Organic Evolution Exam 1 Notes

genetic drift equation

(2N)!/k!(2N-k)! * p^k*q^(2N-k)

if fitness is greater than blank but less than blank, the dominant phenotype will eventually be removed from the population, but it will take several generations

0, 1

1 in 10000 has PKU; 1 in 10000 has the rr genotype; this means that q^2 = 1/10000; which means that q is blank; frequency of normal/dominant allele is p=blank; the frequency of carriers or blank is 2pq=blank; only about blank percent of the US population carries the recessive allele

0.01 (1%), 0.99 (99%), heterozygotes, 0.0198, 2

mating the offspring Fblank generation produces another generation Fblank; the Fblank and Fblank ratios are still the same

1, 2, 1, 2

selection coefficient = blank; a certain percentage of the blank phenotypes are prevented from reproducing by natural selection

1-fitness; dominant

in Hardy-Weinberg math, if we count the alleles of the offspring, we get blank:blank ratio for A:a

1:1

in Hardy-Weinberg math, if we count the genotypes of the offspring, we get a blank:blank:blank ratio for homozygous dominant:heterozygous:homozygous recessive

1:2:1

a simple trait controlled by a single gene have blank alleles

2

in Hardy-Weinberg, by convention, if there are blank different alleles for a gene, blank and blank are used to represent their frequencies; blank is the frequency of the dominant allele; blank is the frequency of the recessive allele; the frequency of all the alleles in a population will add up to blank; the equation is blank

2, p, q, p, q, 1, p+q=1

the genetic translation code specifies how a combination of the blank nucleotide bases produces each of the blank amino acids; 3 bases are called blank which code for each amino acid; different codons may code for the same specific amino acid, which is called blank; codons that produce the same amino acids are called blank codons; blank of the 64 codons do not specify amino acids at all; these are the blank codons and they determine where a gene ends

3, 20, codons, redundancy, synonymous, 3, stop

because DNA is read blank bases at a time when proteins are made, the blank or blank can result in all codons after the mutation to code for different amino acids

3, insertion, deletion

in underdominance, all blank genotypes are produced, and after several generations of this selection, the allele in blank numbers is removed

3, lowest

in any species and at any point in time, all blank types of selection may be acting, or had acted; some of the characters may be undergoing blank selection, others blank selection, while still other features may become polymorphic through blank selection

3, stabilizing, directional, diversifying

each eukaryotic species has a characteristic number of chromosomes; for example, a human cell has blank chromosomes, so blank pairs; the notation is blank = total chromosomes

46, 23, 2N

MGEs are found in all organisms; in humans, approximately blank% of the genome is thought to be MGEs; MGEs play a distinct role in evolution; blank blank events can also happen through the mechanism of MGEs; MGEs can also cause mutations in protein blank regions, which alters the protein functions; in addition, they can also rearrange genes in the blank genome

50, gene duplication, coding, host

How many dominate alleles will be passed on if the dominate allele is not lethal or if death does not always occur before reproduction? some blank or blank genotypes survive to reproduce, but they do not survive as well as blank

AA, Aa, aa

Aristotle was blank's tutor; his writings were preserved and incorporated into blank culture

Alexander (the Great), Hellenic

blank of the blank is an analogy to the ideal world, where the physical realm is a blank reflection from the perfect ideal world; this was proposed by blank

Allegory of the Cave, imperfect, Plato

all of blank's notions on how to pursue scientific inquiry, such as observation, seeking for patterns, and drawing conclusions, were lost in the Middle Ages; people did not study nature and learn from it; the trust came from the highest blank, which are the anointed ones, or blank; they looked to nature to find examples of things they already believed

Aristotle, casts, priests

in the Middle Ages, the church used blank teachings to justify religion: - since all species have blank properties such as blank and blank, it is shown that God created all living things and gave them the breath of life - since Earth has always existed and it is blank, the creation was made from a perfect being and thus does not change - blank blank points to the idea that only God in his impotence can create life - blank is in balance, so God in his benevolence created a perfect balanced world for the man rule as it pleases - since God is perfect, creation is also perfect; there is no possibility of change

Aristotle, fixed, substance, essence, immutable, spontaneous generation, nature

blank was a student of blank; his writings cover a plethora of subjects, including physics, biology, and zoology; contrary to his mentor, he was interested in the blank world, on the blank reality, and in what can be blank and blank

Aristotle, real, physical, observed, manipulated

blank believes that the world of forms and world of matter overlap for blank

Aristotle, things

in 1848, Wallace and Henry Bates left for blank aboard the Mischief; their intention was to collect blank and other animal specimens in the blank rainforest for their private collections, selling the duplicates to museums and collectors back in Britain in order to fund the trip; Wallace also hoped to gather evidence of the blank of species; this trip was 5 years

Brazil, insects, Amazon, transmutation

blank blank was interested in classification and identification, not in explanation; he was a firm believer on a fixed, immutable world and through his system, which was based on Aristotle, he tried to organize all creation; he believed that all species were finite, and that if there were new species, it was only because they were potentially always present

Carollus Linnaeus

"How much we miss blank: The paranoia of ambientalists against a cheap and efficient insecticide, caused the return of mosquitoes transmitted diseases"

DDT

In 1945, blank was made available to farmers as an agricultural insecticide and played a role in the final (for a time) elimination of malaria in Europe and North America

DDT

In 1955, the World Health Organization commenced a program to eradicate malaria in countries with low to moderate transmission rates worldwide, relying largely on blank for mosquito control and rapid diagnosis and treatment to reduce transmission. The program eliminated the disease in "North America, Europe, the former Soviet Union," and in "Taiwan, much of the Caribbean, the Balkans, parts of northern Africa, the northern region of Australia, and a large swath of the South Pacific" and dramatically reduced mortality in Sri Lanka and India

DDT

Medical researchers in 1974 found a measurable and significant difference in the presence of blank in human milk between mothers who lived in New Brunswick and mothers who lived in Nova Scotia, "possibly because of the wider use of insecticide sprays in the past"

DDT

Paul Hermann Muller was a Swiss chemist who received a Nobel Prize for his discovery of insecticidal qualities and use of blank in the control of vector diseases such as malaria and yellow fever

DDT

blank was used extensively during World War II by the Allies to control the insect vectors of typhus - nearly eliminating the disease in many parts of Europe. In the South Pacific, it was sprayed aerially for malaria and dengue fever control with spectacular effects.

DDT

in 1957, the state of Massachusetts was spraying marshy areas with blank to kill mosquitos when it also sprayed a 2 acre bird sanctuary

DDT

Because of its lipophilic properties, blank can bioaccumulate, especially in predatory birds. blank is toxic to a wide range of living organisms, including marine animals such as crayfish, daphnids, sea shrimp and many species of fish. blank, magnify through the food chain, with apex predators such as raptor birds concentrating more chemicals than other animals in the same environment. They are stored mainly in body fat. blank and blank are resistant to metabolism; in humans, their half-lives are 6 and up to 10 years, respectively. In the United States, these chemicals were detected in almost all human blood samples tested by the Centers for Disease Control in 2005, though their levels have sharply declined since most uses were banned.[64] Estimated dietary intake has declined,[64] although FDA food tests commonly detect it

DDT, DDT, DDT, DDT, DDE

birds built up high concentrations of blank in their fatty tissues; the accumulating blank prevented many birds from producing healthy offspring; unlike insects, none of the members of the bird populations had genes that conferred blank to pesticides so that there were no individuals for natural selection to favor; the birds simply died

DDT, DDT, resistance

blank is a persistent organic pollutant that is readily adsorbed to soils and sediments, which can act both as blank and as long-term sources of blank affecting organisms. Depending on conditions, its soil half-life can range from 22 days to 30 years. Routes of loss and degradation include runoff, volatilization, photolysis and aerobic and anaerobic biodegradation. Due to hydrophobic properties, in aquatic ecosystems blank and its metabolites are absorbed by aquatic organisms and adsorbed on suspended particles, leaving little blank dissolved in the blank (however, its half-life in aquatic environments is listed by the National Pesticide Information Center as 150 years). Its breakdown products and metabolites, blank and blank, are also persistent and have similar chemical and physical properties. blank and its breakdown products are transported from warmer areas to the Arctic by the phenomenon of global distillation, where they then accumulate in the region's food web

DDT, sinks, exposure, DDT, DDT, water, DDE, DDD, DDT

blank mutations are mutations of the bases that make up the DNA

DNA

object of mutation: if the mutation is in the blank blank or in the blank

DNA strand, chromosome

blank is a nucleic acid that is composed of blank

DNA, nucleotides

genes are made up of blank; some genes act as instructions to make molecules called blank; however, many genes do not code for blank; in humans, genes vary in size from a few hundred DNA bases to more than 2 million bases; the blank blank blank estimated that humans have between 20000 and 25000 genes

DNA, proteins, proteins, Human Genome Project

the definition of evolution was formulated by blank and blank

Darwin, Wallace

the blank-blank theory of evolution can be summarized by two statements: 1. change of the population selects the individuals who have the blank set of qualities to survive the given conditions 2. those set of qualities are passed along by blank success, and this changes the whole population with the pass of generations

Darwin-Wallace, best, reproductive

despite his advocacy of empiricism and his many correct conjectures about atomism and nature of physical world, blank concludes his first book stressing the absurdity of the spherical Earth theory; while blank left open the possibility for free will by arguing for the uncertainty of the paths of atoms, blank viewed the soul or mind as emerging from arrangements of distinct particles

Epicurus, Lucretius

with the discovery of the New World, new forms of life came to knowledge; the blank blank blank blank became a thing where it was used as a form to uphold rank in society, and become the precursors of modern natural history museums

European Cabinets of Curiosities

blank blank or blank blank is when, by persistent preference, such as a strong sexual selection process, a phenotype, even too exaggerated, is selected, and thus maintained on the population

Fisherian Runaway, Runaway selection

Thomas Hunt Morgan conducted the blank blank experiment where he studied the species blank blank

Fly Room, Drosophila melanogaster

Aristotle moves the blank of Plato to the nucleus of the individual thing, which is called ousia or blank; blank is the ti of the thing; blank corresponds to the ousia definition, and it is a real and physical aspect of the ousia

Forms, substance, essence, essence

blank blank is called the father of empiricism because he made up the blank blank: 1. blank: collect facts without bias 2. blank: classify facts and identify patterns of regularity 3. blank: from the patterns, infer generalizations about the relations between the facts 4. blank: testing the inference through further observation

Francis Bacon, scientific method, observation, analysis, inference, confirmation

there were three species of land iguanas found in the blank islands by Darwin; the yellowish land iguanas include Conolophus subcristatus, native to blank islands, and Conolophus pallidus, found only on the island of Santa Fe; the marine iguana (Amblyrhynchus cristatus) is also a Galapagos Islands blank

