses though)
characteristics of a group
Interaction Structure—some groups have more structure than others Goals—sometimes you can accomplish goals in a group that you could not complete on your own Groupness—entitativeness; a group becomes an entity; i.e. "my class" "my students" SIGG
Robbers Cave Experiment - Competition and Intergroup Conflict Results - Was the Expression of intergroup hostility limited to words? Which boys gained popularity?
Intergroup hostility expression was not limited to words. Eagles captured and burned Rattlers' flag and visa versa. Raids, food and physical fights took place. Athletic or aggressive boys gained popularity.
Motivational perspective
Intergroup hostility, can develop even in the absence of competition.In Robbers Cave experiment, signs of increased ingroup solidarity when the two groups first learned of each others' existence. Existence of another group make boys take their group membership much more seriously. When both groups learned the existence of the other group, they want to run them off and challenge them. Existence of group boundaries among any collection of individuals are sufficient to initiate group discrimination.
What is the problem with introspection?
Introspection is the process by which a person examines the contents of his or her mind and mental states.(learn from inner voice) "Privileged access" only I know no one else. Children think their parents know them best. Richard Nesbit and timothy Wilson in 1977 said that people don't have control because they simply make mistakes, guess, or give what they assume plausible or socially desirable answers. Also there is the study of how young men are affected by sexy car ads. The book thinks they were right, people don't know what's going on inside their minds. Sometimes they do. Partly has to do with the duplex minds (automatic and conscious). Good for describing what we are feeling or thinking but not good why.
Assessment of ingroup favorably
Investigators conducted numbers of more tightly controlled assessments of the degree to which boys tended to look favorably on members of their own group while derogating members of the other group. Investigators scattered a large quantity of beans around a field and asked the two groups to pick up as many as they could in a 1-minute period. The group collecting the most would receive $5. Image of each boy's collection of beans was briefly projected on a wall, and everyone was asked to estimate the number of beans that the boy had collected. In reality, the same quantity of beans (35) was always shown, but this was impossible to discern because of the brief duration of the projection and the large quantity of beans shown. Result: boys' estimates revealed clear ingroup favoritism: each group estimated that boys who were members of their group had collected more beans than boys who were members of the other group.
• What is misattribution of arousal and what are some examples?
It can cause excitation transfer (the idea that arousal from one event can transfer to another event) the study of Vancouver was a good example. The bridge would tilt, sway, and wobble making it seem unsafe. Then the control was a very safe bridge. The researchers stationed an attractive girl on the bridge and she approached the men who were crossing the bridge and asked them to complete a survey. Then gave number, the measure was if they did call. The men who crossed the shady bridge were more likely to call the girl then the good bridge. Fear can be converted into love
Economic Perspective
It identifies the roots of much intergroup hostility in the competing interests that set many groups apart from each other.
Sturdy three-legged stool. Leg 3
It is about stereotyping and considers the cognitive perspective.
• What is self-presentation and what are some examples?
It is defined as any behavior that seeks to convey some image of self or some information about self to other people. "You can trust me", to how you dress or what car you drive, to making excuses or threats, to trying to hide your fear or anger so that people will think you're cool
When do people become aggressive?
It is innate and when peoples inhibitors are broken down and we can't control what we do
• What does an interaction effect mean when interpreting results?
It is possible that levels of the IVs interact and affect the DV differently than each by itself. For example, maybe there is no effect when participants get only 1 mg of the sleep drug and 12 oz of beer. But when you give them 1 mg of the sleep drug and 36 oz of beer there is an effect. In this case, you would have an interaction effect.
Sturdy 3-legged stool (Brown)
It rests on pervasive and enduring human tendencies: 1. form societies with unequal distribution of resources 2. glorify in-group 3. stereotype members of different groups
Explain the pictograph associated with the prisoner's dilemma
It summarizes the choices where A either confesses or doesn't and B either confesses or doesn't.
Cognitive Perspective
It traces the origin of stereotyping to the same cognitive processes that allow people to categorize items of furniture into distinct classes of chairs, couches and tables. It takes into account the conflict between people's consciously held beliefs and values and their quick, reflexive reactions to members of specific racial, ethnic, occupational or other demographic groups.
• What happens if you begin to pay someone for doing something that they really enjoy doing?
It will make them like it less. This can be explained by the over justification effect, it transfers play into work. (Professional athletes, painters)
How can regulation help to resolve social dilemmas?
It's a safeguard to protect our common good. It ensures more equal sharing of resources.
• How does the duplex mind relate to explicit and implicit attitudes?
It's based on the notion that a person can have different, competing attitudes in the conscious as opposed to automatic parts of the mind. Implicit attitudes are automatic and no conscious evaluative responses (under the radar) for example prejudice. Explicit attitudes are controlled and conscious evaluated responses.
What is an IAT, how does it work, and what does it measure?
It's the implicit association test, and it measures automatic and uncontrolled response. It can be also become stigma, an attribution that is perceived by others as broadly negative.
Groupthink
Janis's term for the tendency of members of a decision-making group to be more focused on reaching a consensus than on critically examing the issues at hand
Baby Facedness
Large eyes relative to size of face, small nose, small chine; Elicit positive feelings (1: Humans are genetically programmed to respond gently to infantile features) (2: Positive association with babies and helplessness) (3: Physical appearance actually predicts behavior)
Historical Conflict
Learn about competition between groups historically. We usually learn about wars that happened rather than people getting along
Minimal Group Paradigm Experiments Results
Majority are interested more in maximizing relative gain of ingroup MEMBERS > absolute gain of overall ingroup. Participants don't know: 1. who ingroup members are 2. who outgroup members are Participants know: 1. the choices are never for themselves 2. the basis for establishing 2 groups is trivial. They exhibit tendency to favour minimal group at cost of ingroup. The ingroup earns fewer points in this context. If the focus were on absolute gain, the ingroup would earn more points. When focus is on beating other group, overall ingroup earns less points. That ingroup favouritism emerges in this context is testimony to how easily we slip into thinking in terms of us vs. them.
Strategies for Reducing Social Loafing
Make individuals feel their contribution is important and visible. Provide consequences for success and failure. Make task challenging and important to all. Make the group small and cohesive.
To avoid psychological entrapment
Make sure to establish BATNA at start Be willing to walk away rather than give into anything less than original BATNA
According to lecture, how do males and females differ in their reactions to stress?
Males more likely to exhibit the fight-or-flight response Females more likely to exhibit "tend-and-befriend" response Hormones: Cortisol and adrenaline vs. oxytocin Women live longer than men
Evaluating economic perspective
Many analysis cite the integration of blacks, hispanics, and native Americans, and whites in the military. To engaged cooperative, interdependent action to accomplish shared goals, group or category to which a person belongs recedes in importance, and what he or she can contribute to the joint effort becomes more prominent. Intergration effort on college campuses may be less successful than it has been in the military.
Evaluating the Economic Perspective - The Battlefield
Many analysts cite integration of blacks, whites, natives and hispanics in military. Different ethnic and religious groups are equivalent of phase 3 of Robbers Cave Experiment. They must engage in interdependent action to accomplish superordinate goals.
According to Myers, what are many social conflicts are a contest between? What are examples of this?
Many social conflicts are a contest between individual and collective rights. -One person's right to own handguns conflict with a neighborhood's right to safe streets. -One person's right to smoke conflicts with others' rights to a smoke-free environment. -One industrialists's right to do unregulated business conflicts with a community's right to clean air.
According to lecture, how do males and females differ in verbal, math and visual-spatial abilities?
Math and Visual-Spatial Skills Males tend to outperform females in visual-spatial skills and mental rotation tasks Starting in adolescence, males tend to have higher scores on math tests than do females The differences become more pronounced during adolescence
Unfamiliarity
Maybe people are just anxious and don't know how to decide. - No, increasing familiarity increases the use of MD strategy.
"Be soft on the people, tough on the problems." What conflict resolution approach does this statement represent?
Mediation
Define mediation. Why can a third-party mediator be helpful?
Mediation - An attempt by a neutral third party to resolve a conflict by facilitating communication and offering suggestions. A third-party mediator may offer suggestions that enable conflicting parties to make concessions and still save face.
What change in the conflicting parties' orientation do mediators try to achieve?
Mediators also help resolve conflicts by facilitating constructive communication. Their first task is to help the parties rethink the conflict and gain information about the others' interests. Typically, people on both sides have a competitive win-lose orientation: They are successful if their opponent is unhappy with the result, and unsuccessful if their opponent is pleased. The mediator aims to replace this win-lose orientation with a cooperative win-win orientation, by prodding both sides to set aside their conflicting demands and instead to think about each other's underlying needs, interests, and goals.
Member of Stigmatized group
Members of stereotyped or stigmatized groups are also typically aware of the stereotypes that others hold about them, and this awareness also can have negative effects on them. Members of stigmatized groups cannot tell whether many of their experiences have the same origins as those of everyone else or whether they are the result of prejudice.
What is parental investment theory and what are some of the gender differences that are found in romantic relationships because of it?
Men have the same rewards as women with offspring, but costs are different, men five minutes and women nine months, split resources, increased vulnurabilty. Men will want multiple partners, while women usually search for the right one. Women hold back on having sex, so they can make sure he won't leave her.
Intergroup hostility can develop in the absence of competition. - Robbers Cave Experiment
Mere fact that another group existed made each set of boys take their group membership more seriously. Both groups became territorial and Eagles settled on their name once they learned there was another group in park. When they learned of each other's existence, they wanted to challenge them.
Accentuation of Ingroup Similarity and Outgroup Difference
Merely dividing a continuous distribution into two groups leads people to see less variability within each group and more variability between the two. In early experiment, participants were shown a series of lines, with adjacent lines in the series varying from one another in length by a constant amount. When the series was split in half to create two groups, the participants tended to underestimate the differences between adjacent lines within each group and to overestimate the difference between the adjacent lines that formed the intergroup border. In more social tests of this idea, participants are divided into two "minimal" groups. They then fill out an attitude questionnaire twice—once to record their own attitudes and once to record how they think another ingroup or outgroup member might respond. Participants consistently assume that their beliefs are more similar to those of another ingroup member than to those of an outgroup member—even when group membership is arbitrary. What is remarkable, and potentially troubling, is that people make such assumptions even when the groups are formed arbitrarily or when they are formed on the basis of a dimension (for example, skin color) that may have no bearing on the particular attitude or behavior under consideration.
Should recommended actions be described in a specific or non- specific manner?
Messages with more specific description are more persuasive
Reciprocity
Might they have expected reciprocity? Or problems when all boys return to the same school? - Unlikely, because of anonymity. But never completely ruled out.
Why Groups Form
Minimal Groups Paradigm; Psychological Needs; Social Roles
The Minimal Group Paradigm
Minimal group paradigm-> an experimental paradigm in which researchers create groups based on arbitrary and seemingly meaningless criteria and then examine how the members of these "minimal groups" are inclined to behave toward one another -First part of experiment-> divided into two groups. You know which group you are in, but you never learn who else is in your group or who is in the other group -second part-> a majority of participants are interested more in maximizing the relative gain for members of their ingroup than in maximizing the absolute gain for their ingroup. Participants exhibit a tendency to favor their minimal ingroup. Moreover, they are willing to do so at a cost to the ingroup, which earns fewer points than it would if the focus were on absolute gain rather than "beating" the other group
Social identity theory
Minimum groups "us" vs. "them" Self-esteem derived from group membership Ingroup favoritism & outgroup derogation
Define and give examples of mirror-image perceptions.
Mirror-image perceptions - Reciprocal views of each other often held by parties in conflict; for example, each may view itself as moral and peace-loving and the other as evil and aggressive. -Both sides of the Arab-Israeli conflict insisted that "we" are motivated by our need to protect our security and our territory, whereas "they" want to obliterate us and gobble up our land. -At Northern Ireland's University of Ulster, Catholic and Protestant students viewed videos of a Protestant attack at a Catholic funeral and a Catholic attack at a Protestant funeral. Most students attributed the other side's attack to "bloodthirsty" motives but its own side's attack to retaliation or self-defense.
Why is it difficult to detect lies?
Mismatch between the behavioral cues that signal deception and the ones used to detect deception; perceivers tune into the wrong channels
Should persuaders advocate positions that are slightly, moderately, or largely discrepant from the audience's current attitudes?
Moderate!! Slightly- too close to the original (people might say "well it's so close to 3% already... (if you wanted 5%) Large- If it's too big people won't comply (15% seems way too high..)
Stereotypes and the Conservation of Mental Reserves Circadian Rhythms Study
Morning people were tested at night and were likelier to invoke stereotype and conclude person guilty cheating on exam was athlete. Night people were tested in morning and concluded that person guilty of drug dealing was black. People are likelier to use mindless stereotypes when they lack mental energy.
night vs morning people
Morning people" were more likely to invoke a common stereotype and conclude, for example, that a person charged with cheating on an exam was guilty if he was an athlete—but only when they were tested at night. "Night people" were more likely to conclude that a person charged with dealing drugs was guilty if he was black—but only when they were tested in the morning. Thus, people are most likely to fall back on mindless stereotypes when they lack mental energy.
Intrinsic motivation
Motivation that comes from within, i.e., because we want to do it
Extrinsic motivation
Motivation that is the result of external influences, e.g., getting paid
Sturdy three-legged Stool. Leg 1
Motivational and economic perspectives have shown how readily people will reward their own and penalize others.
Actor-Observer Effect: Desire to Maintain a Positive Self-Image
Motivational factors can also contribute to the actor-observer effect. We are highly motivated to see ourselves in positive ways. We also use different explanations to describe our own and others behaviour. Motivational factors can also lead us to blame others for their own misfortunes again as a way of protecting ourselves from potentially experiencing such an outcome. In fact, we tend to assume good things happen to good people and bad things happen to bad people, a phenomenon known as *belief in a just world*.
Evolving Motives
Motives change; eager to make money then to minimize their losses and finally to save face and avoid defeat.
How does evolving motives contribute to conflict?
Motives often change. Where the Iraq war started as a reaction to supposed weapons of mass destruction the conflict escalated and now there's more concern of avoiding humiliation of admitting the government was wrong.
Robbers Cave Experiment
Muzafer Sherif divided 10 year-old boys into two groups to observe how the groups would relate to each other. (A) during an early phase of the study when the two groups competed for prizes, they reacted hostilely toward each other. (B) in a later phase, the groups had to work together to accomplish goals that neither could accomplish alone, such as pulling a truck to get it started. (C) working on these superordinate goals led the boys to set aside their differences and become friends.
• Who wins in the age-old nature vs. nurture debate?
Nature explanations say that people are born a certain way. Their genes, hormones, brain structure dictate how they will choose to act. In contrast, the nurture (culture) explanations focus on what people learn from their parents, society and from their own experiences. The most common resolution tends to favor nature as more important. The book views it as they have shaped each other.
How do conflicting parties react to proposals and concessions when suggested by a neutral third party vs. when suggested by the opposing party?
Neutral third parties may also suggest mutually agreeable proposals that would be dismissed-"reactively devalued"-if offered by either side.
Is social psychology just common sense?
No because it is a lot of different concepts on one particular idea.
Minimal groups
No knowledge of who is in which group No history with the other group No interaction with the other group No personal gain from ones actions Actions are not a criterion of group membership
Derogating Out-groups to Bolster Self-Esteem Doctor Study - Lisa Sinclair and Ziva Kunda
Non-blacks were praised or criticized by black or white doc and THEN performed lexical decision task in which some words were associated with medical profession and some with black stereotypes.
Construal Processes and Biased Assessments
Not all category members are well captured by the stereotype. Invoking the stereotype may save time and effort, but it can lead to mistaken impressions and unfair judgements about individuals. Biased information processing can help explain why even stereotypes completely lacking in validity nevertheless develop and endure. If we suspect that a particular group of people might differ from the mainstream in some way, it is shockingly easy to construe pertinent information in such a way that our suspicion is confirmed, solidified, and elaborated. -How does this happen? 1) accentuation of ingroup similarity and outgroup differences 2) the outgroup homogeneity effect 3) distinctiveness and illusory correlations 4) expectations and biased information processing
Target Characteristics of Universal Dimensions of Social Cognition
Not all traits are created equal; Whether a trait is considered good or bad affects our impressions (trait negativity bias)
Why is it useful to know that the resistance-creating effect of refutational treatments generalizes to new arguments?
Not only will you be better able to defend your position on a belief, but this resistance extends to other beliefs!
Change of Meaning Hypothesis
Once we've formed an impression, we start to interpret inconsistent information in light of that impression (the meaning of a trait can be malleable)
Factors Influencing Attributions: (1.) View of personality as changeable
One explanation is that in collectivistic cultures personality is seen as more changeable than in individualistic cultures.
Actor-Observer Effect: Access to Internal Thoughts and Feelings
One explanation to why the actor-observer effect occurs is that observers can only see other peoples behaviour as they don't have access to others internal thoughts and feelings. When we consider our own behaviour as an actor, we have access to our won thoughts and feelings. Additionally, we may not know how others behave in other situations but we know how we do. In line with this view, we are less likely to make the actor-observer error with our close friends than with strangers, presumably because we have greater access to our friends internal thoughts and feelings.
Why do we make errors when we think about other people?
One factor that influences how people make attributions for a persons behaviour is the presence of an ulterior motive. Other explanations include salience, lack of cognitive capacity, belief about others abilities, and self-knowledge.
Reduce stereotypes, prejudice and discrimination
One factor that is both cause and consequence of characteristics developments is the increased day-to-day interaction between members of different groups. When people interact frequently, it becomes easier to see one another more as individuals and less as representatives of particular groups. Some types of contact are more helpful than simple contact between cross sections of different groups.
The Power of Facial Expressions
One of the most common and effective ways that people communicate nonverbally is through facial expressions. People in different cultures tend to use the same facial expressions to convey a limited number of major, or basic, emotions: happiness, sadness, fear, anger surprise, and disgust. The expressions of emotions are universal since people in diverse cultures agree on emotions showed in a picture. Tribe members were able to identify the emotions that were portrayed on the photographs, providing further evidence for the universality of emotional expression and recognition. The finding hat emotions are recognized across cultures suggests and evolutionary basis for this consistency, and, if this is correct, it would be logical for "important emotions" to be understood more rapidly than less important ones, which is exact;y that the research shows.
Friendly, informal settings
One-to-one basis ◦ Group interactions can often result in self- imposed segregation Reduces intergroup anxiety
Confirmatory Hypothesis Testing
Only seek information that confirms our belief
Discuss how accurately opposing sides in a conflict estimate their differences and give an example.
Opposing sides in a conflict tend to exaggerate their differences. On issues such as immigration and affirmative action, proponents aren't as liberal and opponents aren't as conservative as their adversaries suppose. Opposing sides also tend to have a "bias blind spot." They see their own understandings not as biased by their liking or disliking for others; but those who disagree with them seem unfair and biased.
Realistic Group Conflict Theory
Part of the economic perspective. A theory that group conflict, prejudice, and discrimination are likely to arise over competition between groups for limited resources. Increase during economic difficulty. Mostly comes from the groups that stand to lose the most. ex: working class during the civil rights movement had more anti-black sentiments -pronounced ethnocentrism develops (ex: an opponent whose antics are annoying seems more likable once that person becomes a teammate) -loyalty to the ingroup intensifies
Accentuation of Ingroup Similarity and Outgroup Difference Study Minimal Groups Study
Participants are divided into 2 minimal groups and fill out attitude questionnaire twice: 1. to record their own attitudes 2. to record how they think ingroup or outgroup member might respond Participants assume their beliefs are more similar to those of ingroup member than those of outgroup member, even when group membership is arbitrary.
