Org Behavior Final Chapters
Steps to Effective Listening
1. Stop talking 2. Pay Attention 3. Listen Empathetically 4. Hear before evaluating 5. Listen to the whole message 6. Send feedback
Optimal (versus Satisfactory Decisions)
A decision maker typically wants to make an effective decision. We define an effective decision as one that is timely, acceptable to those affected by it, and satisfactory in terms of the key decision criteria. although the systematic, logical process may not be ideal in all situations, such as when a decision must be made very quickly, it does serve a useful framework for producing effective decisions. The process of making decisions is not as simple, however, as it may seem from reviewing standard decisions--making steps, liek those in the exhibit. Each step is more complex than it appears on the surface. Furthermore, individuals and groups cannot always make decisions that maximize their objectives, because to make such decisions we must have complete knowledge about all possible alternatives and their possible alternative, but it is unlikely that we actually would have complete knowledge for any real-world decisions. Thus we tend to make satisficing decisions, or what many psychologists and economists refer to as boundedly rational decisions.
Poor Listening Skills
A frequent problem in communication rests not with the sender but with the receiver. The receiver must listen in order to hear and understand the sender's message, just as the sender must listen to feedback from the receiver. Managers spend more than 50 percent of their time in verbal communication, and some researchers estimate that they spend as much as 85 percent of this time talking. This does not leave much time for listening and receiving feedback. Perhaps most importantly, it has been estimated that managers listen with only about 25 percent efficiency. Therefore, they hear and understand only 25 percent of what is communicated to them verbally. Poor listening is not conducive to high-involvement management, because it breaks down the communication process and limits information sharing.
Style (Decision-Making)
According to Jung's theory, an individual's predispositions can affect the decision process at two critical stages: (1) the perceiving of information and (2) the judging of alternatives. Decisions, then reflect the person's preferences for one of two perceptual styles and one of two judgment styles. Although some have questioned the usefulness of Jung's ideas, research has offered reasonable support for those ideas, and assesment tools based on his work are very popular in the corporate world.
Easy of Recall Bias
Affects the amount and type of information that is gathered and evaluated. In the context of this bias, a decision maker gathers information from his own memory and relies on information that he can easily recall. Unfortunately, easily recalled information may be misleading or incomplete. Vivid and recent information tends to be easily recalled but may not be indicative of the overall situation.
Gather (and process information)
After the decision criteria have been identified, the decision maker must gather and process information to better understand the decision context and to discover specific alternatives that might solve the problem. First, a decision maker cannot choose an alternative that is better than the best alternative on the list. Therefore, careful attention to developing the list of alternatives is important.
Personal Space
All of us have a ____________ surrounding our bodies. When someone enters that space, we feel uncomfortable. The size of the ______ differs somewhat among individuals; it also differs by gender and across cultures. Women see to have smaller personal spaces than men. Similarly, the typical personal space in some cultures (such as some European and South American cultures) is smaller than in other cultures (such as the United States). Personal space affects, for example, how close together people stand when conversing. The difference in personal space can be a barrier to communication.
Communciation breakdown
All parts of the communication process are important. A communication breakdown can occur in any part of the process. For example, information must be encoded into a message that can be understood as the sender intended. In addition, some forms of media may not be as effective as other in communicating the meaning of a particular message.
Group Decision (Making Pitfalls)
Although group decision making can produce positive outcomes, the social nature of group decisions sometimes leads to undesired results. In fact, group dynamics that occur during decision making often prevent full discussion of facts and alternatives. Group norms, member roles, dysfunctional communication patterns, and too much cohesiveness may deter the group, thereby producing ineffective decisions. Researchers have identified several critical pitfalls in decision-making groups. These include groupthink, common information bias, diversity-based infighting, and the risky shift.
Using Decisions Styles
Although it may seem that decision-making styles are fixed, there is some flexibility in the styles used by managers and associates. As stated by Jung and later researchers, a decision style is simply a preference. Many experienced decision makers are able to adjust their styles as need dictates, at least to some degree.
Technology Isseus
Although the adoption of communication technologies and the new forms of communication they support can be beneficial, new communication technologies can also create issues for organizations and individuals. One common problem is misuse of new technology. For examples, many newer forms of technology make it easier to leak private or secrete information to an unintended audience, often with unintended consequences. Another common problem is technology failure. Reliance on new technology creates difficulties when the technology fails and redundant systems are not in place. A third common problem is information overload. Personal privacy is also a concern. Personal privacy concerns that did not exist 20 years ago are now very apparent for job applicants.
(Communication Climate (Improve)
An organization's ______________ corresponds to associates' perceptions of the quality of communication within the organization. The _______________ is important because it influences the extent to which associates identify with their organization. Organizations can overcome communication barriers by establishing a communication climate where mutual trust exists between senders and receivers, communication credibility is present, and feedback is encouraged. Managers should also encourage a free flow of downward, upward, and horizontal communication. People must be comfortable in communicating their ideas openly and in asking questions when they do not understand or they want to know more. information should be available and understandable. People in organizational units should be allowed to develop their own communication systems independently for an effective communication climate.
Communication Audits (Conduct)
Analyzing the organization's communication needs and practices through periodic communication audits is an important step in establishing effective communication. A communication audit examines an organization's internal and external communication to assess communication practices and capabilities and to determine needs. Communication audits can be conducted in-house (e.g., by the human resource management department) or by external consulting firms. Communication audits often are used to ascertain the quality of communication and to pinpoint any deficiencies in the organization. Audits can be conducted for the entire organizsation or for a single unit within the organization. Communication audits usually examine the organization's communicaiton philosophy and objectives, existing communication programs, and employee attitudes toward existing communications. The following is a recommended method for conducting a communication audit.: 1. Hold a planning meeting with all major parties to determine a specific approach and gain commitment to it. 2. Conduct interviews with top management. 3. Collect, inventory, and analyze communication material. 4. Conduct associate interviews. 5. Prepare and administer a questionnaire to measure attitudes toward communication. 6. Communicate survey results
Anchoring Bias
Another bias where decision makers place too much emphasis on the first piece of information they encounter about a situation. This initial information then has undue influence on ideas, evaluations, and conclusions. Even when decision makers acquire a wide range of additional information (thereby avoiding the confirmation bias), initial information can still have too much influnece.