Galapagos, 6, endemic

the blank blank blank blank was derived from Aristotelian Scala Naturae; this is the hierarchy of creation or God's plan of creation; because order is better than disorder, the Creation must follow a perfect plan; the plan consists of a gradation from blank to blank forms, and inferior life forms like blank that have blank/blank soul, progressing to inferior blank such as insects, crustaceans and works; then blank which have blank/blank soul; to the peak of creation: blank with blank soul; the scale progresses until God

Great Chain of Being, non-being, inanimate, plants, vegetative/nutritive, animals, vertebrates, sensitive/animal, man, rational

the blank-blank formula describes a hypothetical population that is not evolving

Hardy-Weinberg

we can assume the gene that causes phenylketonuria is in blank-blank blank because the mutation rate is blank, mate selection is blank with respect to whether or not an individual is a carrier for the PKU allele, natural selection can only act on rare blank individuals who do not follow dietary restrictions, the human population is blank, blank has no effect as many other populations have similar allele frequencies

Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, low, random, homozygous, large, migration

blank-blank blank says that under certain ideal conditions, allele frequencies will remain constant from generation to generation in sexually reproducing populations

Hardy-Weinberg principle

Aristotle's blank of Animals: he distinguished about blank species of animals and arranged these in the Blank of Animals in a graded scale of perfection, or a blank blank, with man at the top; his system had blank grades of animal, from blank potential to blank, expressed in their form at birth; the highest grades gave blank birth to blank and blank creatures, while the lowest grades laid their blank and blank babies in the form of blank; animals came above blank, which came above blank the two large catagories of this scale: blank and blank; blank means soul

History, 500, History, scala naturae, 11, highest, lowest, live, hot, wet, cold, dry, eggs, plants, minerals, no Anima (non living things), Anima (living things), Anima

during the Middle Ages, blank culture embraced science well: ex. blank-blank was a renowned Baghdad based East African prose writer and theologian; in his writings, he described three mechanisms of evolution, blank for existence; transformation of blank into each other, and blank factors he said that blank factors influence organisms to develop new characteristics to ensure survival, thus transforming them into a new species; he also said that animals that survive to blank can pass on their successful characteristics to their offspring

Islamic, Al-Jahiz, struggle, species, environmental, environmental, breed

blank blank blank blank coined the term biology; he believed that classifications were entirely artificial but still useful, especially if they were blank; his notion of classification is closer to modern keys; for example, in his philosophie zoologigue, he divided animal life into vertebrates and invertebrates based on the presence or absence of blank

Jean Baptiste de Lamarck, dichotomous, blood

blank believed in an ongoing spontaneous generation of simple living organisms through action on physical matter by a material life force

Lamarck

blank is best known for his Theory of Blank/Blank where species are immutable, but creatures may move through one species to another based on a motivating force to perfection and complexity, as well as the familiar use and disuse; not only are new species created in this manner, but species can blank in different places or times as environment and innate drive allow

Lamarck, Transmutation/Transformism, re-evolve

the blank blank is a binomial nomenclature system that has a nested hierarchy where groups are based upon shared characteristics

Linnean system

Georges Louis LeClerc Comte de Buffon was anti-blank and did not believe in classification since he thought taxa were arbtirary; he believed that species could blank or blank in response to the environment; he and Johann Blumenbach were believers in blank, the concept that all races have a single origin; they also believed in the blank theory of racial origins which states that both Adam and Eve were Caucasian and the other races came about by blank from environmental factors, such as the sun and poor diet; they believed that it could be reversed if proper environmental control was taken, and that all contemporary forms of man could revert to original Caucasian race

Linnean, degenerate, improve, monogenism, Degeneration, degeneration

blank was a Roman poet and philosopher who wrote blank blank blank, or The Nature of Things, which is didactic work about blank

Lucretius, De Rerum Naturae, epicureanism

an early thinker in what grew to become the study of evolution, blank believed that nature experiments endlessly across the eons, and the organisms that adapt best to their environment have the best chance of surviving, this is later defined as blank blank; living organisms survived because of their blank, blank, or blank; in contrast to modern thought on the subject, he did not believe that new species blank from previously existing ones; he also denied that modern animals which dwell on land were derived from blank ancestors; he challenged the assumption that humans are necessarily blank to animals, nothing that mammalian mothers in the wild recognize and nurture their offspring as do human mothers

Lucretius, natural selection, strength, speed, intellect, evolved, marine, superior

in the blank-blank blank test, they inoculated 20 small cultures, each with a few cells, and incubated them until there were 108 cells per milliliter; at the same time, a much larger culture also was inoculated and incubated until they were 108 cells per milliliter; from that they extracted 20 samples; this is the blank; the blank individual cultures and blank samples of the same size from the large culture were plated in the presence of phage

Luria-Delbruck Fluctuation, control, 20, 20

Darwin, feeling pressured for the writings of his colleagues blank and blank, decided to present his conclusion in the form of a co-authorship presentation at the Linnean Society

Lyell, Hooker

in Wallace's second trip, which was to the blank archipelago, he noticed that there was a clear distinction between the fauna on the blank islands and blank

Malay, Indonesian, Australia

in Wallace's second trip, which was to the blank archipelago, he noticed, like Darwin, that the species seemed to be very well adjusted to their environment; Wallace concluded that the environment was establishing some sort of pressure on species and forcing them to adapt to their circumstances in order to compete for the limited amount of resources, which is influenced by Thomas blank, and thus passing those traits to its blank; in 1858, he wrote a short essay and send it to blank, who he saw as a mentor

Malay, Malthus, progeny, Darwin

blank blank discusses geometric population growth and limited resources

Malthusian competition

blank publications were rediscovered in 1900 by 3 European scientists: de Vries, Correns, von Tschermak, and also his most ardent promoter who is Bateson

Mendel

blank law's of inheritance: 1. law of blank 2. law of blank blank 3. law of blank

Mendel, segregation, independent assortment, dominance

blank blank explains that there are two copies of each gene, 1 from each parent

Mendelian inheritance

Ronald Fischer did work in statistics; he has been described as a genius who almost single-handedly created the foundations for modern statistical science and the single most important figure in 20th century statistics; in genetics, his work used mathematics to combine blank genetics and blank blank; this contributed to the revival of Darwinism in the early 20th century revision of the theory of evolution known as the blank blank; "The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection" (1930) is a core work of the neo-Darwinian modern evolutionary synthesis, it helped define blank blank, and it revived Darwin's idea of blank selection; one of Fischer's favorite aphorisms was "blank selection is a mechanism for generating an exceedingly high degree of improbability."

Mendelian, natural selection, modern synthesis, population genetics, sexual, natural

In "A Critique of the Theory of Evolution (1916)", blank discussed questions such as: "Does blank play any role in evolution? How can selection produce anything blank? Is selection no more than the blank of the unfit? Is selection a blank force?" After eliminating some misunderstandings and explaining in detail the new science of Mendelian heredity and its chromosomal basis, blank concludes, "the evidence shows clearly that the characters of wild animals and plants, as well as those of domesticated races, are inherited both in the blank and in blank forms according to the Mendel's Law". "blank has taken place by the incorporation into the race of those mutations that are beneficial to the life and reproduction of the organism"; Injurious mutations have practically no chance of becoming established. Far from rejecting evolution, as the title of his 1916 book may suggest, blank laid the foundation of the science of genetics. He also laid the theoretical foundation for the mechanism of evolution: blank blank. Heredity was a central plank of Darwin's theory of natural selection, but Darwin could not provide a working theory of heredity. Darwinism could not progress without a correct theory of genetics. By creating that foundation, blank contributed to the neo-Darwinian synthesis, despite his criticism of Darwin at the beginning of his career. Much work on the Evolutionary Synthesis remained to be done.

Morgan, selection, new, elimination, creative, Morgan, wild, domesticated, evolution, Morgan, natural selection, Morgan

blank was interested in evolution throughout his life; he wrote his thesis on the phylogeny of sea spiders, pycnogonids, and wrote four books about evolution; in Evolution and Adaptation, he argued the anti-Darwinist position that selection could never produce wholly new species by acting on slight individual differences; in the earlier stages of his career, he rejected Darwin's theory of blank blank and the Neo-Lamarckian theory of the blank of blank blank; however, after discovering many small stable heritable mutations in Drosophila, he gradually changed his mind; the relevance of blank for evolution is that only characters that are inherited can have an effect in evolution; since he solved the problem of heredity, he was in a unique position to examine critically Darwin's theory of natural selection

Morgan, sexual selection, inheritance, acquired characteristics, mutations

blank blank proposed that all rocks and minerals were originally fluid; floating on the surface of the planet a long time ago, they gradually settled out of the ocean and created blank layers, with new layers forming on top of older ones; blank rock sometimes intruded into the layers, reaching the top and spreading out into a new layer of its own; as the rocks formed, they could trap animal remains, converting them into blank and preserving them deep within their layers; these layers represent a time sequence with the blank layers on the bottom and the blank layers on top, unless later processes disturbed this arrangement; this ordering is now referred to as blank blank blank blank, his most famous contribution to geology

Nicolas Steno, horizontal, molten, fossils, oldest, youngest, Steno's Law of Superposition

Aristotle fled from the blank and ended up in the island of blank, where he spent two years observing and describing the zoology of blank and its surrounding seas, in particular, the blank lagoon in the center of the island; his data in blank of Animals, blank of Animals, blank of Animals, and blank of Animals are assembled from his own observations, statements given by people with specialized knowledge such as beekeepers and fishermen, and less accurate accounts provided by travelers from overseas

Persians, Lesbos, Lesbos, Pyrrha, history, generation, movement, parts

in his dialogues, blank suggests that concrete beings acquire their essence through their relations to blank, which are abstract universals logically or ontologically separate from the objects of sense perception; these blank are often put forth as the models or paradigms of which sensible things are blank; blank bodies are in constant flux and are thus imperfect, so by his reckoning, are less real than the blank which are eternal, unchanging, and complete; typical examples of blank are largeness, smallness, equality, unity, goodness, beauty, and justice

Plato, Forms, Forms, copies, sensible, Forms, Forms

blank believes that the world of forms and world of matter do not overlap; the world of matter contains blank, and the world of blank is derived from the world of blank; the world of forms contains the blank form of the world

Plato, things, forms, matter, ideal

during the blank, there was effort to restore the values of classic Greece and the glory of the Old Roman Empire; works and thoughts of classic philosophers such as blank came back to frame; instead of appealing to superstition and presumed truth, one starts with observing and describing animal accurately; from those observations, it is clear that the hyena's features are a specialization for blank, which is why they dig up corpses and feed on dead things, as well as blank, hence the big teeth and powerful claws and jaws; previously, they were simply labeled evil