Minimal Group Paradigm Experiment Phase 2
Participants are taken individually to cubicles and asked to assign points redeemable for money to successive pairs of participants. They don't know identity of those to whom they're awarding point, only coding number and group membership. Participants are asked to assign points to number 4 of over-estimators and number 2 of under-estimators. Some opinions provide equal outcomes for both GROUPS but slightly more for OUTGROUP. Some choices offer to maximize what INGROUP MEMBER can receive but result in more points for OUTGROUP. Some maximize relative in-group advantage > outgroup but do NOT provide absolute reward for ingroup members.
Implicit Association Test: old and young
Participants asked to press one key for both positive words and either photos or names of people in one group, and another key for both negative words and people in another group. People prejudiced against old people should be faster to press the appropriate key when the same key is used for old faces and negative words and slower when the same key is used for old faces and positive words. Nonconscious prejudice toward old people would be captured by the difference between the average time takes to respond to young faces, negative words. Result: both young and older individuals show pronounced prejudice in favor of the young over the old, and about two-thirds of white respondents show strong or moderate prejudice for white over black. About half of all black responses on the IAT are predictive of behavior that is more significant than pressing computer keys.
Outgroup Homogeneity Effect Study Results - Princeton and Rutgers Students
Participants assumed more similarity among outgroup members than ingroup members. Princeton students who thought they witnessed Rutgers student's behaviour generalized it to other Rutgers students. Princeton students who thought they witnessed Princeton student's behaviour were less likely to generalize. The opposite was true for Rutgers students.
Modern Racism Study - Help the Black Man
Participants could help black or white in need of medical assistance. If they thought they were alone, they aided black 94% and white 81%. If they thought there were others and could hide inaction behind non-racial ground, they aided white 75% over black 38%. Prejudice or discrimination is masked and person remains unaware he's racist.
Implicit Association Test study - Black and White Faces - Phelps et Al.
Participants in brain-imaging machine were shown black or white faces pics. Participants' IAT scores were highly correlated with heightened amygdala neural activity in response to black faces. Scores on Modern Racism Scale did not correlate with this neural activity, suggesting IAT assessed an important component of attitudes that participants were unable or unwilling to articulate.
IAT performance predictable
Participants in brain-imaging machine were shown pictures of black and white faces. Participants earlier IAT responses were significantly correlated with heightened neutral activity in the amygdala(brain region related to emotional learning and evaluation) in response to the black faces and their scores were not correlated with difference in neural activity, suggesting that IAT assessed an important component of their attitudes that participants were unable or unwilling to articulate. Participants first interacted with a white experimenter, took the IAT, and then interacted with a black experimenter. Result: their IAT scores, were predictive of the discrepancy between how much they spoke to the white versus the black experimenter, how often they smiled at the white versus the black experimenter, and the number of speech errors and hesitations they exhibited when interacting with the white versus the black experimenter.
Implicit Association Test Study 2 - Interacting with Black Experimenter (McConnell and Leibold)
Participants interacted with black experimenter and their IAT scores predicted discrepancy between amount they spoke to, smiled or had speech errors and hesitations when speaking to white vs. black experimenter.
Prejudiced and nonprejudiced individuals, Devine
Participants list characteristics of black Americans. The two groups differed substantially in output f consciously controlled procedure: prejudiced participants listed many more pejorative characteristics stereotypically associated with blacks then did nonprejudiced participants. Even though both prejudced and non prejudiced individuals have stored their minds the same nagetive stereotypes of black Americans, prejudiced individuals believe them and are willing to voice these beliefs, whereas nonprejudiced individuals reject them. Nevertheless, even among nonprejudiced individuals, there is often a rift between the beliefs and sentiments elicited by automatic processes and those elicited by more controlled processes. This was shown in an interesting way by a study that examined the areas of the brain that were activated when white participants were shown pictures of black faces and white faces. The key manipulation in this study was the amount of time participants were exposed to the black and white faces. When shown the faces for only 30 milliseconds, the participants exhibited greater activation in the amygdala (which registers emotional response) after exposure to black faces than after exposure to white faces. Furthermore, the amount of amygdala activation was related to participants' implicit prejudice as measured by the IAT. But when the faces were shown for 525 milliseconds, there was no difference in amygdala activation when exposed to black versus white faces, suggesting that these participants—all of whom had expressed a strong desire to avoid prejudice—initially had an automatic response to black versus white faces that they then tried to control. Indeed, at 525 milliseconds, black faces caused more activity in the prefrontal cortex—an area of the brain associated with cognitive and behavioral regulation—than did white faces.
Expectations and Information Processing Study 2 - Basketball
Participants listened to play-by-play account of college basket game and were told to focus on Mark Flick. 50% saw Mark photo as African American. 50% as white. Participants' assessments reflected stereotypes about black and white players. Black Mark = more athletic, better player White Mark = greater hustle, more savvy game
Minimal Group Paradigm Experiment Phase 1
Participants perform trivial task and are divided into 2 groups based on responses: Task 1: Participants estimate # of dots projected briefly onscreen. They're told they're over or under-estimators randomly. What it means to be a part of a group is boiled down to bare minimum.
Describe the original study on conformity conducted by Solomon Asch. What percent of participants conformed on at least one critical trial? What percent of answers on critical trials were conforming answers?
Participants shown a standard line and asked to determine which of the three comparison lines was the same length Actual participant asked to give answer after five confederates had given incorrect answer on "critical trials" Results:75% conformed to a wrong answer at least once in the presence of others. 37%
Self-esteem and racial prejudice
Participants were either praised or criticized by a white or black doctor. Reaction times to "black" words and "medical words" after criticism or praise by white doctors were virtually the same. But this was not true for reaction times after criticism or praise by black doctors.
racial prejudice and self esteem
Participants were either praised or criticized by a white or black doctor. Reaction times to "black" words and "medical" words after criticism or praise by white doctors were virtually the same. But this was not true for reaction times after criticism or praise by black doctors.
Doctor and praise, Lisa Sinclair and Ziva Kunda, 1999
Participants were either praised or criticized by a white or black doctor. Sinclair and Kunda predicted that the participants would be motivated to cling to the praise they received but to challenge the criticism—and that they would use the race of their evaluator to help them do so. In particular, they thought that individuals who received praise from a black doctor would tend to think of him more as a doctor (a prestigious occupation) than as a black man, whereas those who were criticized by a black doctor would tend to think of him more as a black man than as a doctor. To test their predictions, Sinclair and Kunda had their participants perform a lexical decision task right after receiving their feedback from the doctor. That is, the researchers flashed a series of words and nonwords on a computer screen and asked the participants to indicate, as fast as they could, whether each string of letters was a word. Some of the words were associated with the medical profession (for example, "hospital," "prescription") and some were associated with common stereotypes of blacks (for example, "rap," " jazz"). Result: Participants were particularly fast at recognizing words associated with the black stereotype when they had been criticized by the black doctor, and particularly slow to recognize those words when praised by the black doctor (see Figure 12.3A). When he criticized them, in other words, participants saw him as a black man, but not when he praised them
Experiment with the situation theory: helping for medical assistance
Participants were in position to aid a white or black individual in need of medical assistance. Participants who think they are the only one who could help came to aid the black victim more often. But when they thought that other people were present and their inaction could be justified on nonracial grounds, they helped the black victim much less often than the white victim. Prejudice or discrimination is masked and the individual remains comfortably unaware of being racist.
Gun game
Participants were instructed to "shoot" if the target individual was holding a gun and to press a different response key if he was not. Participants were instructed to respond as quickly as possible, which guaranteed there would be occasional mistakes. The pattern of mistakes is shown in Figure 12.8, and it is clear that participants treated African-American and white targets differently. They made both types of mistakes—shooting an unarmed target and not shooting an armed target—equally often when the target individual was white. But for African-American targets, they were much more likely to make the mistake of shooting if the target was unarmed than failing to shoot if the target was armed.
Accentuation of Ingroup Similarity and Outgroup Difference Study
Participants were shown lines in which adjacent lines varied from one another in length. When series was split in half to create 2 groups, participants underestimated differences between adjacent lines within each group and overestimated difference between adjacent lines that formed border.
Scientific Method: Distinctiveness and Illusory Correlation (Hamilton and Gifford)
Participants were shown slides in which they described positive or negative action initiated by member from group A or B. 2/3 actions were attributed to A by SLIDES/EXPERIMENTER, making it the majority group. Most actions attributed to each group by BY SLIDES/EXPERIMENTER were positive (69% positive for A and 69% positive for B).
Describe the experiment by Festinger & Carlsmith (1959). Which participants were more likely to report a favorable attitude about a dull and boring task in which they had participated: Those who were paid $1 or those who were paid $20? Discuss the psychology of insufficient justification to explain these findings.
Participants who spent an hour performing a dull, monotonous task were paid either $1 or $20 to tell the next subject that the task was interesting. Results: Those paid just 1$ would be most likely to adjust their attitudes to their actions. Having insufficient justification for their actions, they would experience more discomfort (dissonance) and thus be more motivated to believe in what they had done. Those paid 20$ had sufficient justification for what they had done and hence should have experienced less dissonance.
Modern Racism Study - College Study (Hodson, Dovidio and Gaertner)
Participants with high or low scores on Attitudes toward Blacks scales in explicit prejudice toward blacks rated black and whites equally when they excelled or were bad in ALL dimensions. When applicants excelled in only SOME dimensions, prejudiced rated blacks less favourably than unprejudiced bc discriminatory responses could be hidden - claiming dimensions on which blacks fell short were more important.
Derogating Out-groups to Bolster Self-Esteem Jewish Study Results
Participants with threatened self-esteem rated Jewish girl in interview more negatively and this increased their self-esteem. None of this happened with the non-threatened.
Template for Agreement
Parties - include all who are involved Intent - the big picture Roles - actions each side has agreed to perform Time - deadlines for action Consequences - penalties for inaction Exit strategy - process for terminating the agreement
Automatic reactions to members of stigmatized groups
Payne (2001) had participants decide as quickly as possible whether an object depicted in a photo was a handgun or a hand tool (for example, pliers). Each photograph was immediately preceded by a picture of either an African-American or a white face. Payne found that the (white) participants were faster to identify a weapon as a weapon when it was preceded by an African-American face and faster to identify a hand tool as a hand tool when it was preceded by a white face. This is the facilitation caused by a stereotypical association between handguns and African-Americans that exerts its effect even among nonprejudiced individuals. Judd and his colleagues found that African-American faces facilitated the recognition of both positive and negative stereotypical items (handguns and sports equipment), but not the nonstereotypical items (insects and fruits), regardless of whether they were positive or negative.
According to Myers, how can peace be achieved?
Peace is the outcome of creatively managed conflict where the parties reconcile their perceived differences and reach genuine accord. This can be done through increased contact with the perceived out-group, cooperation, communication such as bargaining, mediation and attribution, and conciliation.
Expectations and Biased Information Processing
People are likelier to generalize behaviours and traits they suspect may be typical of group member's. Stereotypes can be self-reinforcing and those at variance with stereotype may be ignored.
What are the assumptions of the constructivist tradition?
People differ in their communication skills and styles Reality is filtered through each person's own way of seeing the world People understand their experiences in terms of similarities and differences Over time, individuals develop a system of personal constructs for perceiving their environments Ex: Some families are always in a loud household, but some are not used to that
Stereotype threat
People fearing that they confirm stereotypes.
Describe the study by Fritz Stack presented in lecture. According to social perception theory, why were participants more likely to report a happier mood when they held a pencil between their teeth than were participants who held a pencil between their lips?
People find cartoons funnier when holding pencil between teeth than when holding pencil with their lips.
Kelley's Covariation Theory
People make attributions using the covariation principle
Lack of Cognitive Capacity
People may initially focus on the internal factors underlying a persons behaviour, and only later adjust the weight of these facts by taking the situation into account. Moreover, distraction adds to peoples tendency to give insufficient weight to the situation, and therefore overestimate the impact of disposition. According to the *two-stage model of attribution*, we first automatically interpret another persons behaviour as caused by their own disposition, and only later adjust our interpretation by taking into account situational factors that may have contributed to the behaviour. In line with this models predictions, people who are bust or distracted when they must make an attribution are particularly likely to rely on dispositional factors and fail to take into account situational factors that may have contributed to the behaviour.
Detecting Deception
People often conceal or even lie about their true thoughts, and they do so on an average one to two times per day. Although we are often lied to, we are unable to detect exactly when someone is lying: we are only accurate in distinguishing lies from the truth about 54% of the time. One reason why we have trouble detecting lies is that we make the fundamental attribution error, and assume that peoples statements reflect their honest and trustworthy dispositions. Some people are simply better able to appear truthful than others, perhaps because some people are better able to control their facial expressions.
Describe and give examples of how shared external threats affect cohesiveness.
People often feel close to those with whom they share an external threat. Groups may become friendlier to one another, more cooperative, less argumentative, and less competitive. -Having a common enemy unified the groups of competing boys in Sherif's camping experiments. Just being reminded of an out group heightens people's responsiveness to their own group. -When facing a well-defined external threat during wartime, we-feeling soars.
Two-Step Model of Attribution Process
People often form a quick impression based on a brief sample of behavior, more likely to commit the FAE when one is cognitively busy or distracted
Describe the criterion most people use to define justice.
People perceive justice as equity - the distribution of rewards in proportion to individuals' contributions.
Subtyping
People remain unmoved by apparent disconfirmations of their stereotypes because anyone who acts at variance with the stereotype is simply walled off into a category of "exceptions." Explaining away exceptions to a given stereotype by creating a subcategory of the stereotyped group that can be expected to differ from the group as a whole. Sexists who believe that women are passive and dependent and should stay home to raise children are likely to subcategorize assertive, independent women who choose not to have children as "militant" or "strident" feminists, thereby leaving their stereotype of women largely intact. This echoes the more general truth that evidence that supports a stereotype is treated differently from evidence that refutes it. Supportive evidence tends to be accepted at face value, whereas contradictory evidence is often critically analyzed and discounted. One way we do this is by attributing behavior consistent with a stereotype to the dispositions of the people involved and attributing inconsistent behavior to external causes. An anti-Semite who believes that Jews are "cheap" is likely to dismiss a Jew's acts of philanthropy as due to a desire for social acceptance, but to attribute any pursuit of self-interest as a reflection of some "true" Jewish character. Thus, episodes consistent with a stereotype reinforce its perceived validity; those that are inconsistent with it are deemed insignificant. Another way that we differentially process supportive and contradictory information is by varying how abstractly we encode the actions of people from different groups. The more concrete the description, the less it says about the individual involved. If people's evaluations are guided by their preexisting stereotype, we might expect them to describe actions that are consistent with stereotype in broad terms. Stereotypes may insulate themselves from disconfirmation by influencing the level at which relevant actions are encoded.
action - attitude
People stand for what they believe in AND start believing in what they stand for (mutual effect)
Jone's Correspondent Inference Theory
People try to infer from an action whether the behavior corresponds to personality traits, people make inferences on the basis of three factors (is the behavior chosen, expect, and what are the affects)
Spotlight Effect
People's conviction that other people are attending to them-to their appearance and behavior-more than they actually are.
Stereotype Threat
People's fear of confirming the stereotypes that others have regarding a group of which they are a member.
attitudes toward racism
People's predictions regarding emotional distress and behavior in response to racism differ drastically from actual actions -When we try to suppress specific object or thought we increase the saliency of this object.
What Creates Conflict
Perceived Injustice Misperception Mirror-Image Perceptions Simplistic Thinking Shifting Perceptions
Outgroup homogeneity effect
Perception of out-group members as being more similar to one another than in-group members "They all look alike, we're diverse" (Cognitive explanation of where prejudice comes from)
Stereotype threat
Performance of members of stigmatized groups can be impaired by stereotype threat—the fear that they will confirm the stereotypes that others have regarding some salient group of which they are a member. mathematics. In one condition, Participants were told there was no gender difference on a particular test they were about to take. Other participants were told that there was a gender difference in favor of men. Men and women performed equivalently when told there was no gender difference on the test, but women performed worse than men when they were told that there was a gender difference. The manipulation of stereotype threat for it to have an effect. Michael Inzlicht and Talia Ben-Zeev (2000) had university women take a math test either in the company of two other women or in the company of two men. Those who took the test with other women got 70 percent of the problems right on average. Those who took the test with men got 55 percent right on average.
How do cognitive dissonance and the norm of reciprocity relate to persuasion?
Persuasion is someone's ability to change someone else's mind. Cognitive dissonance is where you get so frustrated with inconsistencies produce psychological discomfort, leading for people to be easier to persuade. With reciprocity, if someone does something for you, it will make you feel obligated to pay them back in return, thus making it easier to be persuaded.
Ambivalent sexism
Peter Glick and Susan Fiske, 2001. Interviewed 15000 men and women in 19 nations and found that benevolent sexism often coexist with hostile sexism. They argued that such partly positive stereotypes aren't necessarily benign. When we idealize only certain members of outgroups, those who meet our positive expectations, we are likely to disparage those who don't fulfill that positive stereotype. Those who hold ambivalent attitudes tend to act positively toward members of outgroups only if they fultill their idealized image of what such people should be like. Those who deviate tend to be treated with hostility.
What is a contemporary example of the Tragedy of the Commons?
Population growth. Couples are encouraged to have children, and some have large families without considering how many resources each person they bring into the world will consume over their lifetimes. (For more examples, see http://tinyurl.com/moderncommons)
Contact
Predicts decreased prejudice, Friendship Those who form friendships with outgroup members develop more positive attitudes toward the outgroup Equal-status contact Contact on an equal basis : To reduce prejudice, interracial contact should be between persons equal in status
Self-imposed segregation
Prejudice Pluralistic ignorance Intergroup anxiety
Modern Racism
Prejudice directed at other racial groups that exists alongside rejection of explicitly racist beliefs.
Command and Control Policy
Prescriptive legal regulation that uses police power to punish behaviors
Mere Presence of Others
Presence of other people produces physiological arousal which increases the likelihood of your dominant response.
How does priming work and what does it measure?
Priming is planting or activating an idea in someone's mind. William James said that "wakening of associations". Faster to prime nurse with doctor related word, than when preceded by unrelated word like butter. Priming can activate concepts, which then hang around in the mind and can influence subsequent thinking. It is also a good technique in triggering automatic processes. It also spreads activation.
Outgroup Homogeneity Effect Study - Princeton and Rutgers Students - Quattrone and Jones.
Princeton and Rutgers students were shown video of other students making decisions: 1. listening to rock or classical music 2. waiting alone or with someone during experiment break 50% were told students were from Princeton 50% were told they were from Rutgers After tape watching, participants estimated % of students at same university who would make same choices as those they had seen on tape.
Philip Zimbardo
Prison experiment (6 days - the guards became evil and by the end everyone thought it was a real prison), fried grasshopper experiment
Priming Definition. How can priming be used as an implicit measure of prejudice?