Nominal Group Technique
Another technique used to overcome some of the inhibited forces in group decision making is called _______________. This technique shares some features of brain-writing and electronic brainstorming. In its basic form, it calls for a decision meeting that follows four procedural rules. 1. At the outset, individuals seated around a table write down their ideas silently and without discussion. 2. Each member presents one idea to the group. After the initial round has been completed, each member presents a second idea. The process is repeated until all ideas have been presented. No group discussion is permitted during this period. 3. After the ideas have been recoreded on a blackboard or a large flipchart or in a computer database for projection, the members discuss them. The major purpose here is to clarify and evaluate. 4. The meeting concludes with a silent and independent vote or ranking of the alternative choice. The group decision is determined by summing or pooling these independent votes. The nominal group technique eliminates a great deal of interaction among group members. Discussion and interaction occur only once during the entire purpose. Even the final choice of an alternative occurs in silence and depends on an impersonal summing process. Proponents of this technique believe that inhibitions are overcome at crucial stages, whereas group discussion occurs at the time it is needed for evaluation. Research has suggested that the technique yields better results than a standard group brainstroming session.
Eight Symptoms (of Groupthink)
At least eight specific symptoms are associated with groupthink: 1. Self-Censorship: Group members who recognize flaws or errors in the group position tend to remain quiet during group discussions and avoid issues that might upset the group. 2. Pressure: Group members apply pressure to any member who expresses opinions that threaten group consensus and harmony. 3. Unanimity: Censorship and pressure lead to the illusion of unanimous support for the final group decision. Members who have been quiet are assumed to be in complete agreement, which further discourages consideration of other decision alternatives. 4. Rationalization: Many group members build complex rationales that effectively discount warnings or information that conflicts with their thinking. Thus, sources of negative information are discredited in group discussions. Such actions often narrow the decision alternatives considered. 5. Invulnerability: Group members may develop an illusion of invulnerability, which causes them to ignore any dangers. As a result, they become overly optimistic and take unwarranted risks; the group seriously overestimates its collective wisdom. 6. Mindguards: Certain group members take on the social role of "mindguard." They attempt to shield the group from any facts, criticism, or evaluations that may alter the illusion of unanimity and invulerability. 7. Morality: Most group members believe in the morality of the group's position. The members may even speak about the inherent morality of what they are doing and the immorality of opposing views. This can result in decisions that ignore ethical and legal issues as viewed by the broader society and lead to negative consequences for others. 8. Stereotypes: Group members may develop negative stereotypes of other people and groups. These stereotypes can protect their own position and block the possibility of reasonable negotiations with outsiders.
Reference Points
Beyond general risk-taking propensity, __________ play an important role in many decisions. A ___________ can be a goal, an minimum acceptable level of performance, or perhaps the average performance level of others, and it is used to judge one's current standing. If a particular individual's current position in an ongoing activity is below his __________., he is more likely to take a risk in an attempt to move above the __________. If his current position is above the _______, he is less likely to take risks. Each individual chooses, consciously or unconsciously, his own reference point in a given situation. Two different students are likely to have different minimally acceptable performance levels for a class, and these different levels can serve as their respective reference points.
Delphi Technique
Brainstorming and the nominal group techniques generally require group members to be in close physical proximity (seated around a table, for example). However, groups using the _______________ do not meet face-to-face. Instead, members are solicited for their judgement at their various homes or places of business. IN the most common approach, group members respond to a questionnaire about the issue of interest. Their responses are summarized and the results are fed back to the group. After receiving the feedback, individuals are given a second opportunity to respond and may or may not change their judgements. Some Delphi approaches use only two sets of responses, whereas others repeat the question--summary--feedback process several times before a decision or conclusion is reached. The final decision is derived by averaging or otherwise combining the members' responses to the last questionnaire; often, the members' responses become more similar over time. Although some research has been supportive of this technique, it is a highly structured approach that can inhibit some types of input, especially if some individuals feel constrained by the particular set of questions posed. Even so, the Delphi technique is an option to consider, especially when members of the group are geographically dispersed.
Network Breakdowns
Breakdowns in the communication network frequently occur in large organizations because so much information flows through those networks. Many things can interfere with the flow--mail can be misplaced, messages may not be received by those targeted, and people can forget to relay pieces of information. Larger organization have more problems because messages must flow through more people, increasing the probability that a message will be transmitted inaccurately at some point. Breakdowns can also involve technology.
Devil's Advocacy
Calls for an individual or subgroup to argue against a recommended action put forth by other members of the group. Thus, both dialectical inquiry and devil's advocacy use "constructive" conflict. Proponents assert both are learning-oriented approaches because the active debates can help the group to discover new alternatives and to develop a more complete understanding of the issues involved in the decision problems. Devil's advocacy, requires the group to generate only one set of assumptions and a single recommendation, which are then critiqued by the devil's advocate (or advocates) Research on these techniques suggests that both are effective in developing high-quality solutions to problems. At the same time, however, they can result in somewhat lower levels of group satisfaction than approaches such as brainstorming. This outcome is probably due to the intragroup conflict that can arise when these methods are used. Still, both approaches are apt to be effective in controlling undesirable group phenomena that supress the full exploration of issues. Because both approaches aim to create constructive conflict through assigned roles, they are not likely to cause major dissatisfaction among group members.
Status Differences
Can result form dissimilarities in titles, offices, support resources, and even informal power. _________ can lead to problems of source credibility and can create problems that block upward communication. In some cases, for example, subordinates are reluctant to express an opinion that is different from their managers', and managers-- because of either time pressures or arrogance--may strengthen status barriers by not being open to feedback or other forms of upward communication.