Renaissance, Aristotle, scavenging, predation

blank blank is an environmental science book by Rachel Carson; the book was published on 27 Sept 1962 and it documented the adverse effects on the environment of the indiscriminate use of pesticides; The impetus for this book was a letter written in January 1958 by Carson's friend, Olga Owens Huckins, to The Boston Herald, describing the death of birds around her property resulting from the aerial spraying of blank to kill mosquitoes, a copy of which Huckins sent to Carson. Carson later wrote that this letter prompted her to study the environmental problems caused by chemical pesticides

Silent Spring, DDT

the blank-blank chromosome theory, which is known as the blank theory of blank, is a fundamental unifying theory of genetics which identifies blank as the carriers of genetic material

Sutton-Boveri, chromosome, inheritance, chromosomes

the blank-blank theory states simply that blank, which are seen in all dividing cells and pass from one generation to the next, are the basis for all genetic inheritance; over a period of time, a random blank creates changes in the DNA sequence of a gene; genes are located on blank

Sutton-Boveri, chromosomes, mutation, chromosomes

the blank-blank theory correctly explains the mechanism underlying the laws of Mendelian inheritance by identifying chromosomes with the paired factors, such as blank, required by Mendel's laws; it also states that chromosomes are blank structures with genes located at specific sites called blank along them

Sutton-Boveri, particles, linear, loci

E. coli case - the blank blank virus uses E. coli cells to replicate itself, killing the blank in the process - it was observed that some colonies of E. coli developed a mutation, and get resistant to this blank

T1 phage, phage

blank worked on the classification of plants; his work is considered a foundational based on blank distinctions, that could be later summarized in branching diagrams

Theophrastus, dichotomial

blank and blank spent most of their first year collecting near Belem, then explored inland separately, occasionally meeting to discuss their findings; in 1849, they were briefly joined by another young explorer, botanist Richard Spruce, along with Wallace's younger brother Herbert; Herbert left soon thereafter, dying two years later from yellow fever, but Spruce, like blank, would spend over ten years collecting South America; blank continued charting the Rio Negro for 4 years, collecting specimens and making notes on the peoples and languages he encountered as well as the geography, flora, fauna; in July 1852, blank embarked for the UK on the brig Helen; after 26 days at sea, the ship's cargo caught fire and the crew was forced to abandon ship; all of the specimens blank had on the ship, mostly collected during the last, and most interesting, two years of his trip, were lost; he managed to save a few notes and pencil sketches

Wallace, Bates, Bates, Wallace, Wallace, Wallace

from 1854 to 1862, blank travelled through the Malay Archipelago or East Indies to collect specimens for sale and to study natural history; a set of 80 bird skeletons he collected in Indonesia and associated documentation can be found in the Cambridge University Museum of Zoology; his observations of the marked zoological differences across the narrow strait in the archipelago led to his proposing the zoogeographical boundary now known as the blank line; blank collected more than 126000 specimens in the Malay Archipelago, more than 80000 beetles alone; several thousand of them represented species new to science; one of his better-known species descriptions during this trip is that of the gliding tree frog Rhacophorus nigropalmatus, known as Wallace's flying frog

Wallace, Wallace, Wallace

in the world of forms, form means blank; in the world of matter, matter means blank

actuality, potentiality

blank/blank blank theory shows in experiments: - there are no blank; some bacteria will survive and reproduce blank daughter cells; selection begins only after the addition of blank, not before - the proportion of potential survivors which are blank bacteria, will remain constant - if you study a large number of small cultures, the proportion of resistant bacteria will remain blank; size of the culture is irrelevant

adaptation/induced mutation, clones, resistant, phage, resistant, constant

blank/blank blank theory - every bacterium has a small but constant probability of acquiring resistance as a result of getting contact with the phages; thus the number of blank cells will depend only on the number of bacteria and phages on each plate

adaptation/induced mutation, resistant

there are 2 competing hypotheses about mutations: 1. blank/blank blank theory 2. blank/blank blank theory

adaptation/induced mutation, spontaneous/random mutation

blank, whatever they might be, arise with the individuals, members of a population; those might help an individual to increase his blank, but if he is not successful in passing away those characteristics, those new features will be blank within a generation; on the other hand, features that increase blank will most certainly be passed on, even if it is nonadvantageous otherwise

adaptations, survivability, lost, fitness

blank blank is rapid divergent evolution of many closely related species

adaptive radiation

Wright's explanation for evolutionary stasis was that organisms come to occupy blank peaks; in order to evolve to another, higher peak, the species would first have to pass through a valley of blank intermediate stages; this could happen by blank blank if the population is small enough; if a species was divided into small populations, some could find higher blank; if there was some blank blank between the population, these adaptations could spread to the rest of the species; Wright had a debate about this with Fischer, who felt that most populations in nature were too blank for these effects of genetic drift to be important

adaptive, maladaptive, genetic drift, peaks, gene flow, large

there are 2 types of purines: blank and blank

adenine, guanine

blank is a variation of the same gene

allele

uses of Hardy-Weinberg formula: 1. can be used to determine blank frequencies if assumptions are met 2. can be to test whether a population is blank; if allele frequencies are not at HW equilibrium, it means that blank is occurring for that gene

allele, evolving, evolution

in Hardy Weinberg evolution, the blank frequency does not change, but the blank frequency does

allele, genotype

if there is no natural selection, mutation, gene flow, drift, or mate choice, then the frequency of the blank will not change from one generation to the next; such a population is in blank-blank blank

alleles, Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium

genetic drift is also known as blank blank or blank blank blank

allelic drift, Sewel Wright Effect

blank/blank blank is when populations become separated by a physical barrier; they develop a number of genetic differences that distinguish them, including a reproductive barrier; at this point the two populations can be considered to be separate species

allopatric/geographic speciation

blank is when 2 species mate and produce an offspring that is reproductively isolated from both parents

allopolyploidy

blank is when an individual has more than two chromosome sets that are derived from different species

allopolyploidy

point mutations may shorten or alter the blank blank in a protein; that may affect the blank of the protein; change may be beneficial or harmful, it is totally blank

amino acid, function, random

translation is a process where a sequence of blank blank is put together in an order indicated by the bases in the blank

amino acids, mRNA

blank/blank blank occurs through the gradual accumulation of changes in a lineage over time until the descendants are sufficiently distinct from the original ancestor to be considered a new species

anagenesis/phyletic speciation

types of speciation: 1. blank/blank speciation 2. blank/blank speciation 3. blank/blank speciation 4. blank speciation

anagenesis/phyletic, cladogenesis/divergent, allopatric/geographic, sympatric

Richard Owen was a comparative anatomist who made the distinction between blank and blank; the Creator chooses a blank to adapt the animal to its environment; in discovering these, we can determine how the Creator made the animal

analog, homolog, homology

blank is when a part or organ in one animal has the same function as another part or organ in a different animal

analogy

during the Voyage, Darwin convinced himself that since Earth changed over time, so do living things; he reasons that the similarity he observed between organisms occurred because they had a common blank; Darwin viewed this change over time as a blank; he also believed that blank could produce gaps in lineages of organisms

ancestor, tree, extinction

blank is when one or more chromosomes is missing or in excess

aneuploidy

migration and selection are blank, since the frequency of the alleles will depend on whether selection pressure is greater than or lesser than migration rate

antagonistic

blank blank is when the selection may act positively for one trait and negatively for another

antagonistic pleiotropy

blank means that a concept should be applicable in all circumstances

applicability

ex of blank; physicists would be upset if their concept of element applied only to metals

applicability

blank blank or blank blank blank is when individuals mate more often with individuals of the same phenotype

assortative mating, positive assortative mating

blank is when an individual that has more than two chromosome sets that are all derived from a single species

autopolyploidy

blank is when meiosis fails to reduce chromosomes to haploid number

autopolyploidy

types of polyploidy: 1. blank 2. blank

autopolyploidy, allopolyploidy

a classic example of blank blank in human populations involves the gene for sickle cell anemia

balanced polymorphism

blank blank is the retention of all 3 forms or genotypes in following generations

balanced polymorphism

spiders are known since Darwin for their blank behavior; when they are juveniles, they move to a blank ground, such as a flower, a blade of grass, etc., and they weave a line of blank; with time, the wind will create a drag force that, combined with electrostatic forces, can lift and carry the spider up and away for vast distances; Darwin himself reported spiders landing on the Beagle, 200 miles away from the land; he reported spiders can also move through water using their front legs as blank; we've now found that spiders actively adopt postures that allow them to use the wind direction to control their journey on water. They even drop blank and stop on the water surface when they want. This ability compensates for the risks of landing on water after the uncontrolled spider flights

ballooning, high, silk, 200, sails, silk

physical blank to gene flow can be natural; ex. impassable mountain ranges, oceans, or vast deserts; or blank, man-made barriers: For example, it was recently shown that interstate highway I-64 in Virginia separates the two separate populations of red-backed salamanders (Plethodon cinereus). Notice also that environmental barriers are blank. The same highway would be hardly a problem for a bird or a deer for example

barriers, artificial, relative

blank can be a signaling system that allows potential partners to recognize each other

behavior

ex of blank isolation grey bush cricket mating call vs field cricket sounds

behavioral

blank blank is when divergence in behavior can act as a barrier to mating

behavioral isolation

evolution causes these patterns: blank, blank and blank

biodiversity, inheritance, variability

blank blank is the change in properties of populations of organisms that transcend the lifetime of a single individual

biological evolution

According to the blank blank definition, members of one species are reproductively isolated from members of all other species

biological species

blank blank concept - criticisms examples Checkerspot butterflies (Euphydryas editha) in different meadows don't mate with those in neighboring meadows. But they are all identical and have almost identical genotype frequencies - are they the same species?