Procedure used to increase accessibility of a concept or schema. By comparing a person's average reaction time to positive and negative words PRECEDED by faces of target category members. In controls trials, positive or negative words are preceded by faces of non-category members.
Automatic processes, Devine
Processes that occur outside of our awareness, without conscious control
Controlled processes
Processes that occur with conscious direction and deliberate thought
Dissociation model
Processing information about others is a two-step process: 1. stereotypes are automatically triggered 2. we control whether or not we accept the stereotype *If we are distracted/overwhelmed, then we don't control -> stereotyping (Cognitive explanation of where prejudice comes from)
What are the factors that facilitate attraction in friendships?
Propinquity (more we interact more likely to become friends....also enemies) the neighbor study, similarly (birds of a feather flock together), social rewards, and physical attractiveness (social able, popular, likeable, and happy).
Scapegoat Theory
Proposes that people blame their problems and misfortunes on out groups, which contributes to negative attitudes towards out groups
Norms
Proscriptive—tell you behaviors you should not behave in; prohibited from engaging in Prescriptive—tells you behavior that you should engage in; prescribes •norm of equity—outputs are proportional to your inputs •norm of equality—regardless of input, everyone gets the same output •power norm—greatest resources go to those who already have power •norm of social responsibility—idea that you are your brother's or sister's keeper; looking out for those who do not have the resources that you do
Fundamental Attribution Error Characteristics of Both Games
Protect own interest, untrustworthy opponent. Explaining behavior situationally and opponent's behavior dispositionally.
Social Factors (aggression)
Provocation; provocation, rumination, self-control, aggression
Matrices
Ps decide how many points to award to the ingroup and outgroup member by selecting one pair of numbers. - A strategy designed to differentiate between rational/utilitarian principles (max benefit for all) and ingroup gain (ingroup gains more than other group) - Responses should be made as important and real as possible (concrete rewards, not just evaluation)
One major source of anxiety...
Public situations—being watched! So, other things being equal, people are more likely to feel anxious/distracted if they are being watched than if they are not Studies finding more stereotyping in (anticipated) public settings: Lambert, Cronen, Chasteen, and Lickel (1996) Lambert, Payne, Jacoby et al. (2003) Why would it be the case that public settings would tend to exacerbate stereotyping effects? Three keys to understanding this: public settings tend to make people anxious/distracted. When people are anxious/distracted, they tend to rely on "well-learned responses" as a basis for judgment (i.e. rely on well—learned associations The irony of self-regulation! Self-regulation can fail precisely under the conditions in which you WANT it to succeed To the extent that (public) self regulation makes you nervous, this can lead to self-defeating behavior, making you even more likely to "slip up"
Explain how the pursuit of self-interest can produce a social dilemma
Putting yourself first in comparison to others needing the same, shared, resource can create a social dilemma.
misperception and war
Ralph K. White;three common misperceptions feed war: underestimating strength of enemy, rationalizing one;s own motives and behaviors, dehumanizing the enemy; empathy is the best way to prevent war
Decision-making conflict
Rational vs. emotional decision styles Ambiguity and information overload Understand the needs of the other party
Robber's Cave experiment
Rattlers vs. Eagles; competed; then superordinate goals were created; reduced prejudice and discrimination; deals with equal status contact and superordinate goals
Stereotype defined by Walter Lippmann
Real environment is too big, complex and fleeting for direct acquaintance. We're not equipped to deal with so much subtlety, variety, permutations and combinations. We have to reconstruct it on simpler model before we can manage it.
Robbers Cave
Realistic Conflict Theory, and accounts for group conflict, negative prejudices, and stereotypes as being the result of competition between groups for desired resources
Competition
Realistic group conflict {Robber's Cave} Win-lose competition Negative images of the other groups Strong ingroup cohesiveness Pride
Why are cultural truisms vulnerable to attack?
Receiver has no practice defending the belief Believers have never been motivated to practice defending
Mirror Image Perceptions
Reciprocal views of each other often held by parties in conflict. - Each may view itself as moral and peace-loving and the other as evil and aggressive. - Evil-leader, good people illusion. - Opposing sides in a conflict tends to exaggerate their differences.
Mirror-Image Perceptions
Reciprocal views of each other often held by parties in conflict; for example, each may view itself as moral and peace-loving and the other as evil and aggressive.
Dealing with Difficult People
Recognize that you cannot change people's interests nor their behaviors.You can only change your own behavior or reaction. Often a change in your behavior will prompt a change in their behavior. This is a valuable skill for reframing.
Five Strategies for Resolving Impasse'
Reduce tension, separate parties, listen actively and de-escalate through small concessions Improve communication through role reversal, imaging to change perceptions Change the issues in number and size, reduce the number of parties involved, restrict precedents, depersonalize
Insufficient justification effect
Reduction of dissonance by internally justifying one's behavior when external justification is insufficient
Distinctiveness
Refers to whether the person generally reacts in a similar way across different situations.
Internal Attribution
Refers to whether the person's behaviour is caused by personal factors, such as traits, ability, effort, or personality.
How to break conflict spirals?
Refocus negotiations by not reciprocating Respond with mix of contentious and noncontentious Label behavior as unproductive
According to Burger's research findings, what are the two traits of people who resisted and refused to obey authority?
Refusers: Empathy and need for control
Which are more effective, one-sided or two-sided messages? Why
Refutational more persuasive than one-sided messages. · Nonrefutational less persuasive than one-sided messages. · REFUTATIONAL IS THE BEST. Hierarchy of sidedness-- · Two-sided refutational MOST Effective · One-sided Second most · Two-sided nonrefutational LEAST effective
Cotton and lynchings, Carl Hoyland and Robert Sears, 1940
Relationship between price of cotton and number of lynchings of blacks in the South between 1882 and 1930. It was assumed that times were good and frustrations low when the price was high, and times were tough and frustrations high when the price was low. Result: Strong negative correlation between price of cotton in given year and number of lynchings that took place that year. For the relationship between cotton price and lynchings of white is also negative correlation. The relationship is stronger for blacks than for whites also consistent with idea that frustration leads to aggression that tends to be displaced toward relatively powerless groups.
What have we learned from research on refusal skills training?
Research Findings: 1. It is possible to teach refusal skills. - Most research comes from role-play programs. What are you going to do if someone encourages you to drink alcohol if you're a teenager? 2. Most important elements of successful programs: a) Modeling- means demonstrating the behavior. "This is how you do something effectively! Watch!" b) Rehearsal- getting people to practice. How do you decline an invitation to something you don't want to do? How do you refuse to be persuaded to do something you don't feel comfortable doing? -Dr. Donovan: Most refusal skills training is targeted on practices to train young people to refuse unhealthy behavior. 3. Refusal-skill programs have little impact on subsequent substance use.
Robbers Cave Experiment - Competition and Intergroup Conflict Assessment - BEANS
Researchers scattered beans around field and asked 2 groups to pick as many as they could in 1 minute for 5 dollars. Image of each groups' bean collection was projected and everyone estimated bean # Same bean quantity was always shown, but this was impossible to discern bc of brief duration of projection and large quantity of beans shown. Boys estimates revealed clear ingroup favouritism, each group estimated boys in group collected more beans.
How do we form impressions of people based on non-verbal behaviour?
Researchers who study social perception have examined how people detect deception. Both verbal and nonverbal behaviour communicate important information to others. Two distinct issues in nonverbal behaviour: the effects of communicating in nonverbal ways, and how nonverbal behaviour can aid in detecting deceptive communications.
Arbitration
Resolution of a conflict by a neutral third party who studies both sides and imposes a settlement
Define arbitration.
Resolution of a conflict by a neutral third party who studies both sides and imposes a settlement.
Final Offer Arbitration Communication
Resolution of a conflict by a neutral third party who studies both sides and imposes a settlement. Motivates each party to make a reasonable proposal.
Illusory Correlations
Result when people overestimate the association between personal characteristics that are only slightly or not at all related -People overgeneralize based on a few rare instances when the characteristics do co-occur.
Competition and Intergroup Conflict
Robbers cave experiment -as the groups became more locked in competitive struggle: -athletic or more aggressive boys tended to gain popularity -bean experiment: each boy believed their group had collected the most beans even though the picture for both groups had the same amount of beans
Reducing Intergroup Conflict through Superordinate Goals
Robbers cave experiment -superordinate goals -had to work together to accomplish the goal
What are consequences of evading conflict vs. communicating concerns openly, based on research such as Knudson & colleagues (1980)?
Roger Knudson and his colleagues invited married couples to come to the University of Illinois psychology laboratory and relive, through role playing, one of their past conflicts. Before, during, and after their conversation (which often generated as much emotion as the actual previous conflict), the couples were observed closely and questioned. Couples who evaded the issue-by failing to make their positions clear or failing to acknowledge their spouse's position-left with the illusion that they were more in harmony and agreement than they really were. Often, they came to believe they now agreed more when actually they agreed less. In contrast, those who engaged the issue-by making their positions clear and by taking one another's views into account-achieved more actual agreement and gained more accurate information about one another's perceptions. That helps explain why couples who communicate their concerns directly and openly are usually happily married.
The three elements
Roughly speaking, these three statement refer to the belief, attitudinal, and behavioral components, respectively, of negative intergroup relations. They don't often go together, and one person can discriminate without prejudice, it's also possible to prejudiced and yet not discriminate.
Use of Cognitive Heuristics in Attributional Biases
Rules of thumb or mental shortcuts enable us to think in ways that are quick and easy; they can sometimes lead to error
two-factor theory
Schachter's theory that to experience emotion one must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the arousal
Covariation Theory: (2.) Distinctiveness
Second, we consider *distinctiveness* of the persons attitude or behaviour, meaning whether the persons attitude or behaviour in the situation is highly unusual or whether the person generally acts in a similar way across different situations.
External Attribution
Seeing the behaviour as caused by something external to the person who performs the behaviour i.e., it related to something about the situation.
Bargaining Communication
Seeking an agreement to a conflict through through direct negotiation between parties.
• Is high self esteem a good thing or a bad thing?
Self esteem is how favorably someone evaluates himself or herself. Yes, because if low, it lies at the root of many social and psychological problems. But a recent survey says that all it does is "make you a legend in your own mind". High self-esteem correlates with good grades. Or good grades correlate with high self-esteem. High self-esteem can actually make people obnoxious and turn people off. High self esteem people are more willing to do the right thing, and are more willing to approach people and make new friendships, do what is best, and resist influence better. Makes people more approachable to sex, drugs and alcohol. High self esteem also feels good. Not the cure for anything though. Bad cause they become narcissist and play games and are unfaithful to their partners.
What are several social psychological bases of the misperceptions which fuel conflict?
Self-Serving Bias: we accept credit for the good deeds we do, and diminish credit for the good deeds members of the out group do. Tendency to self-justify: "It was /about time/ that we showed some self-interest for a change!" Fundamental attribution error: Seeing the out group's reluctance as proof that they're stubborn or don't want to reach a compromise.
• What predicts academic success better than IQ?
Self-discipline, goals, self regulation...marsh mellow study...1 marsh mellow kids scored 210 points lower on SAT. self control
What is self-monitoring?
Self-monitoring: how people regulate and control their self-presentation in social situation. How they act to control their image.
superordinate goals
Setting up a common goal toward which people in conflict have to work together
Conformity: talk more about the Sherif's Autokinetic Effect (studied the informational social influence
Sherif had individuals come in and were first alone in a dark room. They had to estimate how far a light fifteen minutes away had moved, even though it had not moved. In fact, the autokinetic effect is what caused the illusion of motion. folks guessed around 2-3 inches, but some did guess as much as 10 inches. what this study found was that when the participants were alone, the estimates were different from their counterparts. however, in another trial, when there were multiple people in the room, allowing more conversation about the final answer, the answers became more and more similar. this supported the informational social influence theory, in that the image that was presented was ambiguous, so you start to think that those around you may have more information
Describe Sherif's Robber's Cave study.
Sherif introduced 11 and 12 year old boys to several three week summer camping experiences. In one study, he divided 22 unacquainted Oklahoma City boys into two groups, took them to a Boy Scout camp in separate buses, and settled them in bunkhouses about a half-mile apart at Oklahoma's Robber's Cave State Park. For most of the first week, each group was unaware of the other's existence. By cooperating in various activities-preparing meals, camping out, fixing up a swimming hole, building a rope bridge-each group soon became close-knit. They gave themselves names: "Rattlers" and "Eagles." Typifying the good feeling, a sign appeared in one cabin: "Home Sweet Home." Group identity thus established, the stage was set for the conflict. Near the first week's end, the Rattlers discovered the Eagles on "our" baseball field. When the camp staff proposed a tournament of competitive activities between the two groups (baseball games, tugs-of-war, cabin inspections, treasure hunts, and so forth), both groups responded enthusiastically. This was win-lose competition. The result? The camp degenerated into open warfare. In Sherif's study, the conflict began with each side calling the other names during the competitive activities. Soon it escalated to dining hall garbage wars, flag burnings, cabin ransackings, even fistfights. Asked to describe the other group, the boys said they were sneaky, smart alecks, stinkers, but referring to their own group as brave, tough, and friendly. The win-lose competition had produced intense conflict, negative images of the out-group, and strong ingroup cohesiveness and pride.
• What were the method and findings of Sherif's vision experiment, Asch's line experiment and Milgram's obedience experiment?
Sherif's experiment was the light movement (auto kinetic effect), in groups of three or alone. Answers varied at first but later conformed to establish norms. Asch's line test was measuring three lines compared to the one original one. Seven people, six confederates. Said answers out load, all six would choose the wrong answer, 37% went along with the majority even though they were clearly wrong. Milgrims obedience test was where there was a learner and a teacher. The learner was confederate (actor), and pretended to get shocked for each incorrect answer. Both were aware of being filmed. Punishment for wrong answer up to 15-450 volts. Brought into another room and shown the generator. Show them 45 volts and they didn't like it. Found people would do it if ordered by a legit professional. Over 65% would go the full amount just because they were told to.
How does self-monitoring influence whether instrumental or symbolic appeals are more effective?
Since high self-monitors act according to demands of social setting, are attuned to image that they project, and adapt self-presentation to situation and context - S.F. would be more appealing and effective to high self-monitors. Therefore I.F. would be more effective for low-self monitors who rely more on attitudes, beliefs, and values to guide behaviors and show greater consistency in behaviors.
How can groupthink be prevented?
Small group sizes, no status, no cohesion, make public response, prior commitment, and unanimity.
What creates conflict?
Social Dilemmas Competition Perceived Injustice Misperception
Group performance
Social facilitation - presence of others helps or hinders individual performance --depending on whether the task is dominant or nondominant (Zajonc)
Basking in reflected glory， Robert Cialdini
Social identity theory also receives support from the everyday observation that people go to great lengths to announce their affiliation with a certain group when that group is doing well. The tendency to take pride in the accomplishments of those with whom we are in some way associated (even if it is only weakly), as when fans identify with a winning team. He investigated the tendency by recording how often students wore their school sweatshirts and T-shirts to class after their football team had just won or lost a game. As expected, students wore the school colors significantly more often following victory than after defeat. Cialdini and his colleagues also tabulated students' use of first-person ("We won") and third-person ("They lost") pronouns following victory and defeat. The inclusive "we" was used significantly more often after a win, and the more restrictive "they" was used more often after a loss. As social identity theory predicts, the triumphs and failings of the groups with which we affiliate impact our self esteem—even when the group is simply a favorite sports team.
What concerns some individualists about constraints on individual liberties, and how to communitarians reply?
Some individualists warn that such constraints on individual liberties may plunge us down a slippery slope leading to the loss of more important liberties. Communitarians reply that if we don't balance concern for individual rights with concern for our collective well-being, we risk worse civic disorder, which in turn will fuel cries for an autocratic crackdown.
Automatic and controlled processing
Some of the cognitive processes that give rise to stereotyping and prejudice are rather deliberate, elaborate and mindful. Other cognitive processes give rise to stereotyping and prejudice rapidly and automatically, without much conscious attention and elaboration. This is likely to be the case for distinctiveness based illusory correlations and the outgroup homogeneity effect. Our reactions to different groups of people are to surprising degree guided by quick and automatic mental processes that we can override, but not eliminate. Devine sought to demonstrate that what separates prejudiced and nonprejudiced people is not their knowledge of derogatory stereotypes, but whether or not they resist the stereotypes. Stereotypes can be triggered even if we don't want them to be.
Active Observer Effect
Someone does something wrong to you (getting cut off on the highway) that's not okay for them to do but it is okay when you do it to someone else.
Cognitive Dissonance
Someone trying to lose weight, eats a doughnut is cognitively dissonant behavior, a self-handicapping behavior
Under what conditions does contact improve racial attitudes?
Sometimes desegregation improves racial attitudes, and somtimes-especially when their is anxiety or perceived threat, is doesn't.
Automatic and Controlled Processing Study - Patricia Devine - What did she seek to demonstrate? Which two groups did she select?
Sought to demonstrate resistance of derogatory stereotypes separates prejudiced and non-prejudiced people. 1. She selected groups of high and low prejudice based on Modern Racism Scale scores 2. She presented each with words serially and briefly to not be consciously identified. 3. She showed neutral words and words stereotypically associated with blacks. 4. She presented participants with written descriptions of person who acted in ambiguous hostile manner, refusing to pay rent until apartment was repaired.
Benevolent racism
Stereotype does not necessarily be negative or harmful. Many "isms" are ambivalent, containing both negative and positive features.
Stereotype threat result
Stereotype threat leads to increased arousal, which can directly interfere with performance on complex tasks and serve as a source of distraction that interferes with concentration on the task at hand. Furthermore, knowing that one's group is "suspect" in the eyes of others tends to elicit negative thinking, which can both directly undermine performance and lead individuals to "play it safe" by being more obsessed with avoiding failure than reaching for success.
Stereotypes and the Conservation of Mental Reserves Indonesia Study Results
Stereotype use eased student's burden in first task and facilitated performance in second Students provided with stereotype remembered relevant trait information better and performed better on surprise MC test on Indonesia.
The Cognitive Perspective
Stereotypes are a natural result of the way our brains are wired to store and process information
biased information processing
Stereotypes guide attention, perception, and memory -i.e. When perpetrated by a white man, the incident tended to be coded as more benign (as "playing around," for example). When perpetrated by a black man, it was coded as a more serious action (as "aggressive behavior," for example).
Sliding Reinforcers
Stimulus that brings rewards when used in small doses but punishments when used in large doses
Groups: define group polarization; talk more about the Stoner study of 1961
Stoner set out to see if groups are too rash or too cautious. he had participants read about an electrical engineer, with a family. they worked at a large company with modest pay but high job security. they were offered a new job with high pay, but uncertain future. which options should the engineer choose. participants were slated to decide alone and then in groups. when alone, the participants chose the cautious decision. though those in the group chose the risky decision. this suggests risky shift + group polarization
Describe Burger's (2006) replication of the Milgram study. What were the results and how did they compare to the results reported by Milgram?