Differing Perceptions
Caused by differing frames of reference. Our expectations or frames of reference can influence how we recall and interpret information.
Encourage Feedback Related to Understanding
Communication should be a two-way process. To ensure that the received message is interpreted as intended, feedback from the recipient is necessary. Some guidelines that individuals can use to obtain feedback are as follows: Ask recipients to repeat what they have heard Promote and cultivate feedback, but don't try to force it. Reward those who provide feedback and use the feedback received. For example, thank people for providing feedback. Respond to feedback, indicating whether it is correct. In other words, obtain feedback, use it, and then feed it back to recipients.
Two-way communcation
Communication that includes feedback is referred to as two-way communication. If feedback is not present (resulting in one-way communication), the receiver may walk away with an entirely different interpretation from that intended by the sender.
Direction (of Organizational Communication)
Communication within organizations can occur in any of three directions: downward, upward, or horizontally.
Individual (Decision Making)
Decision making is a cognitive activity that relies on both perception and judgment. If two people use different approaches to the processes of perception and judgment, they are likely to make quite different decisions, even if the facts and objectives are identical. Although many individual characteristics can affect an individual's decision process, the four psychological predispositions isolated by noted psychologist Carl Jung are of special importance for decision making in organizations. The factors that influence an individual's decision making, include degree of acceptable risk and cognitivie biases.
Basic Steps (in Decision Making)
Define the Problem Identify Criteria Gather and Evaluate Information List and Evaluate Alternatives Select Best Alternative Implement and Follow Up
Groupthink (no guarantee a poor decision)
Does not guarantee a poor decision but simply increase the likelihood of such a result. When good judgment and discussion are suppressed, the group can still be lucky. However, because the purpose group decision making is to increase the likelihood of a good decision, managers must take steps to reduce groupthink.
Proactive (Encourage Individual Actions)
Each individual can help to overcome communication barriers on a day-to-day. Experts recommend the following ways to improve interpersonal communications. (1) Know your audience, (2) Select an Appropriate Communication Medium, (3) Regulate Information Flow and Timing, (4) Encourage Feedback Related to Understanding, (5) Listen Actively
Select (an Appropriate Communication Medium)
Earlier, we discussed how various communication media differ in richness. When messages are complex and/or important, use of rich media, such as face-to-face communication, should be considered. Also, when dealing with complex/important information, it can be beneficial to use several media--for example, by following face-to-face communication with an email message summarizing the discussion.
Rumors
Effective communication is crucial in implementing the organization's strategy. However, there is a downside to informal interpersonal communication--rumors and gossip. Rumors entail unsubstantiated information of universal interest. People often create and communicate rumors to deal with uncertainty.
Define the Problem
First, effective decision making begins with a determination of the problem to be solved. Problems are typically gaps between where we are today and where we would like to be tomorrow. Two individuals examining the same situation may see the problem differently. By broadening the problem you gain access to a larger range of alternative solutions. Overly narrows problem definitions are a chief concern in decision making, as they restrict options.
Upward Communication
Flows from associates to junior managers and from junior managers to senior managers, is necessary to provide feedback on downward communication and to provide ideas and information. It can, however, be difficult to achieve in an effective way. Thus, it is one of the less frequently used forms of communication in organizations. Common channels for upward communication include departmental meetings, "open-door" policies, suggestion boxes, attitude surveys, participation in decisions, grievance procedures, and exit interviews. Upward communication may be necessary for hierarchical superiors to monitor the ffectiveness of decisions, gather information on problems and opportunities, ensure that jobs are being done properly, and maintain morale among those lower in the organization. However, it will not occur in organizations where superiors give the impression that they do not want to hear negative feedback or where subordinates do not trust superiors and fear reprisals. Upward communication can also be costly to organizaitons because policies and procedures must be developed to carry it out and also because it requires managers' time.
Brainstrorming
For major decisions, it is usually important to generate a wide variety of new ideas during the data-gathering and alternative-generation phases of decision making. Increasing the number of ideas during these phases helps ensure that important facts or considerations are not overlooked. Unfortunately, if the group evaluates or critiques each new idea as it is introduced in a group meeting, individual members may withhold other creative ideas because they fear critical comments. In contrast, if ideas are not evaluated immediately, members may offer a number of inputs, even if they are uncertain of the value of their ideas. This is the essence of brainstorming. Brainstorming within groups has the following basic features: Imagination is encourage. No idea is too unique or different, and the more ideas offered the better. Using or building on the ideas of others is encouraged. There is no criticism of any idea, no matter how bad it may seem at the time. Evaluation is postponed until the group can no longer think of any new idea. Why is group brainstorming often less effective than individual brainstorming? One problem may be that group members believe criticism will not be entirely eliminated but will simply remain unspoken. In other words, if a member contributes a unique idea, she may believe that others are silently ridiculing it. Another problem may be that some group members are simply distracted by the significant amount of discussion in a group brainstorming session. Two techniques may be helpful in overcoming the problems of standard group brainstorming: (1) brain-writing, and (2) electronic brainstorming (EBS)
Nonverbal Communication
Forms include facial expressions, tone of voice, personal appearance, contact or touch, and various mannerisms. In general ________________ fall into three categories: body language, paralanguage, and gestures. Between 60 to 90 percent of all interpersonal communication is nonverbal. Nonverbal communication is imporatn because, along with the sender's verbal expressions, it provides information about the person's attitudes and emotional or mental state. This communication can also provide a useful form of feedback. Facial expressions can show whether the receiver understands the sender's message and how he or she feels about it. Because nonverbal behavior is more difficult to control than verbal behavior, it an reveal whether a person is lying. In the area of business negotiations it is particularly important that people be able to read body language to identify when others are being deceptive. It is also important for negotiators to be aware of their own nonverbal cues.