biological species

blank blank concept does not account for the liger, which is a hybrid offspring of a male lion and a female tiger

biological species

blank blank concept is an integration of population level genetics with evolutionary theory

biological species

blank blank concept is not perfect; it does not account for asexual organisms or fossil organisms

biological species

blank blank concept was first proposed in the 1950s as a result of the modern synthesis

biological species

blank blank concept states that a blank is a group of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations, which are unable to successfully mate or reproduce with other such groups

biological species, species

Aristotle's work on blank is lost, but blank books on plants by his pupil blank have survived

botany, 2, Theophrastus

blank blank is when populations that normally have large populations may pass through occasional periods caused by random effects when only a small number of individuals survive

bottleneck effect

during periods of blank blank, population allele frequencies can change dramatically due to chance

bottleneck effect

ex of blank blank - northern elephant seals have reduced genetic variation probably because of a population bottleneck humans inflicted on them in the 1890s; hunting reduced their population size to as few as 20 individuals at the end of the 19th century; their population has since rebounded to over 30,000, but their genes still carry the marks of this bottleneck: they have much less genetic variation than a population of southern elephant seals that was not so intensely hunted

bottleneck effect

cheetahs went through a genetic blank during the last Ice Age; as the few survivors interbred, blank among the offspring increased and harmful recessive mutations were paired more frequently in genetic recombination to produce homozygous blank individuals that died

bottleneck, homozygosity, recessive

blank are proteins that promote chemical reactions, such as blank

catalysts, enzymes

Islamic philosophers: non eternalism ideas: Muhammad al-Nakhshabi believed that blank bodies evolved into blank, which became blank, which in turn developed to become blank, which yielded blank Nasir ad-Din Tusi believed that the universe originally consisted of equal and similar blank, but internal contradictions developed later on, leading some blank to evolve at a different pace and different manner from other blank, which evolved to blank, which evolved to blank, then blank, and finally, blank

celestial, plants, animals, humans, elements, substances, substances, minerals, plants, animals, humans

allele frequencies go up or down from one generation to the next by blank alone

chance

alleles can become fixed or lost just by blank

chance

blank is a factor where new genetic variations arise at random

chance

blank is a random or stochastic/unpredictable event

chance

evolution by natural selection involves 2 main factors: blank and blank

chance, sorting

chromosomal rearrangements are also known as blank blank

chromosomal aberrations

2 types of chromosomal mutations: 1. blank blank blank 2. blank blank

chromosomal number changes, chromosomal rearrangements

blank blank is a change in the location of genes within a chromosome

chromosomal rearrangement

blank mutations are major changes in the chromosome that can have a significant impact on the blank, often affects many genes at once

chromosomal, phenotype

blank blank is a group of geographically contiguous or recently separated populations which share a similar chromosome complement by descent

chromosome race

Thomas Hunt Morgan demonstrated that genes are carried on blank and are the mechanical basis of heredity; these discoveries formed the basis of modern science of genetics

chromosomes

blank/blank blank occurs when the original lineage splits into 2 different new forms, creating a blank blank; all evolutionary process may happen differently in each branch

cladogenesis/divergent speciation, branching pattern

in blank/blank speciation, genetic variation occurs independently in the two groups. Lack of blank prevents sharing of these independent genetic variations. Thus, the genetic variation on which natural selection acts is different in the two groups. blank may be different for the two groups, especially if they live in different places. If selection differs, different variants will be favored in the two groups.

cladogenesis/divergent, interbreeding, selection

blank is the pattern of genotypes and phenotypes over a geographical range

cline

blank blank is the entire nucleic acid sequence that is necessary for the synthesis of a functional protein or RNA

coding gene

in blank, both alleles are expressed independently

codominance

overdominance only occurs when there is blank or blank blank; otherwise, the blank would not be distinguishable from the homozygous dominant

codominance, incomplete dominance, heterozygote

a smaller number of chromosomes may allow favorable genetic blank to stabilize in environments that do not change

combinations

Darwin emphasized blank between individuals of the same species to survive and reproduce, while Wallace emphasized blank pressures on varieties and species forcing them to become adapted to their local conditions, leading populations in different locations to diverge

competition, environmental

Lamarck referred to a tendency for organisms to become more blank as they move up a ladder of progress; they move in a steady, predictable way based on the fundamental physical principles of blank; simple organisms never disappeared because they are constantly being created by spontaneous generation in what has been described as blank-blank biology; he is sometimes regarded as believing in a blank, or goal-oriented, process where organisms became more blank as they evolved, though as a materialist, he emphasized that these forces must originate necessarily from underlying physical principles

complex, alchemy, steady-state, teleological, perfect

migration and selection are blank if the number of migrants with a genotype is large and natural selection favors that phenotype, since it will increase rapidly in the population, especially if the migration is a recurring one

complimentary

if a blank number of bacteria and phages is used for each culture, and the incubation time is blank, there should be little variation or blank on the number of resistant cells from plate to plate; this is the blank/blank blank theory

constant, constant, fluctuation, adaptation/induced mutation

ex of blank evolution - marsupial and placental mammal

convergent

blank blank is when organisms from different ancestors become more similar as they adapt to similar environments

convergent evolution

naturalists believed that matter was composed of different combinations of tiny blank, or molecules; blank blank argued that these in the teeth were replaced bit by bit, by other blank; in this gradual process, the teeth did not lose their overall shape as they turned from tissue into blank

corpuscles, Nicolas Steno, corpuscles, stone

a classic example of a blank would be Beringia, the land and maritime area bounded on the west by the Lena River in Russia; on the east by the Mackenzie River in Canada, that is now submerged but once connected Asia and North America (trough Siberia and Alaska), now separated by the Bering strait. Beringia that It is believed that a small human population of at most a few thousand arrived in Beringia from eastern Siberia during the Last Glacial Maximum before expanding into the settlement of the Americas sometime after 16,500 years BP

corridor

blank is an avenue of favorable environment

corridor

blank operates as a 2-way passage for organisms to move between 2 areas

corridor

according to George Gaylord Simpson, there are 3 basic types of avenues where gene flow takes place: 1. blank 2. blank 3. blank

corridor, filter, sweepstake

blank are quite like bridges; they are usually narrow, and again a blank concept, piece of favorable terrain connecting two larger areas

corridors, relative

blank blank is when, in meiosis, homologous chromosomes can exchange parts; this is the formation of blank chromatids

crossing over, recombinant

blank blank is a disease where thick and sticky mucus blocks the airway and pancreatic and bile ducts; q=0.00005, except in Europeans, where q=0.0005

cystic fibrosis

blank is classification of cells

cytotype

gene flow can blank the blank of a population; ex. the great tit (Parus major) on the Dutch island of Vlieland; In Parus major populations on Vlieland, the yearly survival rate of females born in the central population is lower than that of females born in the eastern population. Gene flow from the mainland is much higher to the central population than it is to the eastern population, and birds from the mainland are selected against in both populations. These data suggest that gene flow from the mainland has blank the central population from adapting fully to its local conditions; "Alleles transferred by gene flow can also affect how well populations are adapted to local blank conditions. Researchers studying the songbird Parus major (great tit) on the small Dutch island of Vlieland noted survival differences between two populations on the island. The survival rate of females born in the eastern population is twice that of females born in the central population, regardless of where the females eventually settle and raise offspring. This finding suggests that females born in the eastern population are better adapted to life on the island than females born in the central population. But field studies also showed that the two populations are connected by high levels of gene flow (blank), which should reduce genetic differences between them. So how can the eastern population be better adapted to life on Vlieland than the central population? the answer lies in the unequal amounts of gene flow from the mainland. In any given year, 43% of the first-time breeders in the central population are immigrants from the mainland, compared with only 13% in the eastern population. Birds with mainland genotypes survive and reproduce poorly on Vlieland, and in the eastern population, selection reduces the frequency of these genotypes. In the central population, however, gene flow from the mainland is so blank that it overwhelms the effects of selection. As a result, females born in the central population have many blank genes, reducing the degree to which members of that population are adapted to life on the island. Researchers are currently investigating why gene flow is so much higher in the central population and why birds with mainland genotypes survive and reproduce poorly on Vlieland."

decrease, fitness, prevented, environmental, mating, high, immigrant

even with the recognition that most mutations were blank, once in a while, a hopeful monster could give birth to a new species

deleterious

the neutral theory is a solution for the blank mutations, since it assume that even if most mutations are blank; they are quickly eliminated by natural selection and they do not make significant contributions to variation within and between species at the molecular level

deleterious, deleterious

mutations that are not blank are assumed to be mostly neutral rather than beneficial; in addition to assuming the primacy of neutral mutations, the neutral theory assumes that the fate of neutral mutations is determined by the sampling processes described by specific models of random blank blank

deleterious, genetic drift

blank and blank can happen at the same time; for example, in meiosis, blank chromosomes can exchange parts

deletion, duplication, homologous

effect of gene flow on frequencies equation:

delta q = -m(q0-qm)

phenylketonuria is treated through blank; if not treated, blank can build up causing intellectual disability

diet, phenylalanine

blank blank is when different phenotypes differ in terms of reproductive success

differential fitness

you can differentiate between three basic types of avenues were gene flow take place based on the level of blank: while the blank are facilitators of genetic flow, blank are almost impediments, while blank are something in between

difficulty, corridors, sweepstakes, filters

Mendel found support for the law of independent assortment in his blank blank experiments; in his blank crosses, an idealized blank:blank ratio between dominant and recessive phenotypes resulted; in blank crosses, however, he found a blank:blank:blank:blank ratios; this shows that each of the two alleles is inherited independently from the other, with a blank:blank phenotypic ratio for each; blank blank occurs in eukaryotic organisms during meiotic blank blank, and produces a gamete with a mixture of the organism's chromosomes

dihybrid cross, monohybrid, 3:1, dihybrid, 9:3:3:1, 3:1, prophase I

blank selection example: Biston betularia - white phenotype - dark phenotype originally, the vast majority of peppered moths had light coloration widespread population - soot covered the trees and the white moths became more obvious to predators dark-colored moths flourished because of their ability to hide on the darkened trees, so they left more offspring

directional

in blank selection, phenotypes at one extreme die off or fail to reproduce and those at the other extreme leave a higher number of offspring; this shifts the average frequency distribution towards the favored blank

directional, extreme

3 patterns of natural selection in quantitative characters: 1. blank 2. blank 3. blank/blank

directional, stabilizing, disruptive/diversifying

blank blank or blank blank blank is when individuals mate more often with individuals of a different phenotype

disassortative mating, negative assortative mating

genetic drift causes populations to blank

diverge

blank blank is when descendants become more and more different from each other over time

divergent evolution

3 patterns of speciation: 1. blank blank 2. blank blank 3. blank blank

divergent evolution, convergent evolution, parallel evolution

in a hypothetical population ex. of blank selection, gray and Himalayan rabbits are better able to blend with a rocky environment than white rabbits

diversifying

blank selection example: males with elaborate horns or antlers may attract more mates butt die younger because they are costly to grow, make the animal clumsy and more obvious to predators; males with no horns or antlers attract fewer mates but live longer, giving them more chances to reproduce or a higher overlap of generations with the long-horned ones; males with blank horns or antlers attract fewer mates but still die young because of them (this is why blank phenotype does not exist)

diversifying, intermediate, intermediate

in blank/blank selection, extreme phenotypes become more frequent from generation to generation because they survive to reproduce while individuals with intermediate phenotypes die or fail to reproduce