Stopped experiment at 150 volts 70% went to 150 volts a slight reduction from milgrims. In milgrims most who were obedient to this point continued to the end. Men 66% Women 72% Gender differences not statistically significant
GRIT (Graduated & Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension reduction)
Strategy designed to de-escalate international tensions by demonstrating intent
The GRIT Strategy
Strategy for breaking conflict spiral by publicly challenging the opponent to match de-escalations
Evaluating the Motivational perspective
Strengths: -Builds on two important elements: 1) people readily draw us/them distinction 2) people tend to react to frustration with aggression and often direct their aggression at the "safest" and least powerful targets The three legged stool: -conflict between groups analogy -rests on the need to glorify the ingroup, form societies in which there are unequal distributions of resources, and stereotype members of different groups
Competitors
Strive to come out better than others, be the one that "wins"
Stanley Milgram
Student of Asch, shock experiments with the "teacher" and "learner", tested obedience (which varied based on circumstances in each experiment)
Describe the experiment by Leippe & Eisenstadt (1998) presented in lecture. Under what conditions were attitudes toward funding for scholarships and African Americans most likely to become more favorable?
Students asked to write a counter-attitudinal essay in favor of doubling scholarship funding for African American students and decreasing by half funding for white scholarships. High choice, high publicity
How do facial expressions and body movement influence our attitudes? Describe the study by Wells and Petty (1980) presented in lecture and in your textbook. What group of participants were more likely to agree with the editorial to which they had listened?
Students testing headsets told to nod up and down or sideways when listening to editorial. Those who nodded up and down more likely to agree with editorial. How do facial expressions and body movement influence our attitudes? positive thoughts are compatible with vertical nodding and incompatible with horizontal motion.
Stereotypes and the Conservation of Mental Reserves Indonesia Study
Students were asked to perform 2 tasks simultaneously: 1. Form impression of hypothetical person described by trait terms on computer screen (rebellious, dangerous, aggressive). 2. Monitor a tape-recorded lecture on economy and geography in Indonesia. For 50% trait terms presentation was accompanied by applicable stereotype. For 50% trait terms shown alone. Students were given brief quiz on lecture contents (What is Indonesia's official region?).
Basking in Reflected Glory Study
Students wore school colours more following victory than defeat.
Research Focus on Gender: Gender Difference in Attribution
Studies suggest that people make different attributions for men and women. In one meta-analysis, researchers found that observers tend to attribute men's success to ability and women's success to effort. This pattern of attribution reverses in the case of failure, with observers seeing mens poor performance as caused by bad luck or low effort and womens poor performance as caused by lack of ability. Such gender differences also match parents beliefs as parents tend to attribute their sons math performance to talent and their daughters math achievement to effort. The finding reflect the tendency for women to believe that they have to put in more effort to succeed and the tendency for me to be confident in their abilities.
Group & Superordinate Identities
Subgroup Identity - parent or child Superordinate Identity - family Being mindful of these identities enables social cohesion.
Bogus pipeline
Subjects who believed their true attitudes could be detected by a "lie detector" reported more negative attitudes toward African Americans
bogus pipeline
Subjects who believed their true attitudes could be detected by a "lie detector" reported more negative attitudes toward African Americans
Explaining Away Exceptions
Subtyping -subtyping-> explaining away exceptions to a given stereotype by creating a subcategory of the stereotyped group that can be expected to differ from the group as a whole -evidence that supports a stereotype is treated differently from evidence that refutes it. Supportive evidence tends to be accepted at face value, whereas contradictory evidence is often critically analyzed and discounted -Attribute behavior consistent with a stereotype to the dispositions of the people involved and attributing inconsistencies to external causes Concrete versus Abstract Construal -The more concrete the description, the less it says about the individual involved (lifting an individual- concrete; helping an individual who has fallen-> abstract) -If people's evaluations are guided by their preexisting stereotypes, we might expect them to describe actions that are consistent with a stereotype in abstract terms (thus reinforcing the stereotype), but to describe actions that are inconsistent with it in concrete terms (thus avoiding a potential challenge to the stereotype)
Crafting Agreements That Last
Summarize what is expected of each party Create a strategy for monitoring commitment to the agreement Have parties make a working draft Single text - everyone works on one document Multiple text - each party writes its own document, then they are integrated (extends negotiations) Neutral text - a third party drafts document Make provisions for reviewing the agreement in the future
How do we combine attributions into a single coherent picture?
Summation models adds all of the traits together; Averaging model averages the traits together
What is a superordinate goal? What was the effect of superordinate goals in Sherif's Robber's Cave study?
Superordinate goal - A shared goal that necessitates cooperative effort; a goal that overrides people's differences from one another. -To promote harmony among his warring campers, Sherif introduced such goals. He created a problem with the camp water supply, necessitating both groups' cooperation to restore the water. Given an opportunity to rent a movie, one expensive enough to require the joint resources of the two groups, they again cooperated. After working together to achieve such superordinate goals, the boys ate together and enjoyed themselves around a campfire. Friendships sprouted across group lines. Hostilities plummeted.
Describe how superordinate goals reduce conflict.
Superordinate goal: A shared goal that necessitates cooperative effort; a goal that overrides people's differences from one another. -Can make enemies into friends. -Unity is fed by striving for and reaching superordiante goals.
Concrete vs. Abstract Construal Study - Italy Palio
Supports of 2 con-traders, San Giorgio and San Giacomo, were shown sketches depicting member of their contrada or rival contrada portraying desirable or undesirable actions. Actions consistent with participant's pre-existing orientation were described at more abstract level than consistent ones. Abstract encoding events that fit one's stereotypes lend them greater import. Concretely encoding events that violate one's preferences or expectations renders them less consequential.
Creating common ingroup identity
Symbolic representation. Superordinate goals ◦ Common goals that require cooperative effort. Common enemies/threats
How do message factors such as specificity tie into models like the Theory of Planned Behavior?
TPB states that if you perceive more control and efficacy, then you are more likely to perform the action. (self- efficacy).
Tajfel's Motivation
Tajfel built on the work of Sherif, he wanted to identify the minimum conditions for groups to display ingroup bias, ethnocentrism. Negative interdependence may be sufficient for groups to display outgroup derogation and ingroup enhancement, but is it necessary? - hostility can happen even without competition - intergroup distinctions can give meaning to social situations What are the critical factors that produce hostility?
The Minimal group Paradigm
Tajfel, Flament, Billig, & Bundy (1971) -Participants allocated to two groups on an arbitrary basis -Identities of people in other groups unknown -Allocate money to people (via code numbers) in the two groups -Could not allocate money to self Results -A persistent tendency to allocate more points to their own group than the out-group -Even though Meaningless categories -No interaction between groups -No past relationship -majority of participants are interested more in maximizing the relative gain for members of their ingroup than in maximizing the absolute gain for their ingroup-> willing to do so at the cost of their ingroup, if they had not focused on allocating more points to their ingroup they would have had a larger absolute gain
Social Identity Theory
Tajfels theory, divides identity in to different groups e.g being a parent, being British, being a friend, being a wife...These different groups to which we belong are our ingroups our sense of belonging to these groups is important. Self esteem is boosted by having a positive view of these groups, and exaggerating the differences between our ingroups and those groups to which we do not belong, aka outgroups more negatively. See minimal group for experimental evidence. Social mobility can improve the status of a group by adjusting the power differences between groups or working for social change either through social creativity (Black is beautiful campaign) or social competition (Ghandis passive resistance). Criticised for it's lab based research because this trivialises social differences such as gender and race.
Automatic and Controlled Processing Study - Patricia Devine Results
Target was seen as more hostile by participants primed with black stereotype words. Result was equal for prejudiced and non-prejudiced people. Because stimulus words unconsciously activated stereotypes, non-prejudiced participants were caught off guard and unable to suppress automatic processing of stereotypes.
Implicit Association Test (Anthony Greenwald and Mazarin Banaji)
Technique for revealing non-conscious prejudices toward particular groups.
Outgroup Homogeneity Effect
Tendency for people to assume that within-group similarity is much stronger for outgroups than ingroups. In other words, thinking: "They all think and look alike. We don't"
Basking in Reflected Glory (Robert Cialdini)
Tendency for people to take pride in accomplishment of those with whom they're in some way associated, as when fans identify with a winning team.
Availability Heuristic
Tendency to estimate the likelihood that an event will occur by how available it is in memory; if the instances of something come easily to mind, we perceive it to be commonplace; rare, vivid events are remembered better
What is the bystander effect?
Tendency to less likely to help with the increase of people around. Breaking down on the side of a road, you could get someone within ten minutes, compared to a highway and you could go hours without help.
Actor-Observer Bias
Tendency to see other people's behavior as dispositionally caused, while focusing on the role of the situation in one's own behavior
Confirmation Bias
Tendency to seek, interpret and create information that verifies existing beliefs
Self-Serving Attributional Bias
Tendency to take credit for our success (internal attribution) but blame the situation for our failures (external attribution)
Describe the research on a possible genetic influence on attitude acquisition. Specifically, how do strong vs. weak attitudes compare between identical and fraternal twins?
Tesser (1993) maintains that strongly held attitudes may have a genetic basis
Describe the Tragedy of the Commons and give examples of it.
The "commons" is any shared or limited resource, including air, water, energy sources, and food supplies. They tragedy occurs when individuals consume more than their share, with the cost of their doing so dispersed among all, causing the ultimate collapse-the tragedy-of the commons. -Environmental pollution is the sum of many minor pollutions, each of which benefits the individual polluters much more than they could benefit themselves (and the environment) if they stopped polluting. We litter public places-dorm lounges, parks, zoos-while keeping our personal spaces clean. -We deplete our natural resources because the immediate personal benefits of, for instance, taking a long, hot shower outweigh the seemingly inconsequential costs. -Adding more cows to graze in a field where grass is limited
tragedy of the commons
The "commons" is any shared resource, including air, water, energy sources, and food supplies. The tragedy occurs when individuals consume more than their share, with the cost of their doing so dispersed among all, causing the ultimate collapse—the tragedy—of the commons
Describe the Tragedy of the Commons
The 'commons' is any shared resource including air, water, energy resources and food supplies. The Tragedy occurs when individuals consume more than their share, with the cost of their doing so dispersed among all, causing the ultimate collapse...the tragedy...of the commons.
thought suppression
The attempt to avoid thinking about something we would prefer to forget
What is the tragedy of the commons?
The depletion or destruction of resources, such as how memory works and what people notice. Like when fishing and pollution.
Groupthink
The deterioration of group judgment produced by striving for consensus
Equity
The distribution of rewards in proportion to individuals' contributions. my outcomes/my inputs = your outcomes/your inputs 5/10 ≠ 10/10
Evaluating the Economic Perspective
The economic perspective "works" in the sense that it fits nicely with what we see around us as the successes and failures of intergroup relations. -where have efforts toward integration been most successful? >the military -different ethnic and religious groups in the military are in the equivalent of phase 3 of the robbers cave experiment-> must cooperate together to reach goal of defending country -colleges are not good-> they encourage competition against one another-> many students segregate themselves almost exclusively with other members of their own race or ethnicity
Economic perspective of prejudice
The economic view of prejudice and discrimination makes the same claim about groups. Groups develop prejudices about one another and discriminate against one another when they compete for material resources. Religious groups, racial groups, and cultural groups all have the capacity, like Cain, to protect and promote their own interests by lashing out at those they perceive to be threatening them.
Culture
The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes and traditions shared by a group of people translated from one generation to the next
Briefly describe Darwin's theory of evolution. What role does natural selection play in the evolution of a species?
The evolutionary process by which nature selects traits that best enable organisms to survive and pass on those traits to offspring
Natural selection
The evolutionary process by which nature selects traits that best enable organisms to survive and pass on those traits to offspring
stereotype threat
The fear that we will confirm the stereotypes that others have regarding some salient group of which we are a member.
Covariation Theory: (1.) Consensus
The first component of the *covariation theory* is the *consensus* of the attitude or behaviour (whether other people generally agree or disagree with a given person). If many people agree with that person or behave in a similar manner, we are more likely to make a *situational attribution* than we would if few people agreed with the target individual.
Consensus
The first component of the covariation theory and it refers to whether other people generally agree or disagree with a given person.
Competition and intergroup conflict
The first phase of the experiment, the two groups Eagles and Rattlers, independently engaged in activities designed to foster group unity and contented themselves with common camp activities. Neither group even knew of the other's existence. Consistent hierarchical structure also emerged within each group, with "effective initiators"—the boys who made suggestions that the others accepted. In the second phase, the Eagles and Rattlers were brought together for a tournament and each member of the winning team would receive a medal and a highly coveted pocket knife while members of the losing team would get nothing. The tournament was designed to encourage each group to see the other as an impediment to the fulfillment of its own goals. Result: From the very first competitive encounter, and with steadily increasing frequency throughout the tournament, the two groups hurled insults at each other. They also differ markedly from referring to members of their own group, primarily self-glorifying and congratulatory comments about fellow group members. members. The expression of intergroup hostility, moreover, was not limited to words. issued. Internal dynamics of the two groups changed as they became locked into this competitive struggle. Boys who were either athletically gifted or who advocated a more aggressive stance toward the outgroup tended to gain in popularity.
Beliefs About Others Abilities and Motivations
The majority of research indicated that research participants tend to believe that people are unable to persuasively engage in counter-attitudinal behaviour (i.e., act in ways that go against their attitudes). There is a corresponding assumption that a persons behaviour must reflect their true attitudes. One factor that contributes to the fundamental attribution error is our erroneous belief that people simply can't effectively argue for a position they do not support. Although our default position is to assume that people only engage in behaviour that is consistent with their true attitude, if we are given another plausible motive for a persons behaviour, we are able to take situational factors into account. Providing an plausible motive for a persons behaviour influences the attributions we make because the presence of a motive leads us to more effortful and critical thinking. We are more likely to make a dispositional attribution when we learn that a person received a positive incentive for engaging in dishonest behaviour than when we learn the person received a negative incentive. People see a positive incentive as motivation only certain people (e.g., those who already have certain dispositions). A negative incentive is seen as a strong situational pressure that would influence most peoples behaviour.
Describe techniques mediators might use to structure the encounter to help each party understand and feel understood by the other.
The mediator might ask the conflicting parties to restrict their arguments to statements of fact, including statements of how they feel and how they respond when the other acts in a given way. Also, the mediator may ask people to reverse roles and argue the other's position or to imagine and explain what the other person is experiencing. The mediator may have them restate one another's positions before replying with their own: "It annoys you when I play my music and you're trying to study."
how does group cohesiveness affect conformity rates?
The more cohesive a group, the more power it gains over its members Fear of rejection Need for approval
Why did we evolve large brains?
The more social species were the more successful they were. The more social a primate the bigger it's brain. There seems to be an important relationship between sociality and brain size. At some point, humans became extremely social Brain structures developed that enabled us to deal with sociality Perhaps brain size was a selected advantage to give people a leg up in frequently increasing social environments. In other words, our brains got big to help us be social. The inner theater (consciousness) emerged from our large brains. Consciousness and the inner theater can help with all kinds of problems that come with group/social living.
Psychological Needs
The need for inclusion as a reason that groups form. Evolution says that we can accomplish more by working together rather than alone.
When the desire to appear unprejudiced is strong, what can occur?
The opposite result: bias directed at the ingroup
In class we did an exercise. The scenario involved a conflict between two people: "Joan had nearly reached the end of her rope. School was cancelled and she has been irritated by her children all day. Her environmental action group (which had to meet at her house since she couldn't get a sitter) had a long and frustrating afternoon meeting...." Class members responded to the scenario and critiqued the overall exercise itself. This included comments on D2L. What was the original exercise about? What did class members have to say concerning the exercise itself?
The original exercise was discussing the best way for Joan to respond to an argument-provoking comment made by her husband once he arrived home from work to find that the house wasn't clean. Class members felt that each of the responses could be read very differently depending on how sarcastic Joan might be. It was also pointed out that which responses were deemed "best" would very much be determined by the cultural and historical context in which the argument took place.
Paired Distinctiveness
The pairing of two distinctive events that stand out even more because they co-occur. Ex:a non-Japanese observer who witnessed Kobayashi's triumph in the Nathan's hot dog eating contest might wonder whether the Japanese are particularly fond of hot dogs.
What is the realistic group conflict theory of prejudice?
The realistic conflict theory is competition over scarce resources lead to inter group hostility and conflict. Like the job example, the establish groups blame minorities for "taking the food out of their children mouths", aka taking jobs away from whites. Blacks with cotton production, lynching increased during slow cotton seasons, Jews in Germany. And gays for Katrina. (scapegoating)
What is diffusion of responsibility?
The reduction in feeling responsible that occurs when others are present.
What is the overjustification effect? Describe the experiment by Lepper et al. (1974). Under which conditions did participants show less interest in an activity they had previously enjoyed? What theory is credited with explaining the overjustification effect?
The result of bribing people to do what they already like doing: they may then see their actions as externally controlled rather than intrinsically appealing.
Conclusions of the Minmal Group studies
The results stand - There are other studies that show that many other sorts of bias appear in similar manners. Ingroup members are evaluated as more honest, kind, intelligent and fair than outgroup members. - Why does mere categorisation lead us to be biased in favour of ingroup members?
Shifting Perceptions
The same process that creates the enemies image can reverse it when the enemy becomes an ally. Waxes and wanes as conflict does.
Shifting Perceptions
The same processes that create the enemy's image can reverse it when the enemy becomes an ally
Describe the part of shifting perceptions in fueling conflict.
The same processes that create the enemy's image can reverse it when the enemy becomes an ally.
How does the intellectual bloomers study demonstrate the self-fulfilling prophecy?
The self-fulfilling prophecy is a prediction that ensures, by the behavior it generates, that will be the outcome. Went to 18 classrooms and randomly gave 20% of them labels as "intellectual bloomers" to their teachers. It showed that all became just that, this might be because the teachers showed them more attentions. Teachers believed that this would happen, and then their behaviors changed (wouldn't have before). Then the expected event takes place.
Evaluating the motivational perspective
The strength of the motivational perspective is that it builds on two undeniably important elements of the human condition. First, people readily draw the us/them distinction, and the various groups to which they belong are intimately connected to the motive to enhance self-esteem. Second, people tend to react to frustration with aggression, and often direct their aggression at the "safest" and least powerful targets.
Replication
The studies were repeated using division based on dot-estimation or even with explicitly random allocation into groups. Results remain. - no reason to say the groups were not minimal
Significance
The study excluded a range of factors that had previously been considered to play the essential role in intergroup discrimination (e.g. negative interdependence, conflict, personal animosity). Challenged the idea that individuals are "utility maximisers" - with the goal of getting as much as possible for themselves (economic model of human behaviour).
Evolutionary psychology
The study of the evolution of behavior using principles of natural selection
Foot-in-the-door phenomenon
The tendency for people who have first agreed to a smaller request to later agree to a larger request
outgroup homogeneity effect
The tendency to assume that within-group similarity is much stronger for out-groups than for ingroups. -We often treat an outgroup member as a representative of a group, with the person's unique characteristics often receding to the background.
Outgroup homogeneity effect
The tendency to assume that within-group similarity is much stronger for outgroups than for ingroups. Princeton and Rutgers students were showed a videotape of other students making a decision, such as whether to listen to rock or classical music or whether to wait alone or with other participants during a break in an experiment. Half of the Princeton and Rutgers students were told that the students shown on the tape were from Princeton; half were told they were from Rutgers. After watching the tape, the participants estimated the percentage of students at the same university who would make the same choices as those they had seen on the tape. The results indicated that the participants assumed more similarity among outgroup members than among ingroup members. Princeton students who thought they had witnessed the behavior of a Rutgers student were willing to generalize that behavior to other Rutgers students. In contrast, Princeton students who thought they had witnessed the behavior of a Princeton student were less willing to generalize. The opposite was true for Rutgers students. People see more variability of habit and opinion among members of the ingroup than they do among members of the outgroup. We typically have much more contact with fellow members of an ingroup than with members of an outgroup, giving us greater opportunity to encounter evidence of divergent opinions and discrepant habits among ingroup members.