Group (Decision-Making Techniques)
Groups may flounder when given a problem to solve. It is important, therefore, to understand the techniques that can be used to encourage full and effective input and discussion before the group reaches a decision. Several techniques have been developed, including brainstorming, the nominal group technique, the Delphi technique, dialectical inquiry, and devil's advocacy.
Electronic Brainstorming (EBS)
IN a common version of ______________, group members sit around a table with computer stations in front of them. Each individual attempts to develop as many ideas as possible and enter them into a database. As an idea is entered, it is projected onto a large screen that everyone can see. Because there is anonymity, individuals feel less inhibited, and because there is less talking in the room, they are not distracted. Individuals can, however, build on the ideas of others as they appear on the screen.
Brain-Writing
In a common version of ________, group members stop at various points in a group meeting and write down all of their ideas. Then the written ideas are placed on a flipchart or whiteboard by an individual assigned the task of pooling the written remarks. By moving from an oral to a written approach, and by introducing anonymity, this method makes many individuals feel less inhibited. Furthermore, less talking takes place in the room, so distractions are reduced.
Individual Outcomes (network structure)
In addition to effects on unit or organizational performance, network structure affects ___________. In sparse networks many individuals do not directly communicate with one another. this creates an opportunity for information brokerage, where one or more members of a network act as a conduit or go-between for information exchanges between members without direct ties. Individuals who broker a number of relationships tend to have more positive outcomes in terms of power, job performance, and financial compensation, even after controlling for factors such as hierarchical level and education. Importantly, brokers in networks are not necessarily in formal leadership positions.
Dialectical Inquire (Technique)
In its basic form, _____________ calls for two different subgroups to develop very different assumptions and recommendations in order to encourage full discussion of ideas. The two subgroups debate their respective positions. The _______________ requires group members to develop two distinct points of view. More specifically, one subgroup develops a recommendation based on a set of assumptions, and a second subgroup develops a significantly different recommendation based on different assumptions. Debate of the two opposing sets of recommendations and assumptions maximizes constructive conflict, and the resulting evaluation of the two points of view helps ensure a thorough review and also helps to promote the development of new recommendations as differences are bridged.
Blogs
In many cases, organizations have been creating ________ to provide information related to advertising and corporate decisions and to seek information related to consumer thinking in the general marketplace.
Time Pressures
In most organizations, work needs to be done under deadlines, which creates time pressures and constrain an individual's ability to communicate. When people are under tine pressure, they sometimes do not carefully develop a message before sending it. In addition, the pressure of a deadline often does not allow time to receive feedback, so the sender might not know whether the receiver accurately perceived the message.
Information Overload
In our present-day organizations, managers and associates are frequently burdened with more information than they can process. This overload occurs for several reasons. First, organizations face higher levels of uncertainty because of escalating change and turbulence in the external environment, so they obtain more information to reduce the uncertainty. Second, the increasing complexity of tasks and organizational structures creates a need for more information. Again, organizations employ more specialist to provide the needed information, placing greater information-processing burdens on organizational members. Third, ongoing developments in technology increase the amount of information available to associates and managers. When associates and/or managers are overloaded with information, they cannot process all of it. Instead, they may try to escape the situation, or they may prioritize information so that some is attended to and the rest is ignored. Selecting only a portion of the available information for use, however, can result in inaccurate or incomplete communication in the organizational context. One way in which organizations are trying to deal with the overload caused by electronic messaging and e-mail is by adopting newer, web-based interactive technologies for internal communications. These include blogs, wiki sites, and social networking sites. With this technology, messages are all posted in one place, avoiding redundancy.
Gathering Information
Individuals may differ in how they gather information to use in making decisions. Gather information involves perceptual processes. Some individuals prefer information that is concretely grounded and readily accessible through the five basic senses, whereas others prefer abstractions and figurative examples as sources. An associate or manager who relies on facts gathered directly by the five senses is said to use a sensing style. Such a person believes in experience and typically wants to focus on rules and regulations, step-by-step explanations, and fact checking. Decision makers who use a sensing style are concerned primarily with developing a factual database that will support any resulting decision. People who prefer this style of gathering information see themselves as practical and realistic .They work steadily in the early stages of the decision process and enjoy the information-gathering stage. Such persons observe the actual situation very carefully: specific details, concrete examples, real experiences, practicalities, and literal statements. They are down-to-earth people who believe that creativity involves much effort. Decision makers who use the intution style dislike details and the time required details and often perceive information in large chunks. A decision made using this style is often based on imagination. Intuitive people believe that creativity comes from inspiration rather than concentrated effort. Although this second style may appear to be illogical and risky, many consultants and senior managers believe that it can be an effective approach. Managers with good intuition may be better able to cope with rapid change and crisis situations. They frequently have a vision for the future and can react quickly to urgent needs. Overall, both the sensing and intuition styles of perception can be effective, but their effectiveness may vary depending on the context. The sensing style may be most appropriate for jobs where routine decisions are typical. Individuals with a sensing style used more information and made better choices. The intuition style may be most approptiate for jobs where novel decisions and a need for creativity are common. Specific situations in which the intuition style may prove valuable include the following: When a high level of ambiguity exisits When few or no precedents exist When facts are limited WHen facts don't clearly indicate which way to go When time is limited and there is pressure to make the right decision WHen several plausible alternative solutions exist with good arguments for each.
Cognitive Biases
Individuals, often make mistakes in decision making. Although carelessness, sloppiness, fatigue, and task overload can be contributing factors, some mistakes are caused by simple cognitive biases. Some biases represent mental shortcuts. Although these shortcuts can be harmless and save time, they often cause problems. Being aware of their existence is an important step in avoiding them.
Gossip
Information that is presumed to be factual and is communicated in private or intimate settings. often, ______ is not specifically work-related and focuses on things such as others' personal lives. Furthermore, ____ usually reflects information that is third-hand, fourth-hand, and even farther removed from the person passing it along. ____ can cause problems for organizations because it reduces the focus on work, ruins reputations, creates stress, and sometimes leads to legal problems. People are thought to engage in gossip in order to gain power or friendships or to enhance their own egos.