diversifying/disruptive

nested hierarchy of Linnean system: blank, blank, blank, blank, blank, blank, blank, blank, blank

domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species, subspecies

law of blank states that some alleles have a stronger signal than others, which is the blank allele, and it masks the presence of the weaker one, which is the blank allele

dominance, dominant, recessive

Mendel's law of blank states that blank alleles will always be masked by blank alleles; therefore, a cross between a homozygous dominant and a homozygous recessive will always express the blank phenotype, while still having a blank genotype; this law can easily be explained with the help of a blank cross experiment; in a cross between two organisms pure for any pair or pairs of contrasting traits, the character that appears in the blank generation is called blank and the one which is suppressed is called blank; each character is controlled by a pair of dissimilar factors; only one of the characters expresses; the one which is expressed in the blank generation is called blank

dominance, recessive, dominant, dominant, heterozygous, monohybrid, F1, dominant, recessive, F1, dominant

when selection acts against the blank phenotype, the blank allele will be quickly removed from the population; if the blank phenotype is lethal before the individual reaches sexual maturity, the blank allele will be removed in just one generation and the blank allele will be fixed

dominant, dominant, dominant, dominant, recessive

sometimes, selection can occur against the blank phenotype; when the blank allele is blank and causes death before reproductive age, it will be removed from the population in just one generation; only blank blank will be left to mate; all of the F2 offspring will be blank blank genotype; this allele becomes blank in the population

dominant, dominant, lethal, homozygous recessive, homozygous recessive, fixed

RNAse1B is a blank in leaf-eating colobine monkeys; this allows them to produce more digestive enzymes allowing them to specialize on leaves

duplication

The sialic acid synthetase (SAS) gene is a blank in this Antarctic fish. One copy continues the blank function of binding to cells as part of the immune system. The other copy binds to ice crystals preventing them from growing inside the fish body - in other words it is an antifreeze that lets the fish live in cold waters

duplication, original

blank of an ancestral gene permits the daughter genes to specialize, leading to two possible outcomes: 1. more blank 2. new blank

duplication, product, function

ex of blank isolation - fence lizards in sand dunes, grasslands, and lava fields - all camouflaged

ecological

blank blank is when habitat preference keeps populations from encountering each other and mating

ecological isolation

pre-zygotic isolating mechanisms: 1. blank blank 2. blank blank 3. blank blank 4. blank blank 5. blank blank 6. blank blank

ecological isolation, temporal isolation, behavioral isolation, structural isolation, gametic isolation, gametic mortality

Sewall Wright introduced the concept of blank population size; Wright was convinced that the interaction of blank blank and the other evolutionary forces was important in the process of adaptation; he described the relationship between genotype or phenotype and fitness as blank blank or blank blank; on these landscapes, blank blank blank is the height plotted against horizontal axes representing the blank blank or the average blank of the population; blank blank would lead to a population climbing the nearest peak, while blank blank would cause random wandering

effective, genetic drift, fitness surfaces, evolutionary landscapes, mean population fitness, allele frequencies, phenotypes, natural selection, genetic drift

Dermochelys coriacea - Leatherback marine turtle - Goes back to the same beach to lay blank

eggs

The chemical and its breakdown products DDE and DDD caused blank blank and population blank in multiple North American and European bird of prey species. DDE-related blank blank is considered a major reason for the decline of the bald eagle, brown pelican, peregrine falcon and osprey. However, birds vary in their sensitivity to these chemicals, with birds of prey, waterfowl and song birds being more susceptible than chickens and related species. Even in 2010, California condors that feed on sea lions at Big Sur that in turn feed in the Palos Verdes Shelf area of the Montrose Chemical Superfund site exhibited continued blank-shell problems, though DDT's role in the decline of the California condor is disputed

eggshell thinning, declines, eggshell thinning, thin

blank method is a method of observing and describing phenomenon; proposed by blank

empirical, Aristotle

blank is the ideology that all concepts and knowledge were ultimately based on perception, in what can be felt and observed; proposed by blank

empiricism, Aristotle

blank regulates how much and when a gene product is made

enhancer

a blank is a short 50 to 1500 bp region of DNA that can be bound by proteins called blank to increase the likelihood that transcription of a particular gene will occur

enhancer, activators

a coding gene includes blank, blank, and blank regions in the blank reading frame

enhancer, promoter, coding, open

Etienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire believed that the blank, not the species, is the driving force to transmutation; believed in a blank, or single fundamental unit, for all lifeforms

environment, archetype

nature of the blank - it can either create blank to gene flow or blank allowing a great deal of gene flow

environment, barriers, corridors

because the blank keeps changing, what is favorable also keeps changing, so species keep changing accordingly or goes blank

environment, extinct

combination of blank and blank traits: by absorbing UV radiation from the sun; melanin controls the amount that penetrates the skin; UV radiation is needed to make vitamin D, but excess UV can damage health and destroy vitamin B (folate)

environment, quantitative

blank is the ideology where the greatest good is to seek modest pleasures in order to attain a state of tranquility

epicureanism

blank is the interaction between alleles in which one allele hides the effects of another allele

epistasis

blank is the relationship between genes, where an allele of one gene hides or masks the visible output, or phenotype, of another gene, producing an entirely new trait

epistasis

interaction between genes: 1. blank 2. blank 3. blank-blank

epistasis, pleiotropy, trade-offs

blank is an idea or form

essence

In a pre Darwinian age, species blank made sense. Such, however, is out of step with contemporary evolutionary theory. Evolutionary theory provides its own methods for explaining variation within a species. It tells us that the boundaries between species are vague. And it tells us that a number of forces conspire against the existence of a trait in all and only the members of a species. From a biological perspective, species blank is no longer a plausible position.

essentialism, essentialism

blank is the ideology that there is no beginning and no end; proposed by blank

eternalism, Aristotle

Plato was interested in the blank, blank, or blank world

ethereal, theoretical, ideal

blank is a change in species over time from one generation to the next

evolution

for blank to occur, the genetic information must change from one generation to the next; therefore it is the blank that evolves, not the individual organism

evolution, species

around the 1930s and 1940s, we see the rise of the blank blank or the blank blank as a result of combined efforts of geneticists, paleontologists, and systematists

evolutionary synthesis, modern synthesis

individuals are affected by natural selection, and they grow and change, but they do not blank

evolve

blank are coding regions

exons

consequences of mutation: relates to the blank

expression

Georges Cuvier argued that species are immutable but could go blank, as Earth is subjected to periodic waves of destruction; this ideology is blank

extinct, catastrophism

blank blank blank is when in some species, males and females, or juveniles and adults, look very different and the members may have been identified as different species

extreme sexual dimorphism

ex. of blank blank blank The 6.2 mm long male Photocorynus spiniceps with the claim to the world's smallest vertebrate, was fused to the middle of the back of a 46 mm long female. Photocorynus spiniceps, parasitic male, 7.4mm, attached to a 46-mm female, ZMUC P92133 (after Bertelsen, 1951) The sex of a green spoonworm is thus determined by external, environmental factors (the presence or absence of bonellin), not by internal, genetic factors (chromosomes), as is the case with most other sexually-differentiated organisms. This environmental blank determination helps green spoonworm populations respond to the availability of burrows.

extreme sexual dimorphism, sex

after several generations, all of the members of the population will have the blank feature

favorable

in the next generation, the offspring that inherit the blank trait are more numerous

favorable

clues for detecting inbreeding: ex. Plasmodium falciparum 1. strongly blank biased sex ratios suggest parasite population is descended from a single female founder; if this is so, then all mating in the parasite population must be between blank 2. the parasite population shows an excess of blank relative to Hardy-Weinberg expectation; this is the expected outcome of inbreeding

female, siblings, homozygote

a blank is a favorable avenue for dispersal for some organisms, but not all

filter

an example of a blank is the number of butterfly species in the Antilles is small compared with equal-sized areas in Central and South America. Only 285 species are found with the maximum number 175 on Hispaniola, whereas 653 species occur outside the Antilles on Trinidad. The number in the Antilles is comparable to that of southern Florida, however, which has 119. On relation to butterflies, the Caribbean sea works as a filter for getting into the lesser Antilles. The blank is just a barrier for some species, not to all

filter, filter

blank can be measured as the ratio of offspring that survive to reproduce to the offspring that we expect to survive if there is no selection

fitness

blank is the relative ability of genotypes to survive and reproduce

fitness

there is a correlation between parents and offspring in their contribution to future generations; blank is heritable

fitness

the blank or blank blank is the capacity to leave descendants

fitness, reproductive success

the blank or blank blank of a biological entity is the average per capita rate of increasing its numbers

fitness, reproductive success

both Aristotle and Plato agree that species have blank properties; blank and blank are both immutable; this relates to the ideology of blank; they also believe that Earth has always existed exactly as it is today; it is blank; they both believe that life arises from nonlife, which is known as a blank blank; they believe in the blank blank, which is a hierarchical organization of life increasing perfection; finally, they believe that nature is in balance

fixed, substance, essence, essentialism, immutable, spontaneous generation, scala naturae

the number of resistant cells will vary or blank significantly from experiment to experiment, reflecting the times when those mutations happened on each culture; this is the blank/blank blank theory

fluctuate, spontaneous/random mutation

blank blank occurs when a few individuals become isolated from a larger population and settle in and are without previous members of the species

founder effect

in blank blank events, allele frequencies in the founder population can be different from those in the larger parent population

founder effect

blank mutation is a genetic mutation caused by the insertion or deletion of a number of nucleotides that is not evenly divisible by 3 from a DNA sequence

frameshift

duplication can cause new blank

function

ex of blank isolation Marine animals often discharge their eggs and sperm into the surrounding water, where fertilization takes place. Gametes of different species may fail to attract one another. For example, the sea urchins Strongylocentrotus purpuratus and S. franciscanus can be induced to release their eggs and sperm simultaneously, but most of the fertilizations that result are between eggs and sperm of the same species. In animals with internal fertilization, sperm cells may be unable to function in the sexual ducts of females of different species. In plants, pollen grains of one species typically fail to germinate on the stigma of another species, so that the pollen tubes never reach the ovary where fertilization would occur.