Social Loafing
The tendency to exert less effort when working on a group task in which individual contributions cannot be monitored.
Belief Perseverance
The tendency to maintain beliefs even after they've been discredited
The chameleon effect
The tendency to mimic the mannerisms of others
Basking in reflected glory
The tendency to take pride in the accomplishments of those with whom we are in some way associated, as when fans identity with a winning team. (457) "We" won versus "They" lost close to other person, activity not central to our self-esteen, performance of other person is high, ex: non premed student think, "im so proud of my best friend for getting into a top medical school" -wearing a winning teams jersey and not wearing a losing teams jersey
Frustration-aggression theory
The theory that frustration leads to aggression. People are particularly likely to vilify outgroups under conditions that foster frustration and anger. If the source of frustration is the very group to which prejudice and discrimination are directed, frustration-aggression theory is both an economic and a motivational account. But sometimes the source of frustration is not the targeted group. In these cases, the motivation is not economic competition, and the two accounts diverge. By itself, the link between frustration and aggression cannot explain the origins of prejudice and discrimination because frustration leads to generalized aggression. Often we cannot lash out at the true source of our frustration without getting into further difficulty, so we displace our aggression onto safer target. Frustration-aggression theory predicts that hardship will generate malevolence directed at minority groups, who, by virtue of being outnumbered and in weaker position, constitute particularly safe and vulnerable targets. eg. Antisemitism. Jews have been welcomed and accepted into numerous societies that, when times go tough, suddenly targeted Jews as scapegoats and directed their anger at the Jewish community.
What is cognitive dissonance and what are some of the effects of it?
The theory that inconsistencies produce psychological discomfort, leading people to rationalize their behavior or change their attitudes. Example, pro-tuition increase essay. Causing people to get tension (dissonance) and motivates them to change one inconsistent cognitive. Can change attitude or behavior, easier to change attitude.
Correspondent Inference Theory
The theory that people infer whether a person's behaviour is caused by the person's internal disposition by looking at various factors related to the person's action. According to this theory, we are best able to make a dispositional attributions, and see peoples behaviour as caused by their traits, when the behaviour is freely chosen, is not a function of situational expectations, and has clear non-common effects.
Empathy
The vicarious experience of another's feelings ("putting oneself in another's shoes")
Social Identity Theory
Theory that a person's self-concept and self-esteem derive from: 1. personal identity and accomplishments 2. status quo and accomplishments of various groups to which they belong
Realistic Group Conflict Theory
Theory that discrimination, group conflict and prejudice are likely to arise over competition between groups for limited resources.
What types of errors do we make in thinking about other people?
There are two common errors that people make in attributing the causes of peoples behaviour: the *fundamental attribution error* and the *actor-observer effect*.
According to Brown (1987) what functions do formal and informal forms of "you" found in some languages serve?
There is a respectful and a familiar form. people use familiar form with intimates subordinates-with close friends and family members.
Prisoners Dilema
There is a tendency to try and cooperate but it ends up becoming competitive. This happens a lot quicker in group settings.
What are the 2 types of social influence?
There is informational (auto kinetic effect) and people assume the group is right. Private conformity. Then there is normative, and that is because people fear social rejection, public conformity. (Asch study)
Describe the experiment by Diener and Wallbom (1976) presented in your book. Compared to the participants in the self-aware condition, what percent of subjects in the control condition continued to work after the bell sounded?
They had students work on a anagram solving task. and told them to stop when a bell in the room sounded. they wanted to see how many of them cheated and continued after the bell rang. left alone 71% cheated by working past the bell. Among students made self aware by working in front of a mirror while hearing their own tape recorded voices only 7% cheated.
Ambivalent Sexism Study (Peter Glick and Susan Fiske)
They interviewed 15 000 men and women in 19 nations and found benevolent and hostile sexism often co-exist. They argue that partly positive stereotypes aren't necessarily benign. Ambivalent sexism or racist attitudes may be resistant to change. Favourable features of belief structures enable stereotype holder to deny prejudice.
When does working cooperatively have especially favorable effects, according to Gaertner, Dovidio & colleagues (1993, 2000) and according to Worchel and colleagues (1977, 1978, and 1980)?
They report that working cooperatively has especially favorable effects under conditions that lead people to define a new, inclusive group that dissolves their former subgroups. Old feelings of bias against another group diminish when members of the two groups sit alternately around a table (rather than on opposite sides), give their new group a single name, and then work together under conditions that foster a good mood. "Us" and "them" become "we." In experiments with University of Virginia students, Worchel and colleagues confirmed that successful cooperation between two groups boosts their attraction for each other. If previously conflicting groups fail in a cooperative effort, however, and if conditions allow them to attribute their failure to each other, the conflict may worsen. Sherif's groups were already feeling hostile to each other. Thus, failure to raise sufficient funds for the movie might have been attributed to one group's stinginess and selfishness. That would have exacerbated rather than alleviated their conflict. Unity is fed by striving for and reaching superordinate goals.
Benevolent Racism and Sexism. What are they and what do they contain? How do they inhibit progress toward equality? How do those who hold ambivalent attitudes tend to act toward members of outgroups?
They're ambivalent and contain negative and positive features. They inhibit progress toward equality by rewarding women and minorities for conforming to the status quo. Those who hold ambivalent attitudes tend to act positively toward outgroup members if they fulfill their idealized image of what they should be like.
Describe the prisoner's dilemma. How does punishing another's lack of cooperation work out? Explain why.
This dilemma derives from an anecdote concerning two suspects being questioned separately by the district attorney (DA). The DA knows they are jointly guilty but has only enough evidence to convict them of a lesser offense. So the DA creates an incentive for each one to confess privately: -If Prisoner A confesses and Prisoner B doesn't, the DA will grant immunity to A and will use A's confession to convict B of a maximum offense (and vice versa if B confesses and A doesn't). -If both confess, each will receive a moderate sentence. -If neither prisoner confesses, each will be convicted of a lesser crime and receive a light sentence. No matter what the prisoner decides, each is better off confessing than being convicted individually. If the other also confesses, the sentence is moderate rather than severe. If the other does not confess, one goes free. Punishing another's lack of cooperation might seem like a smart strategy, but in the laboratory it can have counterproductive effects. Punishment typically triggers retaliation, which means that those who punish tend to escalate conflict, worsening their outcomes, while nice guys finish first. What punishers see as a defensive reaction, recipients see as an aggressive escalation. When hitting back, they may hit harder while seeing themselves as merely returning tit for tat.
The Tragedy of The Commons
This occurs when individuals consume more than their share of any shared resource, including air, water, energy sources, and food supplies, with the cost of their doing so dispersed among all, causing the ultimate collapse. *When resources are not partitioned, people often take more than their fair share.
chameleon effect
This term refers to the phenomenon that people naturally and unconsciously mimic other peoples' expressions, postures, and voice tones, among other things. This makes it easier to relate to others.
• People who have brain damage in the area of the brain responsible for emotions and affect have difficulty with what processes?
Those people had no arousal in response to dramatic images.
Discuss the importance of friendship.
Those who form friendships with outgroup members develop more positive attitudes toward the outgroup. It's not just head knowledge of other people that matters; it's also emotional ties that form with intimate friendships and interracial roommate pairings that serve to reduce anxiety and increase empathy. Friendship is a key to successful contact: If you have a minority group friend, you become much more likely to express sympathy and support for the friend's group, and even somewhat more support for immigration by that group.
Friendship How to Achieve Peace
Those who form these with outgroup members develop more positive attitudes towards the outgroup.
Group
Three or more people who interact and are interdependent
How can changing the payoff help to resolve social dilemmas?
Through reward and punishment.
How can appleaing to altruistic norms help to resolve social dilemmas?
Through the use of the norms of social responsibility, reciprocity, equity and keeping one's commitments.
Correspondent Inference Theory; Factor 3: What are the *intended effects* or *consequences* of the persons behaviour?
To make an attribution, Jones and Davis believe that people are likely to look at the effects of a persons behaviour. If there is only one intended effect, then you have a pretty good idea of why the person is motivated to engage in the behaviour. If there are multiple good effects, it os more difficult to know what to attribute the behaviour to.
Big 6 influenced by
Tone of voice, gestures, body positions and movement, use of touch, eye gaze and direction
Describe the study presented in lecture by LaPierre conducted in 1934. What were the results reported by LaPierre and why did his findings pose a "crisis" in the study of attitudes and behaviors?
Traveled with young Asian couple across United States for three months Refused service only once 90% said they would refuse service
Describe the prisoners' dilemma
Two suspects are being questioned separetly by the DA. The DA knows they are jointly guilty but has only enough evidence to convict them of a lesser crime. He creates and incentive for each one to confess privately: If A confesses and B doesn't the DA will grant immunity to A, using his testimony to convict B of a maximum offense (or vice versa if B confesses and A doesn't) If both confess they each get a moderate sentence If neither confess each will be convicted of a lessor crime and get a light sentence. This is known as a 'social trap'.
attributional ambiguity
Uncertainty about whether one's failures are due to discrimination or to one's own inadequate efforts. -i.e. When black stu- dents thought the other person could not see them—and therefore didn't know their race—their self-esteem went down from the unflattering feedback and was boosted by the positive feedback. When they thought the other person could see them, in contrast, their self-esteem was not injured by the bad news, nor was it enhanced by the good news. Thus, this study indicates that members of stigmatized groups quite literally live in a less certain world, not knowing whether to attribute positive feedback to their own skill or to others' condescension and not knowing whether to attribute negative feedback to their own error or to others' prejudice.
According to the Realistic Group Conflict, when should prejudice and discrimination increase?
Under conditions of economic difficulty.
Equal status
Unequal-status contacts reinforce prejudicial attitudes and discrimination ◦ Masters & slaves ◦ Prison guards & prisoners Similar backgrounds, qualities, and characteristics
discrimination
Unfair treatment of members of a particular group based on their membership in that group, not on their character or abilities (behavior directed at members of a group)
Discrimination
Unfair treatment of members of a particular group based on their membership in that group.
Discrimination
Unfair treatment of members of a particular group based on their membership in that group. Treatment based not on their character or abilities but on their membership in group.
Norms
Unwritten rules and expectations that dictate behavior
Building a Relationship
Use skilled negotiators Follow up on agreement after it is implemented Establish face-to-face meetings as agreement is being implemented Recognize may need to renegotiate some parts of deal
Altruists
Value group benefit, even if it means personal sacrifices
Cooperators
Value working together to maximize joints benefits
Cues for Detecting Deception
Verbal cues can be useful for detecting deception. People who are lying make fewer references to the self (e.g., I, my, me), use more negative emotion words (e.g., hate, worthless, enemy), and use fewer "exclusive" words (e.g., but, except, without). This patterning suggests that people who are lying try to distance themselves from the lie (and hence make fewer self references), experience greater tension and guilt (and hence use greater negative emotion words), and focus their attention on creating a story (and therefore use more simplistic, and less exclusive, language). People who are lying also describe events in shorter more general ways than those who are telling the truth, who tend to use more intricate and elaborate descriptions. Nonverbal cues can also help us determine when someone is trying to deceive us. People who are genuinely smiling tend to be telling the truth, but those who are putting on a false smile may be lying. In sum, people who are lying differ from those who are telling the truth in both the verbal and nonverbal cues they provide, but these can be relatively sublet differences and they are not consistent (i.e., some people are better at lying than others).
Evaluation of cognitive perspective
We all tend to stereotype and that we all have the capacity to harbor troubling prejudices—prejudices we are often unaware we have.
Norms of Competition
We are competitive from our youth with things such as sports. We compete with each other for some prize/reward.
Why do some people make the fundamental attribution error?
We believe that when peoples behaviour is caused by the situation, they give obvious clues that reflect this external pressure. We all believe that engaging in behaviour that is in line with attitudes is easier. So, we are particularly likely to attribute strong performance to a persons true attitude. Although, the attributions we make about peoples behaviour can have negative consequences.
Final Thoughts of Attribution Errors
We can overcome our tendency to make dispositional attributions when we are strongly motivated (thanks to our personality or the situation we are in) and avoid making quick and easy judgements. In fact, people do understand that the situation impacts on behaviour, and most people even believe that other make more extreme dispositional attributions (i.e., other people consider the situation even less); people want to see themselves as better than others. We tend to make dispositional attributions because they are quick and easy, the personal behaviour is immediately apparent through the situational factors that influenced the behaviour may be more subset. So its easier to make dispositional attributions, but they are not necessarily accurate. We should therefore try to consider the role of the situation before jumping to dispositional conclusions.
Attributional Biases
We do not always make completely accurate attributions
Social Identity Theory
We have both personal and social identities. people are motivated to evaluate their individual selves positively, and consequently when they define themselves in terms of group member ship, they will be motivated to evaluate their own group positively. In other words, people seek a positive social identity. Groups are evaluated in comparison with other groups. Thus, we develop a positive social identity by seeing our own groups as distinct and better than others. (Tajfel did studies on this subject) (baseball vs. men's lacrosse team animosity, as soon as you become a member you hate the other just because it's part of your group and they aren't in it). Prejudice being a by-product of group membership.
How can disagreements about equity arise? What has been called a "golden" rule?
We may agree with the equity principle's definition of justice yet disagree on whether our relationship is equitable. If two people are colleagues, what will each consider a relevant input? The older person may favor basing pay on seniority, the other on current productivity. Given such a disagreement, whose definition is likely to prevail? Those with social power usually convince themselves and others that they deserve what they're getting. This has been called a "golden" rule: Whoever has the gold makes the rules.
Scripts
We often have scripts or present notions about certain types of situations
Self Knowledge
We see ourselves as behaving in different situations and with different people, but we typically see other people in relatively few situations. Because we have more information about our own behaviour than we do about others behaviour, we assume that our behaviour is more variable than do those who observe us. You may describe your own behaviour as highly influenced by situational factors, but your classmates, who see you only generally in the classroom setting, are likely to see your nervous reaction as a reflection of your own disposition. Because we have access to our own internal attitudes and beliefs, we can also give ourselves credit for having good intentions, even when we don't carry them out. In a study, it was found that participants saw their own intentions to perform a given behaviour as a stronger predictor of whether they actually had this trait compared to other peoples intentions.
Distorted Social Perception
We sometimes see what we want or expect to see in a situation, such as filling in the blanks in ambiguous situations; people use what they know about social situations to explain the causes of human behavior, possibly leading us astray
Communicating in Nonverbal Ways
We typically think of communication as involving verbal expressions. However, in many cases people communicate in nonverbal ways, including through body language, eye gaze, facial expressions, gestures, and even handshakes.
Protestant ethic:
Weber's concept of a pattern of traits associated with the rise of capitalism in the west, including hard work, temperance and moderation, reject of worldly comforts
Weiner's Attribution Theory: Individual and Group Levels
Weiner's theory can be applied to both individual and group levels. According to his theory, the likelihood of helping depends on the perceived *locus of causality* (i.e., whether the victim has caused the negative event) and *situational controllability* (i.e., whether the negative event could have been predicted and prevented). Across two studies it was found that attributing responsibility to the victims of natural disaster was associated with low rates of helping.
specificity
When Attitudes are Specific to the Behavior There is less correspondence when trying to predict a specific behavior from a general attitude
How can social influences affect whether an attitude is verbally and behaviorally expressed?
When Social Influences on Expressed Attitudes are Minimal.People may not express their true attitudes when social pressures are strong, e.g., issues related to Race Abortion Sexual orientation
How does unanimity affect conformity rates?
When a single confederate acting as a "dissenter" deviated from the group's answer participants conformed only one-fourth as often The nonconformity effect occurred even when the dissenter gave a different wrong answer
classical
When a stimulus that does not typically elicit a response becomes paired or associated with a stimulus that does elicit the response. Racial attitudes Fears and phobias
When is frustration-aggression both an economic and motivational account?
When frustration source is group to which prejudice and discrimination are directed, if outgroup members are perceived as getting in the way of individual's goals.
In which cases is the motivation NOT economic?
When frustration source is not targeted at group and overheated room or recalling earlier experience elicits anger.
Why do mediators sometimes ask each party to identify and rank its goals?
When goals are incompatible, the ranking procedure makes it easier for each to concede on less-important goals so that both achieve their chief goals.
How can small-is-beautiful help to resolve social dilemmas?
When groups are small each person feels more responsible for and to each other. people are more identified with the group's success. Individuals are less likely to take more than their fair share. 150 is a good natural group size.
What does Myers suggest is good advice regarding misperceptions and conflict?
When in conflict, do not assume that the other fails to share your values and morality. Rather, compare perceptions, assuming that the other is likely perceiving the situation differently.
Acceptance
When one truly comes to believe what the group believes
What do disputants tend to do when they know they face an arbitrated settlement if mediation fails?
When people knew they would face an arbitrated settlement if mediation failed, they tried harder to resolve the problem, exhibited less hostility, and thus were more likely to reach agreement.
Simplistic Thinking
When tension rises, rational thinking becomes more difficult; views of the enemy become more simplistic and stereotyped. Just mere expectation can freeze thinking and impede creative problem-solving.
Describe how competition produces conflict.
When there are limited resources someone has to lose for another to win. This creates the development of in-group/out-group and, as a result, competition for the resources.
Fundamental Attribution Error
When we explain other people's behavior, we tend to overestimate the role of personal, internal factors and underestimate the role of situational factors; also the tendency to overestimate the extent to which people;s behavior is due to internal factors and to underestimate the role of situation factors; this is mostly a Western bias
College evaluation
White participants evaluated black and white applicants to college. Participants who scored high on the attitudes toward Blacks Scale and participants who scored low rated white and black applicants the same when the applicants excelled on all pertinent dimensions or were below par on all dimensions. When the applicants excelled on certain dimensions and were below average on others, the rating of prejudiced and unprejudiced participants diverged: the prejudiced participants rated the black applicants less favorably than did the unprejudiced participants. The desire to appear unprejudiced is sometimes sufficiently strong. Bias directed at the ingroup. White participants who read about black applicants who were strong on some dimensions and weak on others rated them more favorable than they rated comparable white applicants.
Shooter Bias
White participants make a faster decision to shoot targets who are back.They are also faster to not shoot unarmed bias. Implicit prejudice is what predicts this.
Emotion Perception Bias
White participants quicker to perceive angry/hostile expression in black faces. Implicit prejudice is what predicts this.
Modern Racism Study: Bias directed at the ingroup. - Activists Threat Condition
White participants read: Admission procedures are biased and activist groups are pressuring colleges to review and reevaluate admissions criteria. When they read application folders of blacks strong on some dimensions and weak on others, they rated them more favourably than whites.
talk more about the study concerning White students and Black students as it related to counter-attitudinal advocacy
White students were tasked with writing an essay about a controversial proposal to double funds for scholarships to admit more Black students and cut funds to admit more White students. after a while, they started to believe it. the general amount of prejudice had reduced
Expectations and Information Processing Study 1 - Heated Discussion between two men and Shoving
Whites watched videotape of heated discussion between 2 men and were asked to code behaviour they were watching a category: acting playfully, acting aggressively etc. One of the men shoved the other. For 50% black did shoving For 50% white did shoving When done by white, incident was coded as more benign When done by black, incident coded as more serious.
stereotypes
Widely held beliefs that people have certain characteristics because of their membership in a particular group.