Communication Media
Interpersonal communication can be based on many different media, and different media vary in degree of richness. Research has ordered common communication media in terms of richness. In order of richest to least rich, they are: 1. Face-to-face communication 2. video conferencing (such as Skyping) 3. Phone or radio communication 4. Electronic messaging (such as email and instant messaging) 5. Personal written text (such as letters, notes, and memos) 6. Formal written text (such as reports, documents, bulletins, and notices. 7. Formal numerical text (such as statistical reports, graphs, and computer printouts) For a particular communication task, choosing from among available media involves a trade--off between the richness of a medium and the cost (especially in time) of using it.
Formal versus Informal (communication)
Interpersonal communication can be formal or informal. Formal communication follows the formal structure of the organization (e.g., superior to subordinate) and entails organizationally sanctioned information. A major drawback of formal communication is that it can be slow. Informal communication involves spontaneous interaction between two or more people outside the formal organization structure, for example communication between peers on their coffee break. The informal system frequently emerges as an important source of communication for organization members. Managers must recognize it and be sensitive to communication that travels through informal channels. In addition, managers may find that the informal system enables them to reach more members than the formal one. Another benefit of informal communication is that it can help build solidarity and friendship among associates.
Communicaiton Styles
Interpersonal communication is based on the styles of the various participating parties, where ______ refers to the way a person typically sends information. _____ can be defined with a respect to a number of different dimensions, but research has suggested that six dimensions are most important: (1) Expressiveness, (2) Preciseness, (3) verbal aggressiveness, (4) Questioning orientation, (5) Emotionality, (6) Impression management. An individual's style should be appropriate to the type of work that he or she is doing.
Information Distortion
It is common for information to be distorted, either intentionally or unintentionally. Unintentional distortion can occur because of honest mistakes or time pressure. On the other hand, intentional distortion often occurs because of competition between work units in an organization. Departments frequently have to compete for scarce resources in their operating budgets. Distortion or suppression of information can (and also) occur when a subordinate has more information than his manager. One study found that some subordinates misrepresent or suppress information about budgets when they have private information unknown to the manager. In addition, many subordinates suppress information related to poor outcomes or developing problems.
Consideration of Self Interest
It is not uncommon for firms to request information from managers about their unit's performance. Data such as forecasts of future activity, performance standards, and recommendations on capital budgets are often used in determining the managers' compensation. Research shows that where data accuracy cannot be independently verified, managers sometimes provide information that is in their own self-interest. Although they might not intentionally distort the information that is sent, they might provide incomplete data, selecting only information that is in their own best interest.
Evaluating Alternatives
Jung proposed that once information has been gather, decision makers again diverge in their approaches, tending to adopt either a thinking style or a feeling style to make judgments. There is no fixed relationship between a person's information-gathering style and his judgment style. A person using a sensing style of gathering information may use either a thinking or feeling style in evaluating and judging the alternatives. Similarly, an intuitive information gatherer may use either of the judgment styles. Managers and associates who us an impersonal, rational approach to arrive at their judgments are said to prefer a thinking style. Decision makers who use the thinking style to derive conclusions form their perceptions are objective, analytical, logical, and firm. People who use this style are concerned with principles, laws, and objective criteria. They find it easy to critique the work and behavior of others but are often uncomfortable dealing with people's feelings. Thinking prefer objective analysis and fair decisions based on standards and policies. They are able to discipline and reprimand people, even fire them, if necessary. They are firm and may seem detached and impersonal to subordinates. Their apparently detached nature is likely due to the organized and structured approach they prefer. They would seldom leap to a conclusion without fully evaluating a substantial number of alternatives. They are often conservative in their decisions. At the other extreme, people who prefer to rely on their emotions and personal, subjective judgments are said to use a feeling style. People concerned with feelings emphasize the maintenance of harmony in the workplace. Their judgments are influenced by their own or others' personal likes and dislikes. Such persons are subjective, sympathetic, and appreciative of their decisions. They also dislike decision problems taht would require them to say unpleasant things to people. Managers who use a feeling approach frequently give more weight to maintaining a friendly climate in the work group than to effective task achievement. These managers often interpret problems as having been caused by interpersonal factors rather than by other issues. Both the thinking and feeling styles are important in organizations. The thinking style is consistent with careful decision making, and a number of studies have shown this style to be effetive. Those who use the thinking style tailor their approach to selling based on circumstances and reported stronger performance. The feeling style, however, also can have positive effects. Concern for the feelings and morale of those around is important. To take advantage of the positive outcomes of each style and to balance the factors considered in a decision, a decision maker who emphasizes the feeling style should consult with one or more other who emphasize the thinking style. Similarly, decision makers who emphasize the thinking style should consult with those who use the feeling style. because most managers at all levels in an organizaition tend to emphasize the thinking style, they are likely to benefit from seeking out a feeling type. In addition, when a manager creates a team to address a problem and make a decision, he is likely to benefit from including both style on the team.
Cultural Fluency
Language fluency is one dimension of what is known as ________ the ability to identify, understand, and apply cultural fluency but is not enough by itself.
Culutral Differences (Nonverbal Communication)
Members of different cultures vary a great deal in how they present themselves and in their norms for nonverbal communication. One aspect of nonverbal communication appears to be the same for all human beings. People of all cultures seem to discern and label facial expressions showing certain basic emotions in the same way. These basic emotions include fear, disgust, surprise, happiness, and anger. Therefore, people in a variety of countries are all likely to recognize a smile as a sign of happiness and a scowl as a sign of disgust.
Individual Barriers
Most commonly cited barriers to effective communication. These factors include differing perceptual bases, semantic differences, status differences, consideration of self-interest, poor listening skills, and issues related to personal space.