gametic

blank blank is when female and male gametes are not compatible or do not attract each other

gametic isolation

blank blank is when thee occasional fertilization between different populations does not occur because the environment created by one partner kills the gametes of the other

gametic mortality

blank is a portion of DNA that is responsible for a particular characteristic or function

gene

blank is the basic physical and functional unit of heredity

gene

blank blank is the loss of a segment of a chromosome

gene deletion

blank blank is when part of the chromosome is duplicated and the organism gets multiple copies of a gene

gene duplication

blank blank includes lots of different kinds of events, such as pollen being blown to a new destination or people moving to new cities or countries; if versions are carried to a population whose gene versions previously did not exist, blank blank can be a very important source of genetic variation; this phenomena do not create any new blank; they just move around existing ones

gene flow, gene flow, alleles

blank blank or blank blank is any movement of individuals and the genetic material they carry, from one population to another

gene flow, gene migration

blank blank or blank blank is the phenomena of genes moving from one population to another, thus altering the genotype and allelic frequency

gene flow, gene migration

once genetic variation has been established, what causes the allele frequencies to change in a population over generations? 1. blank blank 2. blank blank 3. blank blank only number blank, however, causes blank evolution

gene flow, genetic drift, natural selection, 3, adaptive

the avenues along which blank blank take place are traditionally described in terms of their ability to funnel species into blank locations

gene flow, new

when evolution occurs, the composition of the blank blank changes as alleles are added or removed; during evolution, blank frequencies change

gene pool, allele

blank is an inheritable characteristic located in a specific part of a blank, which is called the blank

gene, chromosome, locus

choosy females acquire sperm blank whose primary effect is to produce blank who choose based on the same characteristic and blank that show that characteristic even if it blank their survival; blank have increased mating; blank have attractive blank; the original blank therefore has lots of great grandchiildren

genes, daughters, sons, decreases, sons, daughters, sons, female

HW Equilibrium is about individual blank, not entire blank; even when a population is overall stable, some genes might be under blank blank blank

genes, genotypes, Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium

blank blank can cause changes that have no use at all but that become permanent in a population

genetic drift

blank blank can cause changes that may be useful to be lost

genetic drift

blank blank is a change in frequency due to chance

genetic drift

blank blank is the change in allelic frequency in a population by random chance

genetic drift

blank blank occurs in finite populations, even with completely random mating, and leads to changes in both genotype and allele frequencies

genetic drift

evolution is caused by these processes: blank blank, blank blank, blank, and blank blank

genetic drift, gene flow, mutation, natural selection

in natural populations, there is a tension between blank blank and blank

genetic drift, migration

Wilhelm Weinberg developed the principle of blank blank independently of Hardy. He delivered an exposition of his ideas in a lecture on January 13, 1908, before the Verein für vaterländische Naturkunde in Württemberg (Society for the Natural History of the Fatherland in Württemberg), about six months before Hardy's paper was published in English. His lecture was printed later that year in the society's yearbook. Weinberg's contributions were unrecognized in the English speaking world for more than 35 years. Curt Stern, a German scientist who immigrated to the United States before World War II, pointed out in a brief paper in Science that Weinberg's exposition was both earlier and more comprehensive than Hardy's. Before 1943, the concepts in blank blank that are known today as the Hardy-Weinberg principle

genetic equilibrium, genetic equilibrium

blank blank concept is used by prokaryote workers; if there is larger than 98% similarity in large subunit RNA gene sequence, it is the same species

genetic species

blank blank concept states that a species is a set of individuals with genetic sequence that is similar

genetic species

blank blank discusses alleles of individual genes combining to give continuous variation

genetic variation

blank species concept is similar to blank species concept

genetic, morphological

blank is the allelic composition

genotype

blank blank Protein: The way it works is that heat shock proteins bind to other proteins and act as a kind of molecular scaffolding, helping them stay the right shape in the face of stressful conditions (ie, heat). When it's not busy protecting proteins from the effect of blank, Hsp90 binds to various proteins that are inherently unstable (like signaling proteins, for example) and keeps them from deforming. In effect Hsp90 hides blank, stopping the genetic changes from having an effect and so protecting them from selection. By masking blank, Hsp90 allows them to build up over generations, safe from selection's cleansing scalpel; when Hsp90 is missing or isn't working properly, all of the mutations get exposed at once

heat shock, heat, mutations, mutations

both processes, inbreeding and genetic drift, cause a decline in blank

heterozygosity

in selection against the blank, the allele in blank frequency at the onset of selection will eventually be removed from the population

heterozygote, lowest

blank is having two different alleles for a particular gene

heterozygous

when an individual is blank, only one of the two alleles is passed to a gamete

heterozygous

the blank genotype has both the dominant and recessive allele; as the blank allele increases, so does the number of blank, until it reaches a point where the number of blank alleles equals the number of blank alleles; both are blank

heterozygous, dominant, heterozygotes, dominant, recessive, 0.5

a blank standard deviation indicates that the data points are spread out over a wider range of values

high

Luria-Delbruck Fluctuation Test: the 20 individual cultures showed blank variation in the number of resistant colonies: 11 plates had 0 resistant colonies, and the remainder had 1, 1, 3, 5, 5, 6, 35, 64, and 107 per plate; in each experiment, the sampling error is blank; but between experiments, there is variation, indicating some support for the blank theory; the 20 samples from the large culture showed much less variation from plate to plate, all in the range of 14 to 26; with a large number of small cultures, the total number of resistant bacteria blank wildly from culture to culture, within a given experiment; this provides good evidence for the blank hypothesis; A possible objection: maybe the probability of survival by the second hypothesis is highly blank in small cultures. This is possible, but remained a poor possibility in light of the authors' demonstration that despite the wild fluctuations in numbers among cultures, the mutation rate remained blank

high, low, mutation, fluctuates, mutation, variable, constant

if the phage was inducing mutations, there was no reason why fluctuation should be blank on individual cultures, because we are all exposed to phage similarly; the best explanation for this is that mutation occurs blank in time; the early mutations gave blank numbers of resistant cells because they had time to produce many resistant descendants; the later mutations produced blank resistant cells

higher, randomly, higher, fewer

blank is similarity in structure resulting from shared ancestor

homology

blank is when different animals share the same organ under every variety of form and function

homology

in selection against the blank, an equilibrium between the alleles is reached

homozygotes

when selection is against the blank, only F1 heterozygotes survive to mate and produce the F2 generation; both alleles are preserved because the blank has both; all blank genotypes continue to be preserved even though there is selection against blank of them; this is blank blank

homozygotes, heterozygotes, 3, 2, balanced polymorphism

when individuals self-fertilize, all of the homozygotes produce blank, and half of the offspring of heterozygotes are blank, the other half are blank; hence, the frequency of heterozygotes decline by blank% each generation

homozygotes, heterozygotes, 50

since inbreeding increases frequency of blank, if deleterious recessive alleles are exposed to natural selection the mean fitness of population will be blank; this is blank blank

homozygotes, reduced, inbreeding depression

blank is having two identical alleles for a particular gene

homozygous

as the proportion of dominant allele increases in a population, the number of blank blank genotype also increases; this increase reaches a peak when all the alleles in the population are blank alleles and there are no more blank alleles

homozygous dominant, dominant, recessive

as the proportion of recessive allele increases in a population, the number of blank blank genotype also increases; this increase reaches a peak when all the alleles in the population are blank alleles and there are no more blank alleles

homozygous recessive, recessive, dominant

Richard Goldschmidt was the first scientist to use the term "blank blank". Goldschmidt thought that small gradual changes could not bridge the hypothetical divide between blank and blank. In his book The Material Basis of Evolution (1940) he wrote "the change from species to species is not a change involving more and more additional atomistic changes, but a complete change of the primary blank or blank system into a new one, which afterwards may again produce blank variation by blank." Goldschmidt believed the large changes in evolution were caused by blank, or large mutations. His ideas about blank became known as the hopeful monster hypothesis which is considered a type of blank evolution

hopeful monster, microevolution, macroevolution, pattern, reaction, intraspecific, micromutation, macromutations, macromutations, saltational

blank blank blank occurs when an organism incorporates genetic material from another organism without being the offspring of that organism

horizontal gene transfer

blank blank blank promotes the maintenance of a universal life biochemistry and, subsequently, the universality of the genetic code

horizontal gene transfer

blank blank blank is the primary mechanism for the spread of antibiotic resistance in bacteria; it plays an important role in the evolution of bacteria that can degrade novel compounds such as human-created pesticides; it also plays an important role in the blank, blank, and blank of virulence

horizontal gene transfer, evolution, maintenance, transmission

blank blank blank or blank blank blank is the movement of genetic material between organisms other than by the transmission of DNA from parent to offspring

horizontal gene transfer, lateral gene transfer

in Aristotle's boxed thought about souls and organisms, blank had a blank soul, which contained blank, which had a blank soul, which contained blank, which had a blank soul

humans, rational, animals, sensitive, plants, vegetative

blank are the offspring of crosses between different species

hybrid

blank blank is when the first generation of offspring are healthy and live to reproduce, but their offspring F2 are not healthy or are sterile

hybrid breakdown

blank blank is when offspring are born but they fail to survive or to reproduce

hybrid inviability

blank blank is when offspring are healthy but leave no offspring

hybrid sterility

ex of blank blank •Lacewing (Order Neuroptera) males make a low pitched sound by vibrating their abdomen -Males call to females, and females reply If females don't reply mating does not take place - Different species make different sounds - Measure the song using an oscilloscope to get a sonograph - Measure at same temperature X axis is time Y axis is hertz (sound frequency) - C. plorabunda and C. adamsi have a clearly different mating song. - Females rarely answer the other species song - When females do answer the song of the other species the two species mate BUT the resulting hybrid produces an intermediate song. - Attract no females - Can't reproduce

hybrid sterility

a blank blank is a region in which members of different species mate and produce hybrids; this is caused by migration, habitat disturbance, invasive species, etc.

hybrid zone

if two different types of organisms come together and produce blank, are they the same species?