In a broad way, how does evolutionary theory relate to whom we find attractive?
Women, hip-to-waste ratio and youth. Men masculine with a strong chin and square jaw. Men prioritize attractiveness and women want status/wealth...But not always. And men prefer during ovulation, testosterone rises.
Four Channels of Communication
Words (cannot be trusted), Face (controllable), Body (somewhat more revealing than face), Voice (most revealing cue
Insufficient justification:
a cognitive dissonance research design that shows how people react when they are given a small incentive to deviate from a privately held attitude
Comparison level for alternatives
a comparison of the outcome that an individual might derive from another relationship to the outcome from a current relationship
displaced aggression
a defense mechanism in which anger is redirected toward a person or object other than the one who provided the anger originally
Out-group favoritism
a form of deference that operates when subordinate group members favor members of the dominant group over their own
Informational social influence
a form of group influence that operates on people's need to be right
Descriptive self-disclosure
a form of self-disclosure in which people talk about the facts of their lives
prejudice
a generalized attitude toward members of a social group
Groups: define it
a group consists of two or more people who interact and are interdependent in the sense that their needs and goals cause them to influence each other
talk more about the effectiveness of contact hypothesis relative to the Robbers cave study of 1961
a group of young boys were at some of sort of summer camp and were split into two groups, the Rattlers and Eagles. they were fighting for a reward; they were raiding each other's camp sites... they stole and broke each other's flags. the researchers then devised a number of conflict scenarios to see how the boys would interact with one another. but then the researchers wanted to stop the conflict between the boys. a number of different strategies were employed. they brought the boys together in a non-competitive setting. no luck. they tried moving the camp sites closer to one another. no luck. they organized a series of crises for the boys to solve together. they created something known as a SUPERORDINATE GOAL: goals that transcends the interests of any one group. they found that when there's a goal that requires interdependence, then contact is successful
Define prejudice
a hostile or negative attitude toward people in a distinguishable group, based solely on their membership in that group
Semantic Differential scale:
a measurement instrument that evaluates an attitude object by checking a point along a continuum that stretches between a pair of adjectives that are opposite in meaning
Guttman scale:
a measurement instrument that represent a hierarchy of attitudes, ranging from the least extreme to the most extreme
Modern racism
a more subtle, more socially acceptable form of racism, greatest prejudice in the most intimate social realms. (ex: shoving study)
prejudice
a negative attitude or affective response toward a certain group and its individual members -can be positively prejudice too -prejudging others because they belong to a specific category
prisoners dilema
a particular "game" between two captured prisoners that illustrate why cooperation is difficult to maintain even when it is mutually beneficial
conflict
a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas
Perceived behavioural control:
a personal's perception of how easy or difficult it is to perform a behavior
social facilitation
a phenomenon in which we perform simple or well-learned tasks better when in the presence of others
superordinate goals
a shared goal that necessitates cooperative effort; example remember the titans
Define pluralistic ignorance
a situation in which a majority of group members privately reject a norm, but go along with it because they incorrectly assume that most others in the group accept it
social trap
a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior
Cognitive dissonance
a state of mental tension or anxiety that occurs when two cognition's relevant to ones self concept are psychologically inconsistent.
What is cognitive dissonance? According to cognitive dissonance theory, under what conditions are attitudes most likely to change following a behavior?
a state of mental tension or anxiety that occurs when two cognition's relevant to ones self concept are psychologically inconsistent. If we sense some inconsistency perhaps hypocrisy we feel pressure for change.
Equity theory
a theoretical perspective that argues that a relationshup is felt to be fair when one person's outcomes and contributions equal the other person's outcomes and contributions
Self-affirmation theory
a theory that people often experience a self image threat, after engaging in an undesirable behavior, and that they can compensate by affirming another aspect of the self. Threaten peoples self concept in one domain and they will compensate either by refocusing or by doing good deeds in some other domain.
Stereotype
a trait commonly associated with a type of person (ex: dumb blondes), rationalize inequalities
What are common compliance-gaining goals in interpersonal relationships?
a. Ask for change in behavior - call me more often, stop talking about your ex b. Give advice about health - let's start exercising, you need to eat better c. Recommend a change in the relationship - let's be exclusive, will you marry me? d. Request a change in political stance - re: a political issue (gun control, abortion, etc) e. Ask to share an activity - go out to eat, share vacation f. Ask for help - take a look at my paper, clean up the apartment
What are the "big three" source characteristics?
a. Credibility b. Liking C. Authority
What are six dimensions on which individuals distinguish compliance-gaining situations?
a. Intimacy: whether the source-target relationship is close or superficial b. Dominance: the degree to which the message source controls, as opposed to being controlled by, the target c. Personal benefits: the degree to which the message source will gain personally if the target complies with his/her request d. Resistance: how much the message source expects the target to resist complying with his/her request e. Rights: whether the message source believes that he or she is justified in making this request f. Consequences: involves the degree to which the request could affect the message source-target relationship in the long run
What are four practical recommendations we would make to persuaders about fear appeals, based on theory and research?
a. Messages must be genuinely frightened. b. Discuss solution as well as problems. c. Emphasize cost of NOT taking the precautionary action, as well as benefits of taking the action. d. Make the threats and recommendation relevant to the target audiences.
What are four FAPs that are associated with perceptions that communicators are likable?
a. physical attractiveness- positive attributes are given to pretty people; benefit of the doubt given more so to pretty people than not b. Similarity- people that share similar hobbies, likes, characteristics, etc. are more liked c. Compliments- can backfire if not seen as sincere or as a free/natural gift d. Familiarity- more likeable if there is some familiarity/bond with the person
group polarization
amplification of group's prevailing tendencies- terrorism!
Conformity: how does informational social influence relate to emergencies?
an emergency is a crisis situation that is often ambiguous. a bystander is trying to make sense of what is happening and what they should do. so they look to see what everyone else is doing
aggression
any physical/verbal behavior intended to destroy
Quid Pro Quo Harassment
attempts by the perpetrator to exchange something of value (job, good grade) for sexual favors
explicit attitudes
attitudes that we consciously endorse and can easily report -predict more controlled behaviors (what you say in conversation)
Legitimizing myths
attitudes, values, beliefs, stereotypes, and ideologies that justify the social practices of a particular social system
According to lecture was conformity in the Asch study due to normative or informational influences and why
because its conformity based on a persons desire to fulfill others expectations, often to gain acceptance. not on acceptance of evidence about reality provided by other people
if people reject stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination, why are they still susceptible to them?
because of IMPLICIT BIAS, which involves the tendency to make a biased judgement about a person or object automatically and unintentionally
another example of changing one's attitude quickly is via persuasion. talk more about it
begin with who says what to whom 1. who: the source of the communication (how expert or attractive the speaker is) 2. what: the nature of the communication (the quality of the arguments; whether the speaker presents both sides of the issue) 3. whom: the nature of the audience (hostile or open to the ideas being presented)
Prosocial Behavior
behavior that benefits others
Conformity
behavioral response to social influence that leads a person to yield to group pressure
Compliance
behavioral response to social influence that reflects an outward yielding to group pressure without producing changes in a person's privately accepted beliefs or attitudes
Discrimination
behaviors directed toward people on the basis of their group membership
defne discrimination
behaviors directed toward people on the basis of their group membership
familiarity effect
being familiar/ recognizing with something and thus being affected by it (ex: oreo)
Matching Hypothesis
belief that people tend to pair off with others who are similar to themselves in physical attractiveness and other characteristics
stereotypes
beliefs (cognitive element of bias/prejudice) that certain attributes are characteristic of members of particular groups. -can be positive or negative, true or false; -involves thinking about about a person not as an individual, but as a member of a group. -a natural result of the way our brains are wired to store and process information.
the prisoner's dilemma
best situation is if both prisoners don't confess; do you do what's good for your partner or yourself?; over 2000 variation; most likely people confess due to mistrust of partners (get 5 years each)
talk more about the Consumer Choice Study (1956)
brehm posed as a representative for a company + asked women to rate the attractiveness and desirability of appliances at a grocery store. each woman was told that after participating in the study, they could have one of the appliances as a gift. the woman actually had to choose between two items that they rated to be equally attractive. after they chose between the two items, they were then told to rerate every items. on average, they rated the item of their choice higher and the items that they didn't choose got a lower rating. - distort our likes + dislikes. meaning that we downplay the negative aspects of chosen alternative and the positive aspects of rejected alternative.
identify and explain the three components of social identity theory
categorization: we naturally put social objects into groups (ingroups and outgroups) identification: we associate the self with in-groups and adopt the identity of the group in emotionally meaningful ways comparison: we compare ingroups with outgroups, seeing a favorable bias toward groups and reward them accordingly
Traditional marriage
characterized by a clear-cut division of roles and responsibilities
Filter theory
claims that people sift through successive levels of criteria in search of a marital partner
What are the three conditions that are associated with strong attitudes? Specifically, how do direct experience, self-interest and political, moral and religious factors affect the strength of an attitude? Provide examples to support your answer.
cognitive affective behavioral
Out-Group Homogeneity
cognitive bias describing the tendency to preceive members of out-groups as more alike than members of in-groups
Out-Group Negativism
cognitive bias involving the predisposition to attribute more negative characteristics to members of out-groups than to those of in-groups
In-Group Favoritism
cognitive bias involving the predisposition to attribute more positive characteristics to membes of in-groups than to those of out-groups
Lowballing
compliance strategy that involves the principles of consistency and commitment
Door in the face technique
compliance strategy that operates on the idea that people are more likely to agree to a small request after they have refused a large request
Bait-And-Switch Technique
compliance technique based on "baiting" an individual by making an inrealistically attractive offer and then replacing it with a less attractive offer
Low-Ball Technique
compliance technique based on obtaining a person's initial agreement to purchase an item at a lower price before revealing hidden costs that raise the ultimate price
Foot-In-The-Door Technique
compliance technique based on securing compliance with a smaller request as a prelude to making a larger request
Foot in the door technique
compliance technique that operates on the idea that someone is more likely to agree to a large favor if you can get the person to do a small favor first
Cognitive component:
component of an attitude that refers to the thoughts that people about about an attitude object
Commitment
component of love which involves the short-term decision to love someone and the long-term commitment to maintain that love
Sherif (1966)
conducted the Robber's Cave experiment
conflict spiral
conflict breeds conflict •More heated argument gets, bigger conflict occurs •When in an argument, people bring up things from the past •Start out arguing about something silly, but then becomes a major conflict
realistic group conflict theory
conflict erupts over competition for limited resources •i.e. only one team would get the pocket knives in the Robber's Cave study •i.e. black friday
Normative influences
conformity based on a persons desire to fulfill others expectations, often to gain acceptance.
According to research by Berry (1998) presented in lecture, how do the Eskimo of Canada and the Temne of Sierra Leon differ in their tendency to conform and why?
conformity higher among the Temne eskimos.
Jacquie Vorauer
created illusion of transparency
Hostile environment harassment
creating a professional setting that is sexually offensive intimidating, or hostile
External/Situational/Stimulus
credit to the environment, other people's luck and pressure
Internal/Personal/Dispositional Attributions
credit to the individual through their personality, attitudes and ability
Evaluating the Cognitive Perspective
critics of cognitive perspective has said that the approach has influenced psychologists understanding of intergroup conflict, may lead us to lose sight of the causes of the truly disturbing manifestations of prejudice and discrimination -we are all capable of stereotyping and all have capacity to harbor troubling prejudices
Post-decision cognitive dissonance:
dissonance credited in the decision-making process that leads individuals to increase liking for the chosen alternative and to decrease liking for what they did not choose
mirror-image perceptions
each demonizes the other
jigsaw classroom
elliot aronson; helped desegregate schools in TX;forced to interact in order to receive the full picture and succeed in the course
what is fear?
emotional reaction with psychological and physiological dimensions, aroused when a serious and personally relevant threat is perceived.
catharsis hypothesis
emotional release; maintains that "releasing" aggressive energy (through action or fantasy) relieves aggressive urges
sociobiological theory
evolutionary theory; people join groups because it provides an adaptive advantage; "herding instinct"
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
exception that helps bring about the outcome that is expected
Social influence
exercise of power by a person or group to produce changes in an individuals thoughts, feelings or behavior
Social psychology
explore how we think about, influence, and relate to eachother
Self-fulfilling prophecy:
false definition of a situation that contributes to an expected outcome by influencing the behaviour of the individuals involved
mere-exposure effect
familiarity breeds fondness
Attraction
feelings of liking for others, together with having positive thoughts about them and inclinations to act toward them in positive ways
attitude
feelings that influence our thoughts, actions, etc.
According to evolutionary psychologists, why are males more sexually assertive and females more sexually selective?
female invest their reproductive opportunities carefully, by looking for signs of resources and commitment. Males compete with other males for chances to win the genetic sweepstakes by sending their genes into the future. thus looking for healthy fertile soil in which to plant their seed.
talk more about the Aronson & Mills (1959) study: "Psychology of Sex" discussion group (example of the justification of effort)
female participants volunteered to meet regularly to join this discussion group. each participant was randomly assigned to three different initiation conditions (IV): mild embarrassment, severe embarrassment, or no initiation. in the first condition, the participants had to read aloud words that were related to sex, but it wasn't really embarrassing. the participants in the second group read obscene words and very explicit sexual activities from modern novels. they read them through a microphone to the group that they thought they wanted to join. and then after participants were admitted into a group, the researchers identified how much they liked the group after they joined it (DV). the researchers found that those in the severe group liked the group they were in much more than the participants in the other groups (they worked much harder than these groups)
scapegoat theory
finding someone to blame releases tension
Normative social influence
form of group influence that operates on peoples desire to be liked
Evaluative self-disclosure
form of self-disclosure in which people talk about their feelings/personal opinions
Rejection then retreat technique
form of the door in the face technique that is viewed as a process involving the norm of reciprocity
Telecommuting
form of working at home in which people communicate with their home office and clients via computer or telecommunication
superordinate goals
goals that bring people together to cooperate
Superordinate Goals
goals that transcend the interests of one individual group and that can be achieved more readily by two or more groups working together
social exchange theory
group membership is based on economics; reward/cost ration; you want to maximize rewards and minimize costs -CL (comparison level)—average of all outcomes you've had in the past -Clalt—(comparison level for alternatives); what else is available? -Group rewards - social interaction, social support, group member characteristics, rewarding nature of group activities, goals -Costs - tension, dues, time, effort, social rejection, reactance (when freedom is threatened, you want to act against that)
In-group
group which the individual feels they belong
Out-group
group which the individual feels they dont belong
focus on group and winning
groups lead to ingroup bias; group solidarity soars with common enemy; group identification soars with success
social trap
harm collective well-being by pursuing personal interests
When it comes to persuasion, why is personal relevance such an important matter to consider?
has to do with motivation to elaborate. People will be more likely to engage in higher elaboration and think about a topic if it is personal and relevant to a person; t is closer to home and they will care about it more. Therefore, they will pay more attention to it
Priming and Implicit Prejudice
have measured this by using priming -word associations or picture and word associations -compare a persons average reaction time to positive and negative words preceded by faces of members of the target category -results: using priming methods has shown that people often have subtle prejudices against various target groups that they would steadfastly deny having
Secure attachment:
healthy kind of attachment that develops between a child and caregiver that builds trust through interaction that meet the child's needs
How does the influence of credibility differ depending on whether the persuasive message is counterattitudinal or proattitudinal
high credibility sources more effective for counterattitudinal messages (trying to change receiver's mind) low-credibility sources more effective for pro attitudinal messages (you feel like you are the expert and you know you already believe it)
Knowledge function:
idea that attitudes help or organize information and provide frames of reference for understanding other people
Cognitive consistency:
idea that people prefer agreement in their attitudes
identify the two measures that can be administered to measure implicit attitudes
implicit association test (IAT) affect misattribution procedure (AMP)
Significant others:
important people who exert a strong influence on children during the development of the self
I:
impulsive, spontaneous component of the self
How does verbal and nonverbal behavior differ between men and women during conversation?
in conversation men men more often focus on tasks and on connections with large groups, women on personal relationships.
Game stage:
in meads theory of symbolic interaction, the completing stage of the self
Groups: what did Zajonc propose in terms of social facilitation (a flow (like) chart was provided during lecture)
in the presence of others, there is an arousal of some sort. this leads to an increase in dominant response tendencies. for simple or well-learned tasks, the dominant response is the correct response. in this case, performance is facilitated. however, when the task is difficult or novel, the dominant response is an incorrect response. this leads to performance being impaired
self-fulfilling prophecy
influence makes you act so that it comes true (Ex: You think he hates you, so you act coldly to him. He is offended and thus does hate you)
informational social influence
influence resulting from willingness to accept others' opinions about reality
Conformity: indicate why the three different types of conformities listed in previous FCs take place
informational social influence: a need to know and do the right thing normative social influence: a need to be accepted obedience to authority: a need to follow the rules
Twenty statements test:
instrument develop by Kuhn to measure an individual's self-concept
Thurstone scale:
instrument that includes a variety of statement along an evaluative continuum that measures the degree of favourability or unfavorability about a particular subject of interest
Social distance scale:
instrument that was designed to measure attitudes towards various racial or nationality groups
Likert Scale:
instrument with a multiple choice format that measures a favorable or unfavorable attitude toward an subject of interest
Behaviour intentions:
intentions to act in a certain way that are influenced by an individual's attitude toward a behavior and by his perception of what others think he ought to do
contact hypothesis
interaction/ contact can help people accept each other
implicit and explicit attitudes
internal and external attitudes (what we really feel vs. what we show or say on the outside)
attribution theory
internal disposition or external situations, proposed by Fritz Heider
Contact
interpersonal contact = reduced prejudice between majority and minority group members. Attitudes follow behavior.Proximity, anticipation of interaction, mere exposure
Modern Racism
involves concealing prejudice from others in public settings, but expressing bigoted attitudes when it is safe to do so, for instance in the company of friends who share these views; also involves attributing various bigoted views to sources other than prejudice, whenever another explanation for potentially biased behavior is feasible; attempting to appear color-blind and refusing to acknowledge race as a means of suggesting one isn't a true racist, subtler -50 years ago it was okay to be racist -created conflict when it became illegal -some of our reactions to groups is unconscious and automatic -stems from ingroup favoritism
define counter-stereotypes and indicate whether or not it's effective in reducing prejudice.
it involves evidence that goes against the standard stereotypes. however, it's not really effective. disconfirming evidence often challenges people to come up with additional reasons for holding on to that belief, thus strengthening stereotypes
Groups: define deindividuation + why it occcurs
it is the loosing of normal constraints on behavior when people cannot be identified. the reason being that there's decreased feelings of accountability.
Groups: define social loafing
it is the tendency for people to do worse on simple tasks but better on complex tasks when they are in the presence of others and their individual performance cannot be evaluated.