Risky Shift
Most decisions involve some degree of risk. Because decision-making groups are composed of individuals, it would seem that risk taken by a group should be the same as the average risk that would have been taken by the individual group members acting alone. But the social forces involved in group decisions make this assumption incorrect. Contrary to expectations, groups consistently make riskier decisions than individuals. This finding has since been called the risky shift phenomenon. Group decisions seem to shift toward increased risk more often than toward increased cautiousness. The most powerful explanation involves diffusion of responsibility. Because individual group members believe that no single person can be blamed if the decision turns out poorly, they can shift the blame entirely to others (the group). This diffusion of individual responsibility may lead members to accept higher levels of risk in making a group decision.
Network Centralziation
Networks can also be characterized in terms of their _______________. In centralized networks, all communications pass through a central point or points, so that one or a few members of the network control most of the information exchanges. Traditional organizational hierarchies, where subordinates communicate mostly or only with their bosses, who in turn communicate with their bosses, represent centralized networks. Companies in which units do not communicate with one another but only with a central headquarters, which then simultanesouly coordinates all the units, are also centralized. In decentralized networks, no single member of the network dominates information exchanges. The circle and the well-connected networks are examples. In the circle, each member of the network talks with two others, and no one member dominates. In the well-connected network, on member of the network communicates with each of the other four, but those other four members all communicate with almost everyone else. Centralization is somewhat higher in the well-connected network relative to the circle, but it is not excessively high.
Network Density
Networks can be characterized in terms of their _______________. In sparse networks, there are few connections among members. In dense networks, there are many connections.
Confirmation Bias
Often has strong effects on the type of information gathered. This bias leads decision makers to seek information that confirms beliefs and ideas formed early in the decision process. Rather than also search for information that might disconfirm early beliefs, as a thorough decision process requires, individual's subconsciously seek only information that supports their early thinking. Failing to look for disconfirming informaiton is particulaly likely if a decision maker is revisiting a decision that has already been made and partially or fully implemented.
Specialty Area Jargon
One problem in large, complex organizations concerns the proliferation of specialists. Specialists are highly knowledgeable within their own fields but often have limited understanding of other fields. In addition, they often have their own "language," or jargon. It may be difficult for two specialists in different fields to communicate effectively with one another because of use of different terminology.
Know Your Audience
People often engage in what communication expert Virgil Scudder refers to as "me to me to me" communication. With this phrase, scudder is describing communicating with others as if you were communicating with yourself. Such communication assumes that others, share your frame of reference, and in the absence of feedback, that people interpret the message as you intend.
Listen Actively
Poor listening skills are a common barrier to effective communication. Listening is not a passive, naturally occurring activity. People must actively and consciously listen to others in order to be effective communicators. IN a recent study based on data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics, active listening was ranked first in terms of skills valued in job categories expected to grow the most between 2012 and 2022.
Downward Communication
Refers to communication from senior managers to junior managers and from junior managers to associates, is necessary to provide job instructions, information on organization policies, and performance feedback. ________ can also be used to inform those at lower levels about the organization's goals and about changes faced by the organization. Downward communication, however is frequently deficient in this regard. Lower-level managers and associates often complain about the lack of information on goals and changes being made in the organization.
Regulate (Information Flow and Timing)
Regulating the flow of information can help to alleviate communication problems. Regulating flow involves discarding information of marginal importance and conveying only significant information. That is, an individual should not pass on irrelevant information, or else important message may be buried by information overload or noise. The proper timing of messages is also important. People are more likely to be receptive to a message and to perceive it accurately at certain times and not at other times. Thus, if an individual has an important message to send, she should not sent it when recipients are about to leave work, are fully engaged in some other task, or are receving other communications.
Communication Networks
Represents patterns of communication (who communicates with whom). Thus, they correspond to the structure of communication flows in the organization and they affect coordination, innovation, and performance. Networks can be characterized in terms of their density, centralization, and effectiveness and outcomes.
Degree (of Acceptable Risk)
Risk exists when the outcome of a chosen course of action is not certain. Most decisions in business carry some degree of risk. In choosing between less and more risky options, an individual's risk-taking propensity, or willingness to take chances, often plays a role. Two persons with different propensities to take risks may make vastly different decisions when confronted with identical decision situations and information. One who is willing to face the possibility of loss. In making decisions, individuals with lower risk-taking propensities may collect and evaluate more information. They may even collect more information than they need to make the decision. Managers with low risk-taking propensity used more information and made decisions more slowly. Although informaiton is important, managers and associates with low risk-taking propensities must avoid becoming paralyzed by tring to obtain and consider too much detailed information. Conversly, those with high risk-taking propensities must avoid making decisions with too little information.
Common Information Bias
Some information a group might consider in making a decision may be held by one or a few group members. Other pieces of information are held by most or all group members. __________________ leads groups to unconsciously neglect information held by one group member or a few members while focusing on more commonly held information in the group, thereby neglecting potentially important issues and ideas. The common information bias defeats one of the presumed advantages of group decision making--the availability of unique information, ideas, and perspectives brought to the process by individual group members. The following study illustrates this phenonmen. First, managers were asked to evaluate PeopleSoft as an alternative to the firm's existing accounting and enterprise management software. Next, these managers assembled to discuss whether adopting PeopleSoft would be positive for the firm. Concerns and ideas held by one or a few members received less attention than concerns and ideas held by most or all group members, resulting in a very limited dicussion.
360 Degree Feedback
Some time ago, organizations began to use communication from all three directions in the area of performance appraisal. Almost all Fortune 500 companies use 360-degree multi-rater feedback to evaluate senior managers. Such feedback includes performance appraisals from peers (horizontal communication), subordinates (upward-communication), and superiors (downward communication) Evaluations from customers/clients and suppliers are also sought in some cases. There are, however, some problems with 360-degree feedback. One problem with subordinate evaluating superiors is that retaliation for negative performance evaluations can occurs. Another problem is that peers may be politically motivated to either overrate or underrate their co-workers. Thus, it is usually recommended that upward and horizontal appraisals be used only for training and development purposes and that superiors' evaluations be given more weight when appraisals are used to make personnel decisions. However, if superiors do take their own 360-degree feedback seriously, and change their behavior as a result of feedback form subordinates and peers, the loyalty of subordinates will also increase.