hybrids

if blank are disadvantageous, natural selection will work to reinforce reproductive isolation of the 2 forms; so, the process of parapatric speciation calls for: 1. presence of environmental blank 2. blank selected against in the blank blank 3. blank blank - 2 different forms mate only with others of their own type

hybrids, cline, hybrids, hybrid zone, assortative mating

strands of DNA are connected by blank bonds

hydrogen

blank or blank is the ideology that all things have such an essence; proposed by blank

idealism, essentialism, Plato

An international group of geneticists studying Y-chromosome data have found that nearly 8 percent of the men living in the region of the former Mongol empire carry Y-chromosomes that are nearly blank. That translates to 0.5 percent of the male population in the world, or roughly 16 million descendants living today

identical

promoter changes blank or blank the gene is used

if, how

blank can introduce new mutations, rare alleles, etc, which add variety to gene pool; gene blank may be recurring

immigrants, flow

blank is an extreme type of assortative mating between close relatives

inbreeding

blank is caused by non-random mating and leads to negative changes in genotype frequencies but not allele frequencies

inbreeding

Sewall Wright is the inventor and discoverer of the blank blank and blank-statistics which are standard tools in population genetics; he was also the chief developer of the mathematical theory of blank blank, which is sometimes known as the blank blank blank, cumulative stochastic changes in gene frequencies that arise from random births, deaths, and Mendelian segregations in reproduction

inbreeding coefficient, F, genetic drift, Sewall Wright effect

blank blank lowers fitness and variability in a population because of harmful recessive phenotypes being expressed more often

inbreeding depression

collapse of Habsburg Empire: besides ensuring that the throne remained in the grip of Habsburgs, this blank had unintended consequences that would eventually lead to the dynasty's downfall; a series of genes produced birth defects and these were passed down from generation to generation; in addition to being socially and culturally taboo, blank marriages are harmful in that they lead to higher rates of miscarriages, stillbirths, and neonatal deaths; ex. only half of the Habsburg children survived to the age of 10, compared with the 80 percent survival rate of children from other Spanish families of the same time period; Marriage between close family members also increases the chance that harmful blank genes — which would normally peter out thanks to healthy dominant genes from non-related parents — will continue to be passed down (Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom unwittingly spread the blank hemophilia across the entire continent thanks to the continued inter-marrying of the European royal families)"

inbreeding, incestuous, recessive, recessive

in blank blank, the effect of the 2 alleles is blended

incomplete dominance

in blank blank or blank, neither of the 2 alleles completely masks the other

incomplete dominance, codominance

gene flow can blank the blank of a population; ex. the spread of alleles for resistance to insecticides

increase, fitness

law of blank blank shows that the biological selection of an allele for one trait has nothing to do with the selection of an allele for any other trait

independent assortment

law of blank blank states that genes for different traits are independently passed

independent assortment

law of blank blank: - originated by Gregor Mendel - when two or more characteristics are inherited, individual alleles assort independently during gamete production - gives different traits an equal opportunity of occurring together

independent assortment

In Mendel's second experiment, he studied the effect of inheritance one character has on another. Mendel concluded that the alleles of one gene segregated independently from another. That is, one character does not affect the inheritance of another. He called this: the law of blank blank; The experiment that led to this conclusion can be represented by his findings with seed shape and seed color. In addition to being round (R) or wrinkled (r), the pea seeds could be yellow (Y) or green (y). Mendel had plants that bred true for round, yellow seeds (RRYY) and others that bred true for wrinkled, green seeds (rryy). When these two varieties were crossed, the offspring from this cross showed a ratio of blank with round yellow seeds, blank with wrinkled yellow seeds, blank with round green seeds, and blank wrinkled green seed. But the individual genes are still 3 round for every 1 wrinkled seed, and 3 yellow for every 1 green seed (12:4 reduce both sides by /4 gives 3:1). Mendel proposed that these data were best explained by assuming that each gene was inherited independently of any other gene

independent assortment, 9, 3, 3, 1

because of blank blank and the blank effect of dominant alleles, some colors are more common than others for pigmentation

independent assortment, additive

blank trait or blank trait example: inheritance of grain color in wheat; 3 separate genes regulate the color of the wheat kernel conditions: 1. blank blank on separate chromosomes 2. alleles show blank blank, where the heterozygote is intermediate between the homozygotes 3. blank alleles contribute additively to pigmentation

independent assortment, incomplete dominance, dominant

the selective pressure is on the blank, but the success is measured by the blank

individual, population

blank blank blank blank states that all the acquisitions or losses wrought by nature on individuals, through the influence of the environment in which their race has long been placed, and hence through the influence of the predominant use or permanent disuse of any organ; all these are preserved by reproduction to the new individuals which arise, provided that the acquired modifications are common to both sexes, or at least to the individuals which produce the young

inheritance of acquired characteristics

Darwin was first convinced of blank evolution; later, he became convinced that life must also change over time

inorganic

Alfred Russel Wallace moved to London and after a period of unemployment, he was hired Collegiate School in Leicester to teach drawing, map making and Surveying; he befriended the entomologist Henry Bates and due his influence start to collect blank; he was inspired by blank and other naturalists he decided to travel abroad as a naturalist

insects, Darwin

The first TEs were discovered in maize (Zea mays) by Barbara McClintock in 1948, for which she was later awarded a Nobel Prize. She noticed chromosomal blank, blank, and blank caused by these elements. These changes in the genome could, for example, lead to a change in the color of corn kernels. About 85% of the maize genome consists of blank

insertions, deletions, translocations, transposons

blank selection is when members of the same sex compete indirectly to attract mates

intersexual

in blank selection, members of the competitive sex show off for mates and the opposite sex chooses the best display. Some examples include dancing, singing, or showing bright colors

intersexual

blank selection is when members of the same sex compete directly with each other

intrasexual

in blank selection, members of the competitive sex fight amongst themselves and the key event determines reproductive success whether it be fighting directly or fighting over control of a resource

intrasexual

2 forms of sexual selection: blank and blank

intrasexual, intersexual

blank blank is when members of some populations vary from each other so much that they may be considered different species even though they live in the same area and interbreed

intraspecific variation

blank are noncoding regions

introns

Euphydryas editha quino - is the Quino checkerspot butterfly, member of the Endangered Species Act; it has a very restricted distribution range, shrublands of California, the Chaparral, which, due its ever diminishing due real estate developing and blank species. Currently, there is only 8 populations of the Quino checkerspot known in only a few localities: Western Riverside County, southern San Diego County and northern Baja California, Mexico. The animal's historic range once included much of coastal California south of Ventura County as well as the inland valleys south of the Tehachapi Mountains. Regardless, more than 75% of the butterfly's original range has been lost. The range blank translates directly into population blank. Quino checkerspot butterfly populations appear to have decreased by more than 95% range wide

invasive, loss, decline

blank is when a block of gene is rotated and inverted within a chromosome

inversion

4 basic types of chromosomal rearrangements: 1. blank 2. blank 3. blank blank 4. blank blank

inversion, translocation, gene deletion, gene duplication

" (...) Through the comparison of the human and chimpanzee draft genome sequences, we identified 252 blank whose respective inversion junctions can clearly be characterized. (...)"

inversions

an organism's blank is the description of its complement of chromosomes: their number, size, shape, and internal arrangement

karyotype

where do mutations occur? chromosomal mutations are due to blank alterations

karyotype

The blind mole rats (Spalacinae) reveal fascinating chromosomal variation, resulting from complex blank rearrangements. This variation occurs between species, between populations of single species, blank, and within populations, blank. This article reviews the current knowledge on blind mole rats' karyotypes and their variation. A special attention is paid to differentiation of the karyotype within a species and the patterns of chromosomal variation, which result in evolution of distinct chromosomal races, blank. The chromosome blank are defined as a group of geographically contiguous or recently separated populations which share a similar chromosome complement by descent. The present review indicated the existence of 73 distinct chromosome races recorded in blind mole rats classified within the genus Nannospalax, along with the seven species recognized within the genus Spalax. In total, 12 distinct diploid numbers of chromosomes were reported (2n = 36-62); and variation in chromosome morphologies was observed between populations with the same number of chromosomes (NF = 62-124). The blind mole rats classified in the genus Spalax revealed rather uniform karyotype both between and within the recognized species. Considering the traditional species classified in the Nannospalax genus, 25 races can be distinguished within N. leucodon, 28 races within N. xanthodon and 20 races within N. ehrenbergi. Hybrids between the races are found only exceptionally and they seem to be almost absent in extensive areas (Europe, Turkey). This fact indicates that chromosomal evolution in blind mole rats may be related to blank processes. The definitive phylogenetic and taxonomic conclusions can be derived only after application of reliable molecular markers and setting of estimates of genetic distances and gene flow between populations

karyotype, polytypy, polymorphism, cytotypes, races, speciation

blank blank has a number of tenets. One tenet is that all and only the members of a kind have a common blank. A second tenet is that the blank of a kind is responsible for the traits typically associated with the members of that kind. For example, gold's atomic structure is responsible for gold's disposition to melt at certain temperatures. Third, knowing a kind's essence helps us explain and predict those blank typically associated with a kind. The application of any of these tenets to species is problematic. But to see the failure of essentialism we need only consider the blank tenet; Biologists have had a hard time finding biological traits that occur in all and only the members of a species. Even such pre Darwinian essentialists as Linnaeus could not locate the blank of species. Evolutionary theory explains why. A number of forces conspire against the universality and uniqueness of a trait in a species (Hull 1965).

kind essentialism, essence, essence, properties, first, essence

in blank populations, chance effects tend to be averaged out

large

Oncorhynchus tshawytscha - Chinook Salmon; Historically, the native distribution of Chinook salmon in North America ranged from the Ventura River in California in the south to Kotzebue Sound in Alaska in the north. Populations have disappeared from blank areas where they once flourished, however, shrinking by as much as 40 percent. In some regions, their blank range has been cut off, mainly by dams and habitat alterations: from Southern California, some areas east of the Coast Ranges of California and Oregon, and large areas in the Snake River and upper Columbia River drainage basins. In certain areas like California's Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta, it was revealed that extremely blank populations of juvenile Chinook salmon (less than 1%) were surviving.

large, inland, low

according to the law, the average of the results obtained from a blank number of trials should be close to the expected value, which means there is a very blank SD; this means it will tend to become closer as more trials are performed

large, low

in probability theory, the blank blank blank blank is a theorem that describes the result of performing the same experiment a large number of times

law of large numbers (LLN)

in any given population of insects, some have a combination of genes that makes them blank susceptible to harmful chemicals than other insects; those individuals that are susceptible to the pesticide blank, removing those genes that make insects vulnerable; blank individuals survive to repopulate the species' ranks with more blank insects

less, die, resistant, resistant

despite mutations being spontaneous and random, some factors can alter the blank of mutations; ex. radiation, chemicals, infectious agents, etc.

likelihood

blank blank blank is when homozygotes increase in frequency and heterozygotes decrease in frequency

loss of heterozygotes

in considering alterations of the karyotype, it is important to bear in mind that the blank of a whole chromosome or a major part of a chromosome usually reduces the blank of a gamete or an organism because of the loss of genes

loss, viability

a blank standard deviation indicates that the data points tend to be close to the mean of the set

low

phenotypic frequencies can change due to natural selection, but it can also change due to bad blank and random events that have nothing to do with the favorability of phenotypes

luck

transcription is the process where a complementary strand of blank is formed on this template through action of blank blank

mRNA, RNA polymerase

after transcription, the blank is edited before it leaves the nucleus; blank are removed and blank are spliced together to form the blank sequence

mRNA, introns, exons, coding

Darwin's observations in the Galapagos: 1. some animals were similar to animals on the blank but they were different species, and each island has its own separate blank 2. some species could only be found on the islands; they were blank - blue footed booby, giant tortoise 3. animals seemed to be specifically adapted for a particular way of life - ex. finches - the blank differs based on food type

mainland, species, unique, beaks

G. H. Hardy was an English mathematician, known for his achievements in number theory and blank analysis. He is usually known by those outside the field of mathematics for his essay from 1940 on the aesthetics of mathematics, "A Mathematician's Apology", which is often considered one of the best insights into the mind of a working mathematician written for the layman. Hardy was introduced to the allele problem by Reginald Punnett, the creator of the blank blank, with whom he played cricket. Hardy was a pure mathematician and held applied mathematics in some contempt; his view of biologists' use of mathematics comes across in his 1908 paper where he describes this as "very simple". Until 1943 Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium was known simply as Hardy's law on the English speaking world.