Attitudes: what is meant by the ABCs of attitudes?
it means that every attitude has three components: 1. (A) ffective (something that's influenced by emotions) 2. (B) ehavioral 3. (C) ognitive
Conformity: define obedience and indicate how it is different from compliance
it refers to behavior changes by commands of authority it differs from compliance, because compliance is when the request comes from someone of equal or lower status
define contact hypothesis and indicate whether or not it's effective in reducing prejudice.
it states that any contact between groups will reduce prejudice. however, it turns out that contact can increases opportunities for conflict that increase prejudice. instead, contact hypothesis really only reduces prejudice when both groups are of equal status and share a common goal.
Conformity: define it
it's a change in behavior or belief as the result of real or imagined group pressure
define jigsaw classroom + indicate whether or not its effective
it's a classroom setting designed to reduce prejudice, promote integration, and raise self-esteem. - the children are in small, desegregated groups - each child is dependent on the other child in the group to learn course material + do well in the class research shows that it is quite effective. it improves race relations, empathy, and instruction. it more than likely works because it breaks down perception of in-group and out-group and creates feeling of "oneness"
define modern prejudice
it's prejudice directed at outgroups that exist alongside explicit rejection of prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination - people tend to justify or rationalize their decisions as being unrelated to their stereotypes or prejudices
what is meant by justifying effort?
it's the tendency for someone to increase their liking for something they have worked hard to attain,
define discrimination
it's unfair treatment of individuals because of the group they belong to
Avoidant attachment:
kind of attachment seen in children who appear indifferent to or detached from their caregivers
Anxious/ambivalent attachment:
kind of attachment seen in children who show great distress when they are separated from a caregiver and then anger upon that person's return
Theory of planned behavior
knowing people's intended behaviors and their perceived self-efficacy and control.
Deindividuation
loss of self awareness that may occur when one acts in concert with the actions of a crowd
de-individualization
loss of self-awareness and self restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity a. Ex. More likely to participate in a food fight if around friends than around parents. Or Mardi Gras ( being part of group feel like losing themselves)
Mania
love style characterized by intense jealousy, possessiveness, and obsessive preoccupation with the lover
Ludus
love style that is playful, casual and carefree
Pragma
love tyle characterized by a practical approach to love
evolution and survivalof the fittest
maintaining food and nesting
Conflict-habituated marriage
marriage characterized by tension and conflict largely kept under control
Passive-congenial marriage
marriage that begins with low expectations that are based on practical considerations
Devitalized marriage
marriage that is initially intimate and loving but deteriorates over time, causing resentment and disillusionment
Rescue marriage
marriage that provides partners with comfort for past unhappiness
Total marriage
marriage where partners' lives are fully enmeshed, in work or play
social exchange theory
maximize reward and minimize cost
Multiple personality:
meads term for an illness characterized by two separate "me's" and"I's" that produce two separate selves
What does it mean to say that some objects accommodate multiple attitude functions?
means that some objects accommodate both instrumental and symbolic attitude functions (i.e. cars, sunglasses, watches, shoes, coffee)
Social Schema
mental image or representation that we use to understand our social environment
controlled processing
mindful and deliberate processing -thoughtful stereotyping = when people observe a member of a stigmatized group behave in a counterstereotypical fashion and quickly invent a subcategory of, say, "white-collar" Hispanics or "environmental" lawyers that preserves their preexisting stereotype
social categorization
minimal groups •randomly assigned to groups; just by being part of a group, it distinguishes you from another group; nothing special about how people are part of a particular group
Conformity: what are the implications of minority influence?
minority influence occurs when a minority of group members influence the behavior or beliefs of the majority. this requires consistency, whereby the people with minority views must express the same view over time. and they must present a united front
Planned behaviour model:
modified version of the reasoned action model that includes a person's perception of how easy or difficult it is to perform a behavior
Conformity: are unanimous groups, meaning groups that all agree on the same thing, more or less influential than groups that are non-unanimous?
more influential. note that the departure of one group members can have a powerful impact on conformity. in fact, variations of the Asch line experiment found that when one other person strayed away from the group the level of of conformity dropped a bit.
Decategorization Model
must decrease tendency to categorize people as in and out-group members & treat as individuals Miller (1985) draw to personal characteristics & less prejudice
mirror-image perceptions
mutual views often held by conflicting people, as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive
define kin selection
natural selection in favor of behavior by individuals that may decrease their chance of survival but increases that of their kin
Prejudice
negative attitudes held about members of certain groups that are based on membership in those groups
Racism
negative bias held toward others based on their ethnicity or racial identification
Frustration
negative emotional state experienced when one's efforts to perceived social pressures
define irrevocability
not able to be changed or reversed
Conscious thought helps group living by allowing people to....
o 1. Put themselves in others' shoes (Interact with the group) o 2. Communicate their experiences with others (Help the group) o 3. Learn from the experiences of others (Benefit from the group) o 4. Communicate rules for behavior (Fit in with the group)
Intrinsic Motivational Perspective (Lambert added the Intrinsic part)
o Developed as a reaction against the economic perspective: in particular, researchers wanted to argue that prejudice can arise even in the absence of any real competition over resources/power (intrinsic to people even when there's no competition) Not saying economic perspective is wrong, just incomplete o Psychologist Henri Tajfel Ingroup favoritism (IGF) Tendency to show favoritism towards members of your own group Exception is system justification jost theory o Henri Tajfel's insight (people already knew IGF was a thing) Tajfel, like other psychologists before him, recognized that there are multiple reasons why IGF effects are so common, including: Historical context (e.g. memory for previous wars) - people have selective memories (Americans remember things about American history that place themselves in favorable light) Competition for scarce resources - Tajfel recognized that economic perspective was right Familiarity - mere familiarity effects (people prefer what's familiar to them) Power/resources However, Tajfel wondered whether one would still obtain evidence for IGF effects even when these contributing elements are stripped away**** (this is Tajfels major insight) Tajfel was particularly taken with the idea that mere categorization, in and of itself, would be sufficient to trigger IGF effects o Why the "mere categorization" idea is important Even superficial and seemingly meaningless distinctions between individuals can become the basis for collective identity" - Tajfel o Minimal Group Paradigm Tajfel would sort people into groups based on meaningless criteria A brief consideration of some different minimal group paradigms The "Klee vs Kadinsky" paradigm • Two images where 50% prefer one, 50% prefer other Dot estimation: "overestimators" vs. "underestimators" Coin flip (pure random assignment) • The most "minimal" of all of the minimal group paradigms o Key findings from the minimal group paradigm (IGF effects) In some paradigms, you give each group some amount of money and tell them to decide how to distribute it Typical finding is people award somewhat more money to own group than others (~55 - 45) Studies are controlled for self interest (this effect is not due to greed) When ask to rate traits, you give your group slightly more favorable traits The act of being sorted into a group that you now value (even though it's random) gives your self-esteem a boost "If I belong to a group it must be good" People want to be a part of groups that are of some positive value (boosts self esteem even if it's a randomly selected group)
experimental realism
o Does the experiment evoke the same process as in the real world o Does aggression feel the same as it would in the real world o Experimental realism is crucial for a good experiment
mundane realism
o The setting of the experiment similar to the real world o Are conditions of the experiment like the real world? o Lab studies are often low in mundane realism
Some important caveats over the economic view
o Tough to predict in advance if/what type of intergroup conflict will occur in a context Useful in a general sense but can't make precise predictions (like what specific groups or future dates)
Know evolutionary theory- how evolution works, examples of evolved social psychology, and the ways in which the environment we evolved to live in is different from today and how this affects our psychology.
o Traits are passed down/developed in species over time (e.g., giraffe's long necks) o Why then would mental disorders develop? (1) Environmental mismatch- e.g., eating behaviors & obesity (2) Ancestral neutrality- e.g., schizophrenia- could be someone who was a Shaman in ancestral times (3) May have initially increased fitness- e.g., anxiety disorders (4) Result of mutations (5) Adaptive at the mean, maladaptive at the extremes • Makes sense for some disorders o i.e., anxiety disorders
Bargaining Trap/Conflict spiral
occurs when one party initiates a contentious communication and the other party responds in kind, which elicits another contentious communication and so on
Social contagion
one person coughs, laughs, yawns, and others are soon doing the same.
Paired Distinctiveness
pairing of two distinctive events that stand out even more because they co-occur (doubly distinctive and doubly memorable behavior by minorities), -IE: Polynesians and Bank teller yelling. If yelling at bank teller was part of your group you wouldn't jump to thinking ethnicity as the defining characteristic.
Social identity
part of individuals self-concept that is derived from an awareness of ones membership in a particular social group and influence self-esteem
Personal Identity
part of our psychological identity that involves our sense of ourselves as unique individuals
Social identity theory
part of our self-concept can come from group membership, use membership to maintain positive self-view (Cognitive explanation of where prejudice comes from)
Describe the experiment conducted by Freedman and Frasier (1966) on the foot-in-the-door phenomenon. What percent of subjects agree to put an ugly yard on their property after previously agreeing to a smaller request?
participants asked to put ugly "drive safely" sign in yard. 76%
talk more about the Festinger & Carlsmith study (1959) (about insufficient external justification)
participants come into the lab and complete a boring task. after they were done, participants had to do 1 of the three things. condition 1 consisted of no lies being told and no $ given. condition 2 consisted of participants having to tell others that the task was enjoyable in exchange for $1. in condition 3, participants were paid $20 for lying. those in condition 2 were given a small external justification to lie, while those in condition 3 were given a larger external justification. and then later, the researchers wanted to know how much the participates rated liking the task (DV). the IV was the payment amount for the lie. overall, they found that the individuals who were in the $1 group had an internal shift in attitude, and reported enjoying the task much more than those in the other two groups. THIS SHOWED THAT, when you don't have sufficient external justification, stating becomes believing.
modern prejudice: talk more about the Uhlmann & Cohen study of 2005 --> SKIP
participants had to choose a police chief. the candidates names were Michael and Michelle. the experiment was manipulated in that the candidates were either streetwise or educated. after the participants chose their respective candidate, researchers asked how important it was to them the candidate was educated. When it was indicated that Michael was educated, participants said that education was important. however, when he streetwise, they indicated that education is not important. But for Michelle, when she was educated, the typical response was that education was not that important. though when she was street smart, they indicated that education was important. overall, the findings showcased that the participants moved the goal posts so that the best candidate reflected their stereotypes of police chiefs: males
Conformity: talk more about the "Classic Version", Milgram's experiment of 1965 as it relates to obedience to authority
participants were brought in to be learners or teachers. in reality, all learners were actually researchers. in the original experiment, teachers and learners were in different rooms after meeting. the learner was a middle-aged man who had a heart condition. the teacher was in a room with the experimenters and the teacher's job was to read off of a word list and would administer a shock when the learners made a mistake. the experimenter's job was to guide the teacher during the experiment and encourage the teacher to continue on with the experiment. and every time the learner made a mistake, the teacher would increase the voltage of the shock. then at certain time points, the learner would say something like "hey, that really hurts. my heart is acting up. let me out." there came a point when + where there was no response. the researchers were specifically interested in seeing who would administer the triple level of shock. psychiatrists predicted that less than 1% of the individuals would administer the shock, but actually, 65% of the participants did. overall, this proved the power of authority
Payne's experiment
participants were white and told to say if the object was a gun or a tool but before that was shown, a black face or a white face was shown. The black face would make the white person identify the gun quicker and mistake to tool for a gun more often. This can show priming has an effect on our decisions.
Vital marriage
partners are intensely bound together through shared values and the desire to be together
foot-in-the-door phenomenon
people agree to a small action and then are more likely to agree to a larger one -Cialdini
central route persuasion
people are analytical and involved with the problem, giving facts, demonstrating, etc. (focus on arguments and respond with favorable thoughts), less superficial
Psychoanalytic theory
people join groups to satisfy certain biological and psychological needs that would otherwise remain unfulfilled (initially did not say which needs) -Freud's replacement theory--identification and transference -Schultz - FIRO model --Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientation --specified specific interpersonal needs - inclusion, affection, control --interchange compatibility—there has to be compatibility of needs among group members; i.e. if there is someone who is high in need for control, there needs to be someone who is willing to be controlled
Perceived Injustice
people perceive justice as equity- the distribution of rewards in proportion to individuals contributions If you contribute more and benefit less you will feel exploited and irritated
social facilitation
people perform better when competing against others- only in simple tasks. For harder ones, people performed worse when being watched.
peripheral route persuasion
people respond to incidental cues, attractiveness, celebrity endorsement, etc. (faster judgements)
Nicole Shelton and Jennifer Richeson
people think that they want to be friends with will not be open to it and vice versa; seen when looking at cross racial friendship buiding
Explaining away Exceptions
people who hold negative stereotypes of ethnic groups sometimes dismiss examples of individuals who don't conform to the stereotype as exceptions or members of relatively rare subtypes. -people do not give up their stereotypes easily -actions that are inconsistent with the stereotype are deemed insignificant
attribution error
perceiving others as acting as they do because they are "that kind of person" rather than because of any external factors that may have influenced their behavior
Illusory correlation
perception of a link between two variables when in fact no relationship exists
Outgroup Homogeneity Effect
perception of outgroup members as more similar to one another than are ingroup members. Thus "they are alike; we are diverse." (As we generally like people we perceive as similar to us and dislike those we perceive as different, the result is a tendency toward ingroup bias) the tendency to assume that there is greater similarity among members of outgroups than among members of ingroups. This happens because: - Easier to recall specific individuals when thinking about our own group. - We often do not notice subtle differences among outgroups because we have little personal contact with them. (sometimes all we know is their stereotypes)
Stereotype Threat
performance of members of stigmatized groups can be impaired by stereotype threat-> the fear that they will confirm the stereotypes that others have regarding a group of which they are a member -Study: Study about the effect on women's math test scores of making salient the stereotype that women do not perform well in mathematics. Half of women participants told the test they were about to take has a gender difference in favor of men. Men and women performed equivalently when told there was no gender difference on the test, but women performed worse than men when they were told that there was a gender difference -Study: White and black Stanford students given a verbal test from the GRE. Half told the test would measure intellectual ability, other half wasn't. White students performed equivalently in both cases, but the black students did much worse than white students when they thought their intellectual ability was being tested -Stereotype threat leads to increased arousal, which can directly interfere with performance on complex tasks and serve as a source of distraction that interferes with concentration on the task at hand. Furthermore, knowing that one's group is "suspect" in the eyes of others tends to elicit negative thinking, which can both directly undermine performance and lead individuals to "play it safe" by being more obsessed with avoiding failure than reaching for success
What are personal constructs?
personal constructs are bipolar dimensions (i.e. good/bad, large/small) used to anticipate, interpret, and evaluate objects and events. (pg. 115) Personal constructs = pairs of opposites that people use to describe and explain members of the social world Examples - Good/bad - Considerate/inconsiderate - Happy/depressed - Number personal constructs is a function of cognitive complexity
Authoritarian Personality
personality type characterized by rigidity, prejudice, and excessive concerns with obedience and respect for authority
talk more about the Gilbert and Ebert study (2002)
photography students were told that they were going to take some photos and then rate all of them. after doing so, they would be able to print two of them. of the two that they print, they would then be able to keep one of them. half of the students could exchange the photo for the the other in 5 days, while the other half could not. the latter group ended up liking their prints much more than participants who could exchange. and they also liked it way more than when they first rated it. study showed the impact of PERMENANCE (or irrevocability), which lead to greater dissonance. this is frequently used in sales + marketing. overall, the motivation to reduce dissonance increases.
Prejudice
preconceived opinion or attitude about an issue, person, or group
Prejudice
prejudgement (the attitude, not the action)
Internalization
process of accepting externally imposed rules as one's own internalized standards
Identification
process of accepting the attitudes, values and beliefs of someone we like or admire
Impression Formation
process of developing an opinion or impression of another person
persuasion: talk more about the elaborative likelihood model
provides two ways in which persuasive communications can cause attitude change 1. central route - when people are motivated and have the ability to pay attention to the arguments in the communication, they listen carefully to and think about the argument, an elaborate on it 2. peripheral route - when people do not pay attention to the arguments but are instead swayed by surface characteristics - doesn't involve elaboration - swayed by peripheral cues
Social dominance orientation
psychological component in social dominance theory that reflects influence of one's group status, gender, socialization, and temperament
self-fulfilling prophecy
pygmalion effect; Acting in a way that tends to produce the very behavior we expected in the first place, as when we act toward members of certain groups in ways that encourage the very behavior we expect from them. -A teacher who thinks that members of a particular group lack intellectual ability may fail to offer them adequate instruction, increasing the chances that they will indeed fall behind their classmates.
Conformity: define informational social influence + why do people conform as a result of it?
refers to ambiguous situations in which we use other's judgments to guide our own - people conform because they believe that other people may know something that they don't know about the situation
Define altruism
refers to behavior that benefits another individual at the cost of oneself; you have the desire to help + it's not out of obligation
Groups: talk more about the Pool Hall Study (1982)
researchers observed and rated players unobtrusively. they were rated as good or bad at pool. they then manipulated the scenario by which the pool players would be left alone and watched them. they then observed their performance when others were around. the study found that the "good players'" performance was facilitated by others watching them. however, "bad players'" performance was impaired by others watching them.
prejudice and discrimination today: talk more about the Pager et al (2009) --> SKIP
researchers sent out resumes for to entry level positions. the resumes were identical, though one contained a "White" name and the other a "Black" name. also, some of the resumes had a criminal record and some did not. researchers recorded the % of callbacks fo each applicant. regardless of whether or not the applicant had a criminal record, the applicant with the "Black" name were less likely to be called back.