Body Language
Sometimes referred to as "kinesics" include facial expressions; the use of hands, arms, and legs; and posture
Communication
Successful communication occurs when the person receiving the message understands it in the way that the senior intended. Thus, communication does not end with the message sent. We also need to consider the message that is received
Horizontal Communication
Takes place between and among people at the same level, is also important but is frequently overlooked in the design of organizations. Coordination among organizational units is facilitated by horizontal communication. This frequently is achieved through face-to-face conversations, phone conversations, texts, and e-mail. Formal integrating positions may also be used to facilitate horizontal communication between units. These positions are often referred to as "boundary-spanning positions" because the position holders cross the boundaries that separate different units.
Expressiveness
The amount and vividness of a person's communication. Descriptors include verboseness, conversational dominance, humor, and unpretentiousness.
Cross-Cultural Barriers
The business world is becoming more global, increasing the amount of regular cross-cultural communication. Effective cross-cultural communication is necessary for the financial success of international ventures. Communication problems cause many expatriate managers to fail in their international assignments, leading to the removal of the manager or the failure of the international ventures. These failures cost multinational corporations billions of dollars. Cross-cultural barriers involve lack of language fluency or a broader lack of cultural fluency. Those who learn the local language often earn more respect within the culture. Because many products are sold internationally, language is very important consideration in product names and slogans.
Preciseness
The care that is put into communication. Descriptors include thoughtfulness, substantiveness, structuredness, and conciseness.
Implement (and Follow Up)
The decision-making process does not end when the decision is made. The decision must be implemented, and the decision maker must follow up and monitor the results to ensure that the adopted alternative solved the problem. By monitoring the outcomes, the decision maker may determine that the chosen alternative did not work. A new problem then must be solved.
Impression Management
The degree to which calculated guardedness dominates a person's communication. Descriptors include charm, inscrutableness, ingratiation, and concealment.
Questioning Orientation
The degree to which curiosity is emphasized. Descriptors include inquisitiveness, unconventionality, agrumentativeness, and philosophicalness.
Verbal Agressiveness
The degree to which personal opinions and positions are advocated. Descriptors include authoritarianism, derogatoriness, angriness, and unsupportiveness.
Identify Criteria
The next step in decision making, identification of decision criteria, requires the decision maker to determine exactly what is important in solving the problem. Decision criteria determine what information the decision maker needs to collect in order to evaluate alternatives, and they help her explain the choice that she ultimately males. Failure to thoroughly identify important criteria results in faulty decision making
Best Alternative (Select the)
The next step in the decision-making process involves evaluating all relevant alternatives. To complete this step, the decision maker assesses each alternative using each criterion. After evaluating each alternative, the decision maker chooses the alternative that seems to best satisfy the criteria, thereby solving the problem in the best manner possible.
Organizational communication
The purpose of _______________ is to facilitate the achievement of the organization's goals. This form of communication involves the use of communication networks, policies, and structures.
Emotionality
The reflection of stress or sadness in communication. Descriptors include worrisomeness, tension, sentimentality, and defensiveness.
Communciation Process
The starting point in the communication process is the sender--the person who wishes to communicate a message. To convey information, the sender must first encode it. The encoded message is then sent through a communication medium, or communication channel, to the intended receiver. Once the message has been received, the receiver must decode it. To ensure that the meaning the receiver attaches to the message is the same as the one intended by the sender, feedback is necessary.
Techniques ( best choice)
The techniques for group decision making explained above are more concerned with increasing the number of ideas generated than with directly improving the quality of the final solution. Although having a greater number of ideas the possibility that a superior alternative will be identified, other techniques can help the group find the best choice. Two key approaches are dialectical inquiry and devil's advocacy. These approaches counter the tendency of groups to avoid conflict when evaluating alternative courses of action and to prematurely smooth over differences within the group when they occur.
Reasons (TO make Satisfactory decisions rather than optimal)
There are two important reasons that people often make satisfactory decisions rather than optimal, maximizing ones. First, we do not have the capability to collect and process all of the information relevant for a particular decisions. In theory, the number of alternatives that could be considered for most decisions is very large, as are the number of people who could be consulted and the number of analyses that could be completed. However, most of us, and certainly managers, lack the time and other resources required to complete these activities for most decisions. Consider the simple situation of hiring an individual to head a new public relations unit. Second, we often display a tendency to choose the first satisfactory alternative discovered. Because we are busy and typically want to conserve the resources used in making any one decision, we often stop searching when we find the workable alternative. Research has indicated, however, that some individuals are more likely to choose the first satisfactory option. Some continue to search for additional alternatives after encountering the first satisfactory one, thereby increasing their odds of finding a better solution. Interestingly, these individuals tend to be less satisfied with their choices, perhaps because they are more aware of the complexities and risks in decisions situations.
Avoiding Rumors
To avoid rumors in the workplace, managers are advised to provide honest, open, and clear information in times of uncertainty. Rumors should be addressed by those in a position to establish truth. Rumors also can be dealt with by placing restrictions on idle chatter, as some organziations have done.
Combat Gossip
To combat gossip, manager can include questions in 360-degree evaluations to identify individuals who habitually traffic in irrelevant, unsubstantiated information (360-degree evaluations are those that require inputs form bosses, peers, and any direct reports). Offenders can then be asked to end their dysfunctional behavior.
Network Effectiveness
To some degree, the ______________ of a network depends on situational factors such as type of work and goals of the unit or organization. For example, sparse highly centralized networks can be effective in accomplishing simple tasks. These structures promote efficiency, speed, and accuracy by channeling communication through a central person. On the other hand, dense networks with some degree of centralization in the leader role might be more effective for complex tasks. The well-connected network fits here. Communication among most or many parities facilitates trust and rich exchanges of information, which are helpful in solving complex problems. Also, having a leader with some degree of centrality is helpful to ensure that proper direction is given to the unit/organization and to ensure that a clear resolution point exists for disagreement Overall, independent of the situational context, reasonably dense networks with some degree of leader centrality tend to be the most effective. This is consistent with high-involvement management, where associates exist in a somewhat egalitarian system and have bounded authority to coordinate and solve problems among themselves.
Group Decision Making
We often view decision making as an individual activity, with thoughtful individuals making good or bad organizational decisions. But it is common for a number of people to participate in important organizational decisions, working together as a group to solve organizational problems. This is particularly true in high-involvement organizations, where associates participate in many decisions with lower-level and middle-level managers and where lower-level and middle-level managers participate in decisions with senior-level managers. In high-involvement organizations, teams of associates also make some decisions without managerial input. In this way, human capital throughout the organizational is utilized effectively. Because the purpose of group decision making is to arrive at a preferred solution to a problem, the group must use the same basic decision-making process-define the problem, identify criteria, gather and evaluate information, list and evaluate alternatives, and choose the best alternative and implement it. On the other hand, groups are made up of multiple individuals, resulting in dynamics and interpersonal processes that make group decision making different from decisions making by an individual. For instance, some members of the decision group will arrive with their own expectations, problem definitions, and predetermined solutions. These characteristics are likely to cause some interpersonal problems among group members. Also, some members will have given more though to the decision situation, engagement may differ across members, and so on. Thus, a group leader may be more concerned with turning a collection of individuals into a collaborative decision--making team with the development of individual decision-making skills.
Groupthink
When group members maintain or seek consensus at the expense of identifying and earnestly debating honest disagreements, ___________ is said to occur. Focusing too much attention on consensus, especially early in a decision process, can result in a faulty decision. Many important ideas and alternative courses of action may not be seriously considered. This type of group phenomenon can occur under a number of different conditions, including the following: Group members like one another and therefore do not want to criticize each other's ideas. Group members have high regard for the group's collective wisdom and therefore yield to early ideas or the ideas of a leader. Group members derive satisfaction from membership in a group that has positive self-image and therefore try to prevent the group from having any serious divisions. In essence, then, a variety of factors can cause group members to avoid surfacing divergent opinions and ideas within the group. Groupthink may be most likely when a group that has a positive image is under threat, such as when a management team faces a tough competitior or when a presidential administration faces possible military engagement.
Diversity-based Infighting
When groupthink is an issue, or or more members of the group typically act to surpress diverse ideas, and many members censor themselves. With the common information bias, individuals subconsciously focus on common information and ideas. Thus, in many group, diverse ideas are not discussed. In other groups, however, diverse ideas are emphasized. Although this is generally positive for group decision making, it can become extreme. Instead of creating rich discussions and insight, diverse ideas can create ill will and fractured groups. Such diversity-based infighting is likely to occur when individuals feel very strongly about their ideas and no mechanisms to channel disagreement in productive ways have been instituted. Mechanisms that can help channel diversity include formal brainstorming procedures and the formal use of devil's advocacy.
Semantic Differences
_______ refers to the meaning people attach to symbols , such as words and gestures. Because the same words may have different meanings to different people, semantic differences can create communication problems. One reason for ___________ inside organizations relates to the proliferation of specialist. Specialist tend to develop their own jargon; such terminology may have little meaning or a different set of meanings to a person outside the specialist's field. A second reason for semantic differences relates to variance in cultural background.
Organizational Barriers
____________ to effective communication include information overload, information distortion, jargon, time pressures, cross-cultural barriers, and breakdowns in the communication network.
Communication Technology
allows organizations and their members to communicate quickly, across nay distance, and to collaborate more effectively than ever before. Indeed, in order for organizations to remain competitive, they need to constantly keep up to date on modern communications technologies.
LeakyBehavior
behaviors that we cannot control. People may be more likely to express their true feelings through nonverbal means rather than through verbal means, which are easy to control.
Decisions
choices. We may _______ every day. Each time we make a purchase, a decision is involved. ______ also important in organizations. Making decisions is one of the primary activities for senior managers. Senior managers make decisions related to things such as entering new businesses, divesting existing business, and coordinating the units of the firm. Other managers in the firm make decisions regarding how a unit should be evaluated. In a high-involvement organization, associates also make many important decisions. They may decide on scheduling of work, job-rotation schedules, vacation time, approaches to various tasks, and ways to discipline an individual for problem behavior. Overall, decision-making skills are critical to organizational effectivness.
Richness
describes the amount of information a medium can convey. ________ depends on: (1) the potential for immediate feedback, (2) the use of multiple cues, (3) the use of natural language (as opposed to numbers), and (4) the extent to which the communication has a personal focus. Face-to-face verbal communication is the richest medium.
Virtual Social Worlds
have also been added to the technology arsenals of a number of companies. Unlike social media such as YouTube, Facebook, or Wikipedia, ___________________ offer real-time interactions where people exist in a three-dimensional setting as self-generated representations of themselves (i.e., avatars). Participants can communicate using voice rather than text, utilize virtual equipment of all kinds, walk around in cleverly constructed settings, and sit down with others in venues such as cafes. Providers of ___________ such as Econd Life and Spoton3d have created sophisticated interactive systems that at being used by companies such as IBM for conferences, team meetings, and training. Using the virtual approach can help individuals whoa re shy to engage more fully, and it can dramatically reduce travel costs when participants live in different parts of th ecountry or world.
Paralanguage
refers to how something is said, such as how tone of voice, pitch of voice, and silence are used.
Gestures
signs used to convey specific meanings (such as making a circle with your fingers to indicate "okay" or shrugging your shoulders to indicate "I don't know").