Groups: talk more about the Stanford prison experiment - conducted by Haney, Banks, and Zimbardo (1973)
researchers wanted to answer the following question: how strongly will people assume roles based on random assignment? a mock prison was created. Stanford students were paid to either play the role of the guard or the prisoner. note that the guards and the prisoners had on distinctive uniforms that were specific to their role. the study, which was to last 2 weeks, ended after 6 days because the participants took their roles very serious. the guards were very abusive and verbally harassed and humiliated prisoners. the prisons were very passive, helpless, and withdrawn. overall, the study demonstrated how social roles can go completely wrong.
arbitration
resolution of a conflict by a neutral third party who studies both sides and imposes a settlement
self-disclosure
revealing intimate details about ourselves
Roles
roles in groups take one of two forms: task-oriented or relationship-oriented (socio-emotional roles) -Role differentiation—process by which people assume roles •People automatically know their roles in a trauma situation -Role conflict - interrole, intrarole •Interrole—two roles the duties of which conflict i.e. friend & boss •Intrarole—one role the duties of which conflict Conflict within a role i.e. supervisor is supervising and being supervised; being told to do one thing but thinking something should be done another way
Modern Racism Scale
scale that asks people to respond to symbolic questions that reflect modern racism (prejudice that surfaces in subtle ways)
actor-observer effect
seeing the world from the actor's perception we better appreciate the situation, how we view thing from the outside or n the actor's view
bargaining
seeking an agreement to a conflict through direct negotiation between parties
the three motivations for learning about the self are:
self assess, self enhance, self verification
The autokenetic effect
self motion. The apparent movement of a stationary point of light in the dark
Stereotype Threat
sense of threat evoked in members of stereotyped groups when they believed they may be judged or treated stereotypically
Superordinate goals
shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation
superordinate goals
shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation
Principle of reciprocity
social norm that says if someone does you a favor, you should repay it in kind
Conformity: define normative social influence
someone conforms to a group as a result of wanting to be accepted. certain behaviors are going to encouraged within a group
ingroup bias
source of self-esteem to be part of an ingroup
Dispositions
stable characteristics, such as personality traits, attitudes and abilities
Cognitive dissonance:
state of psychological discomfort that occurs when people recognize that their cognitions are inconsistent
in thinking more about the who, what, and to whom idea relative to persuasion, talk more about the Petty, Cacioppo, and Goldman (1981(
students were brought into a room and told that college students need to pass an exam to graduate view an argument/speech from: 1. princeton professor (high expertise) 2. high school speaker (low expertise) argument strength: 1. were told that the quality of undergraduate eduction has improved at schools with an exam (strong) 2. were told that the risk of failing an exam is a challenge most students would welcome (weak) personal relevance: 1. exam would have immediate impact (very relevant) 2. exam would be implemented in 10 years (not relevant) results: 1. when the argument was low in personal relevance to the participants, they were swayed more by the expertise 2. when the topic was of high relevance, they were likely to be swayed by the strong argument, regardless of expertise overall, MOTIVATION really, really matter
Ideological asymmetry
subtle kind of influence that either reinforces or weakens the social hierarchy by legitimizing ideologies
Priming Effects
subtly influencing the person (coffee temperature experiment); the tendency for recently used words, concepts, or ideas to come to mind easily and influence the interpretation of new information; can affect not only impressions but also thoughts and behaviors
modern racism
symbolic racism; prejudice directed at other racial groups that exists alongside rejection of explicitly racist beliefs (for example, that there are genetic differences between racial groups in intelligence) (p. 445)
bystander effect
tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present
social loafing
tendency for people to work less in a group
Compliance
tendency to accede to the requests or demands of others
Conformity
tendency to adjust one's behavior to actual or perceived social pressures
Principle of scarcity
tendency to assign greater value to an item simply because it is rare or will not be available for long
Fundamental Attribution Error
tendency to attribute behavior to internal caues without regard to situational influences
Actor-Observer Effect
tendency to attribute the causes of one's own behavior to situational factors while attributing the causes of other people's behavior to internal factors or dispositions
Attitude:
tendency to evaluate a person, object or idea with some degree of approval or disapproval
Social Loafing
tendency to expend less effort when working as a member of a group than when working alone
in-group bias
tendency to favor individuals within our group over those from outside our group
Overjustification:
tendency to focus on an external incentive for a particular behavior rather than on an internal reward
Legitimization Of Authority
tendency to grant legitimacy to the orders or commands of persons in authority
Ultimate attribution error
tendency to ignore situation explanations for the behavior of members of a particular group and to focus instead on dispositional traits that characterize all members of that particular group
Homogamy:
tendency to meet, date and marry someone who is similar in age, social class, race, education, religion and other important characteristics
Out-group homogeneity bias
tendency to minimize the differences among members of other groups
False Consensus Effect
tendency to overestimate the extent to which other people share your beliefs, opinions and attitudes
In group bias
tendency to view one's own group as superior to other groups, which are judged according to in-group standards
Social Facilitation
tendency to work better or harder in the presence of others than when alone
foot-in-the-door
term describes a phenomenon in which people who agree to a small request are more likely to later agree to a larger request
Implicit Association Test
test what people associate other people with (ex: black names = violence)
Personal space
the buffer zone we like to maintain around our bodies. Its size depends on our familiarity with who ever is near us.
Adjustment function:
the idea that attitudes help people satisfy their needs, reach a goal, avoid an undesirable outcome
Value-expressive function:
the idea that attitudes reflect cherished beliefs and values that are central to our self-image
Mere exposure:
the idea that liking or attraction for someone or something increases with greater exposure
Distributive justice:
the idea that rewards and costs of each person in relationship will be proportional
Principle of least interest
the idea that the person who has the least interest in continuing a relationship gains control
Locus of control:
the inclination to attribute the causes of events to either oneself or to the environment
groupthink
the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives.
paired distinctiveness
the pairing of two distinctive events that stand our even more because they co-occur. -negative behavior (more distinctive than positive) on the part of members of minority groups (more distinctive than majority groups) is doubly distinctive and doubly memorable.
mere exposure effect
the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them
Define reciprocity/reciprocal helping
the practice of exchanging things with others for mutual benefit, especially privileges granted by one country or organization to another.
define: post-decisional dissonance
the process of choosing between attractive options, which will lead to cognitive dissonance - faced with two attractive options - you make a decision about one or the other + you may feel discomfort as a result - you want to get rid of this feeling - so you magnify your positive attitude toward what you choose
realistic group conflict theory
the proposal that intergroup conflict, and negative prejudices and stereotypes, emerge out of actual competition between groups for desired resources
Groups: talk more about the Triplett study of 1898 + how it created the theory of social facilitation
the researcher noticed that cyclists finished the track faster when they were competing against one another. however those that we competing again a clock finished the track much slower.
Overjustification effect
the result of bribing people to do what they already like doing. they may then see their actions as externally controlled rather than intrinsically appealing.
Self-debilitation
the self destructive behavior of subordinate group members, whose response to negative stereotypes results in a self-fulfilling prophecy
What is cognitive dissonance?
the state of having inconsistent thoughts, beliefs, or attitudes, especially as relating to behavioral decisions and attitude change. it is caused by performing actions that run counter to one's customary conception of self example: let's say that you think that world hunger should have more attention. however, you personally don't do anything to address it. this is cognitive dissonance
shooter bias
the tendency for white participants (in experimental conditions) to "shoot" black men holding an object (regardless of whether the object is actually a gun or not) -Participants were presented images of black and white people who were either armed with a gun or not. As in a video game, participants were instructed to "shoot" the armed targets and not shoot the unarmed targets -Both white and black participants were more likely to accidentally shoot the unarmed black targets than unarmed white targets
just-world phenomenon
the tendency of people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get
basking in reflected glory
the tendency to take pride in the accomplishments of those with whom we are associated (even if it's only weakly), as when fans identify with a winning team.
Ethnocentrism
the tendency to view one's own group as superior to others and as the standard for judging the worth of foreign ways
quest religiosity
the view that religion is a never-ending personal journey toward truth (often the least prejudice)
Elaboration Likelihood Model
theoretical model that posits two channels by which persuasive appeals lead to attitude change: a central route and a peripheral route
Attribution
theories describe how people explain the causes of behavior (understand WHY for exam!)
Self-perception theory:
theory that claims that people draw inferences about their attitudes from observations of their own behavior
Conformity: define obedience to authority
this type of conformity occurs when a person or persons obey rules and norms of our group
What do we do when confronted with cognitive dissonance?
we will often times seek ways to reduce the dissonance to alleviate the negative feelings. here are some things that we do: 1. think that we're rational beings 2. process info so that it fits with pre-existing beliefs (schemas) 3. once we are committed to a view, we tend to distort information to confirm our beliefs (self-fulfilling prophecy)
tragedy of the commons
when individuals consume more than their share with the cost of their doing so dispersed among all causing collapse
extrinsically religious
when one sees religious worships as an opportunity to make friends, gain status, or find support during difficult times (often found to be more prejudiced)
competition
when people compete for scarce resources, human relations often sink into prejudice and hostility
when do people experience implicit bias?
when people encounter individuals or objects - relevant schemas come to mind immediately - people experience an immediate affective (emotional) reaction
define internal/dispositional attribution
when people infer that an event or a person's behavior is due to personal factors such as traits, abilities, or feelings
cognitive dissonance theory
when we know our attitudes and actions don't match -Festinger
perceived injustice
when you feel like someone is putting in less effort but reaping more rewards than you; my outcomes/my inputs=your outcomes/your inputs
What has research by Smoreda and Licoppe (2000) revealed about differences in phone conversational styles between men and women?
while on the phone woman's conversations with friends last longer.
Example of bias directed at the ingroup
white participants first read that some admissions procedures are alleged to be biased, and activist groups are pressuring colleges all over the country to review and reevaluate their admissions criteria -then they read the applications of black applicants -rated them more favorably than they rated comparable white applicants
Automatic Reactions and Stereotyping
white police in NY city attempted to question Amadou Diallo, a black west african immigrant who had gone outside his apartment building to get some air and who seemed to fit the description of the serial rapist they were looking for. Diallo ran up the steps of his building and then reached inside his jacket for what police belied was a gun but was actually his wallet. Reacting out of fear that diallo was about to start firing a weapon the four police officers fired 41 shots, striking the innocent Diallo 19 times and killing him -officers more likely to mistake that an african american has a weapon v. a white suspect and more likely to open fire on them faster v. a white suspect
Theories of social facilitation
why does the presence of others help you with a dominant task and hurt you with a nondominant task? -Zajonc - innate arousal •Presence of others automatically triggers an arousal reaction and that arousal response facilitates you dominant task performance but inhibits your nondominant task performance -Cottrell - learned arousal - evaluation apprehension •We learn over time that people can evaluate us; only difference between Zajonc and Cottrell is innate vs learned -Sanders - distraction •The presence of others is distracting and that distraction will facilitate the performance of dominant responses and inhibit the performance of nondominant responses (bag of chips)
According lecture, are Japanese students more or less likely to conform than American students and why
why japanese students conformed less than american students.
How do the conversational styles of men and women differ with regard to staring, smiling interrupting and talking assertively?
woman's greater connectedness has been expressed in their generally higher rate of smiling. Men interrupt more often than women. Women talk more abut feelings, men talk more about things. Men are less sensitive to the facial expressions of emotion. men stare more
talk more about the study concerning eating disorders as it related to counter-attitudinal advocacy
women with body image concerns wrote essays to counteract this idea that thin is beautiful. overall, their satisfaction with their bodies increased, chronic dieting increased, happiness went up, and anxiety went down. and the risk of developing bulimia went down.
Key findings from the minimal group paradigm
• **Subjects know that the group divisions are arbitrary and random • Even when self is excluded, give slightly more money to ingroup (55/45 split) • According to original theory, engine driving this effect is self esteem o Subjects want to maintain a positive self esteem by associating with valuable, likeable groups Other evidence for the role of self esteem in stereotyping and prejudice (other than that obtained in minimal group paradigms) • Fein and Spencer 1997 Study (indirect support for Tajfel) o Study done with non-Jewish subjects, people were first asked to evaluate through purposes of film, a candidate who was applying for a job. Your job as the subject was to evaluate how well the person did in the job interview o One IV was whether or not person was Jewish (did this reasonably subtly) o Other IV was participants received either positive or negative feedback on a prior intelligence test o Results - For non-Jewish candidate, positive or negative feedback didn't have impact on rating, for jewish candidate, negative feedback led to way worse rating o Prepost design - there was only one condition where there was a significant increase in self-esteem (Jewish negative feedback) o Putting down outgroup = more self esteem for ingroup
Cognitive Perspective - Gordon Allport
• Cognitive Effort Hypothesis - stereotypes are labor saving devices, help us to make judgments quickly and efficiently • Under conditions in which you need a labor saving device, the amount of stereotyping should • Huge numbers of studies supporting this general view o "Cognitive load" or "concurrent task" paradigm iiterfere with ability to focus on primary task • Evidence in support of the Cognitive Effort Hypothesis • Cognitive load studies • "Circadian Rhythm" study (Bodenhausen, 1990) o Through prior questionnaire, subjects sorted to morning/afternoon people and then randomly assigned to a morning or afternoon task o Participant was given a sizable packet regarding student o Target race, White: +,+,+,+ o Target race, Hispanic+.-.-,+ o Under tired conditions, more likely to use race as judgment call
Why do misperceptions lead to conflict? What psychology factors lead to these misperceptions?
• Conflict is a perceived incompatibility of actions or goals • Often, there is little actual incompatibility • Misperceptions about another group/person is what drives most conflict
Do people ever openly acknowledge that it's ok to use stereotypes/prejudice?
• Depends on the type of group • Crandall (1999) - Subjective appropriateness of stereotyping o Asked subjects "under what conditions is it appropriate to feel negatively towards this group" with a 0-2 scale 0 - not ok 1 - maybe ok 2 - ok o What determines the rank ordering? Perceived responsibility or choice of the group Judgment of fat people is determined by perceived choice You feel it's more ok to judge if you think they just eat a lot as opposed to if you think it's genetic
What are the different definitions of fairness and how can they lead to conflict?
• Equity: the distribution of rewards in proportion of contribution • Equality: everyone receives the same rewards • Fulfillment of Needs: everyone gets what they need • Leads to conflict if there is perceived injustice
Similarities/differences between "modern" vs Freudian views of the unconscious
• Freud was right that there's a lot going on in people's subconscious • There is an unconscious but it isn't as smart as Freud thought it was, it's actually relatively simple • The unconscious according to modern social psychology is no more and no less than processes going on below level of awareness, no hidden repression or anything
The Economic Perspective
• General idea: competition over scarce or limited resources o Wealth, land, power, other valued commodities • Not really individuals competing over these resources, but groups competing o "Realistic group conflict" • There is some support for this theory - if you track history of discrimination in the United States, it tends to spike in times of economic hardship • How do you resolve this conflict? o Negotiation - but the problem is that groups tend to always think that other group got the better deal (perceived fairness) o Temporary fix - if you introduce a third party that both groups dislike, you will get a temporary unification Robber Caves experiment by Sherif demonstrated the superordinate goal principle
Critiques of Tajfel's self-esteem perspective
• In minimal group paradigm, the predicted boost in self esteem after derogating the outgroup has not always been supported • It is true that you judge the ingroup more favorably is a robust effect • Demand characteristics in the study, subjects guessing what the experiment is about • One explanation is that its ingroup favoritism instead of outgroup derogation • Don't always favor the ingroup Appears to be important exception to IGF: "black sheep" effects • Basic idea: in the case of a serious "infraction", behaviors "feel" more negative when performed by IG members • "Kansas state student arrested on rape charge" • "Washington University student arrested on rape charge" o Predict that you find this more aversive BSE might seem, in a literal sense, to be the "opposite" of IGF • IGF - favoring ingroup • BSE - punishing ingroup But, on a psychological level, are BSEs really the opposite? • As it turns out, no, not really • In other words, while BSEs represent, by definition, harsh treatment of a fellow ingroup member, this is done in the service of wanting to preserve the positive identity of the group as a whole (including the self)
Other methods to measure implicit attitudes
• Keith Payne's "guns vs. tools" task (already covered) • Josh Correll's "shooter bias" measure o Video game where person appears on screen, if person has a gun, shoot him. If person doesn't have a gun, don't shoot him. o Two variables: gun or not, white or black o General findings General population (e.g. college students, community sample) Speed: participants shot a white armed man slower than a black armed man Errors: participants were more likely to shoot an unarmed black man than an unarmed white man • What about bias among police officers? o Evidence shows that they are less biased than the rest of the general population o Speed: police officers show same effect, faster to shoot a black armed man than white armed man o Errors: police officers did not show any effect of race for these errors
Some Initial Thoughts
• Many reasons why humans tend to be stereotypic and prejudiced • Psychologists have some insights on how to reduce prejudice but can't get rid of it completely • Slight pessimist while still holding out some hope o There are some challenges involved when trying to reduce stereotype/prejudice It's a common mistake to assume that people who stereotype/are prejudiced are stupid It's more about power Stereotyping/prejudice reflects an underlying desire for power for your group Stereotyping/prejudice often reflects a desire to keep the status quo (keep dominant group in power) Prejudice/discrimination are often very subtle and unconscious This is very hard to control Hard to get people to monitor this behavior Prejudice/discrimination is often linked to very obvious visual cues Sex and skin color are two examples Hard to not take these things into account Stereotyping can often become more accessible when you're trying to suppress it If you're monitoring working memory for these thoughts, they become more accessible (repetition priming) Exceptions are often subcategorized Maintains stereotypic view of the group even in the face of disconfirming evidence Stereotype change studies in labs are very localized Evidence for stereotype change is often localized to a particular context (like the specific lab where the experiment occurred) People who attend workshops on stereotyping/discrimination are probably already on board with minimizing this Preaching to the choir
What are mirror-image perceptions, why do they happen, and what are some examples?
• Mirror-image perceptions : reciprocal views of each other often held by parties in conflict; for example, each may view itself as moral and peace-loving and the other as evil and aggressive. • When two sides have clashing perceptions, at least one of the two is misperceiving the other. It is a psychological phenomenon without parallel in the gravity of its consequences for it is characteristic of such images that they are self-confirming. • If A expects B to be hostile, A may treat B in such a way that B fulfills A's expectations, thus beginning a vicious circle. • Israelis and Palestinians o Both sides tend to view themselves as victims, think they are the indigenous people and the others are invaders, and that they are defending themselves and the others are the aggressors. • Protestant/Catholic funeral at Northern Ireland's University of Ulster
What is a stereotype?
• People often use word to refer to belief systems that are: o Rigid - this is supported by research Stereotypes are very impervious to change (even in face of disconfirming evidence) o Negative Evidence suggests that stereotyping/prejudice has duality of excessive hate for outgroup which is accompanied by love of ingroup Hitler's glorified stereotype of the Aryan race o False Some stereotypes do contain a grain of truth to them
Modern view of unconscious ("implicit") processing
• Powerful, hard to control, but not particularly complex • A lot of implicit processing is associative in nature (associating that x goes with y) • Obeys simple rules of association, for the most part • Modern cognitive science emphasizes that the unconscious is often dominated by automatic processes... o Outside of awareness o Uncontrollable o Unintentional o Effortless Many modern implicit tests rely heavily on the logic of the Stroop task • Reading the letters is automatic, reading colors is not • When these conditions match, we get facilitation How and why this is relevant to stereotyping • If you associate positivity with "white", you will be faster to associate with a word like "nice" (facilitation) • Implicit Association Task (IAT) generally builds on this logic
The Modern Unconscious: Beyond Freud
• Some similarities between Freud's unconscious and modern unconscious but mostly separate After Freud's theories fell out of popularity, the "unconscious" becomes respectable again • Especially in the context of research and theory on • Looking at abstracts, the phrase "stereotype implicit" or "stereotype prejudice" occurred more frequently in 1990-2001 • Why did these become popular again?
Ambivalent Sexism
• Theory arose as opposition to traditional view of sexism just being negative • Ambivalent sexism says its not so clear o Men have a duality of seemingly positive and negative views towards women Picture says that every woman should be on a pedestal Seemingly positive - women should be cherished Underlying negative current - women can't look after themselves • People who promote theory says that there's a negative undercurrent to seemingly positive beliefs • People who criticize this theory say that you're second guessing everything men say about women - always looking for a negative undercurrent even when it could just be positive
Discretionary (Steiner's typology of tasks)--dropped
•Group decision-making tasks •It's up to the group's discretion how they're going to go about making a decision •Dropped from typology in revised version
Disjunctive (Steiner's typology of tasks)
•Only 1 correct answer •It depends on the nature of the disjunctive task if you do better in a group or individually; depends on if you are able to come up with the answer by yourself or not
Conjunctive (Steiner's typology of tasks)
•Task that is finished at the rate of the slowest member •i.e. group project •the procrastinator is the only one who does better in a group; depends if you're speedy or if you are a procrastinator
dominant vs non-dominant tasks
•dominant—habitual task; well-learned; presence of others helps •non-dominant—new things; unlearned; presence of others hinders