mathematical, Punnett square

Parus major birds: blank causes gene flow between central and eastern populations blank from the mainland introduces alleles that blank fitness on the island for unknown reasons natural selection removes alleles that blank fitness birds born in the central region with blank immigration have a blank fitness while birds born in the east with blank immigration have a blank fitness

mating, immigration, decrease, decrease, high, lower, low, higher

blank are called the expected value in statistics

mean

during blank, the chromosome number in each cell is reduced

meiosis

during blank blank, a parent cell contains a homologous pair of chromosomes and then the homologs separate

meiosis I

during blank blank, the daughter cells contain just one homolog and the sister chromatids separate; four daughter cells contain one chromosome each, and these cells become gametes

meiosis II

blank, or gene flow, prevents divergence

migration

factors that affect gene flow: even animals with large blank ranges may return to one place to mate or lay eggs

migratory

blank mutations are point mutations that do change the amino acid to a different amino acid

missense

blank blank blank are a type of DNA that can move around within the genome and between genomes

mobile genetic elements (MGEs)

blank blank blank are a type of genetic materials that can move around within a genome or that can be transferred from one species or replicon to another

mobile genetic elements (MGEs)

blank is the capacity of the species or their gametes to physically move around or resist to be moved around

mobility

3 main factors that influence gene flow: 1. blank 2. blank 3. nature of the blank

mobility, territoriality, environment

blank blank is the reconciliation of Darwin-Wallace theory of evolution through natural selection with the new modern discoveries in the field of genetics

modern synthesis

Darwin carefully gathered evidence to show that descent with blank occurred and that blank blank could cause it; he made a detailed study of barnacles, where he discussed artificial selection and detailed description of the core observations; it took him several years before he came up with a mechanism that could cause organisms to change over time; he called the mechanism blank blank

modification, natural selection, natural selection

blank blank concept states that a species is a set of individuals with morphological features in common

morphological species

blank blank concept states that individuals of a species are similar to one another, yet morphologically distinct from individuals from other species

morphological species

blank discusses small changes in individual characteristics

mutation

sorting of alleles will vary by chance when there is a new blank

mutation

One experiment by Salvador Luria and Max Delbrück in 1943 was particularly influential in shaping our understanding of the nature of blank, not only in bacteria, but in organisms generally. It was known at the time that if E. coli bacteria are spread on a plate of nutrient medium in the presence of phage blank, the phage soon infect and kill the bacteria. However, rarely but regularly, colonies were seen that were blank to phage attack; these colonies were stable and so appeared to be genuine mutants. However, it was not known whether these mutants were produced spontaneously but randomly in time or whether the presence of the phage induced a physiological change that caused blank

mutation, T1, resistant, resistance

variation in a population comes from: 1. blank 2. blank blank 3. blank blank

mutation, gene flow, genetic drift

certain ideal conditions of a Hardy-Weinberg principle: 1. no blank 2. no blank of individuals into or out of the population 3. very blank population size so that significant changes in frequency would not result by blank 4. all individuals in the population blank and reproduce equally well, so there is no blank 5. blank combines genotypes at random, so there is no preference shown in choice of a mate

mutation, migration, large, chance, survive, selection, mating

blank is the ideology that mutations that can be experimentally observed can create new phenotypes without the need of a natural selection

mutationism

Hsp90 allows blank to accumulate unseen; when the environment changes and the developing organism is under stress, the accumulated mutations seem to appear all at once. Many of them will probably be harmful, but some might not be -- they might even be beneficial in the creature's new circumstances

mutations

blank, just like gene flow and drift, are stochastic processes that are random in nature

mutations

each human embryo begins life with blank that occurred during the production of sperm or eggs

mutations

there is a protein called blank blank blank blank, aka blank, which in chimpanzees and other non-human primates, is expressed almost exclusively in their powerful jaw muscles; these strong jaws are an adult trait; a logically complex one that would be more sensitive to random mutations; non-human primates have DNA that codes for a complete blank protein; the corresponding part of human DNA is missing a random chunk, which causes a blank mutation

myosin heavy chain 16, MYH16, MYH16, frameshift

first there were blank populations, then there was blank, then blank, and finally, modern blank waves on the wake of the post war era

native, colonization, slavery, migratory

Alfred Wallace came up with the idea of blank blank to explain evolution; joint published with Darwin

natural selection

Darwin-Wallace blank blank theory - as generations pass, the population becomes more and more homogenous with the characteristics of the individuals that are better suited for the environment

natural selection

blank blank is survival of the fittest

natural selection

it is not easy to observe blank blank causing phenotypic response to changing environmental conditions; we can use blank or number of offspring as an approximate measure

natural selection, survivorship

the Darwin-Wallace Theory of blank blank: 1. members of a species show blank in morphology and physiology 2. blank have the same variations as their parents; blank inherit features from their parents 3. organisms have the physical capacity to produce more blank than they actually do; something prevents them from having as many blank as they are capable of 4. the blank changes through time

natural selection, variation, offspring, offspring, offspring, offspring, environment

blank blank is a type of theology that provides arguments for the existence of God based on reason and ordinary experience of nature

natural theology

blank blank was established to say that the wisdom and power of God could be understood by studying the natural world

natural theology

Since Aristotle, species have been paradigmatic examples of blank kinds with blank. An essentialist approach to species makes sense in a pre-Darwinian context. God created species and an eternal blank for each species. After God's initial creation, each species is a static, non evolving group of organisms. Darwinism offers a different view of species. Species are the result of blank. No qualitative feature—morphological, genetic, or behavioral—is considered essential for membership in a species. Despite this change in biological thinking, many philosophers still believe that species are blank kinds with blank

natural, essence, essence, speciation, natural, essence

in the Age of Discovery, scientists began to search for blank explanations, not supernatural ones, that could explain blank, or unity of type

natural, homology

J.B.S. Haldane played an important role in the modern evolutionary synthesis of the early 20th century re-establishing blank selection as the central mechanism of evolution by explaining it as a blank consequence of Mendelian inheritance. "A Mathematical Theory of Natural and Artificial Selection" (10 paper series), on the numerical formalism underpinning natural selection. It showed that gene frequencies have blank and rates of blank; and he pioneered the interaction of natural selection with blank and animal blank. The book "The Causes of Evolution" (1932), summarized these results, especially in its extensive appendix

natural, mathematical, direction, change, mutation, migration

a blank grouping is not an artificial one; instead, the group has specific properties that distinguish it from all other groups (ex. elements); if species are blank kinds, we should be able to come up with a blank species concept

natural, natural, universal

only blank selection consistently increases the frequencies of alleles that provide blank advantage

natural, reproductive

Charles Darwin went on the Voyage of the Beagle as a blank to investigate geology and make natural history collections; the HMS Beagle surveyed and charted coasts; the most significant place was the blank Islands, which is an archipelago of volcanic islands distributed around the equator in the Pacific Ocean, about 970 km west of continental Ecuador

naturalist, Galapagos

ultimate conclusions: there is no scale of blank; organisms look the way they do because they are adapted for a particular blank and way of life nature is not in blank; organisms are constantly changing as the world constantly changes species change and adapt to the changing conditions or go extinct; extinct forms can be found in the blank record the result is change in life forms over time, which is known as blank with blank unity of type, or blank, can be explained as similarity due to relatedness

nature, environment, balance, fossil, descent, modification, homology

blank is a refurbished version of Lamarck's theories to fit modern scientific knowledge; for instance, dropping all the concerns about internal vital force, potentiality and stress the direct effect of changed environment on the organisms and how those influence the composition of somatic germ cells that will pass those modifications to the next generation

neo-Lamarckism

at the molecular level, most variation is explained by genetic drift of mutant alleles that are blank

neutral

blank mutation does not affect survival and not targeted by natural selection processes

neutral

blank mutation is one that does not affect an organism's ability to survive and reproduce

neutral

if the alleles are blank, not selected for or against, its fate will be determined by sampling processes or random events

neutral

the blank blank blank blank states that at the molecular level, most evolutionary changes and most of the variation within and between species is not caused by natural selection but by genetic drift of mutant alleles that are neutral

neutral theory of molecular evolution

when a species expands into a blank region, the first population may be started by a small number of pioneering individuals; the blank population may have reduced genetic variation from the original population or a non-blank sample of the genes in the original population, or both

new, founder, random

biological species concept follows this checklist: 1. universality - blank 2. applicability - blank 3. theoretically significant - blank

no, no, yes

blank-blank blank occurs when the probability that 2 individuals in a population will mate is not the same for all possible pairs of individuals

non-random mating

blank mutations are point mutations that do change the amino acid to a stop codon

nonsense

usually, the random walk model is used as a blank blank

null hypothesis

blank blank is a statement that, when discarded, we can deduct that the changes in the population are due to some other factors than mere chance, such as a selective blank force

null hypothesis, adaptive

types of mutations: blank, blank, and blank

object, causes, consequences

Aristotle's method: to blank and blank - don't believe it unless you see it yourself - pro-blank for animals - arrange facts to look for blank - seek explanations via blank for the patterns

observe, describe, dissection, patterns, hypotheses

only some organisms survive and leave blank; these are the ones with blank characteristics that enable them to win resources; to win means to blank

offspring, favorable, reproduce

blank blank blank is a span of genetic material that is used to produce a blank through transcription and translation, or blank through transcription

open reading frame (ORF), protein, RNA

blank is straight line evolution towards a fixed goal; in line with the scala naturae idea of progress

orthogenesis

selection against homozygous genotypes is called blank

overdominance

in humans, the blank gene directs damaged cells to stop reproducing, thereby resulting in cell death. This gene helps avert cancer by preventing cells with DNA damage from dividing, but it also suppresses the division of stem cells, which allow the body to renew and replace deteriorating tissues during aging. This situation is therefore an example of blank blank, in which the expression of a single gene causes competing effects, some of which are beneficial and some of which are detrimental to the fitness of an organism

p53, antagonistic pleiotropy

Hardy Weinberg formula for genotypic frequencies: blank

p^2+2pq+q^2=1

in Hardy-Weinberg, frequencies of genotypes can be calculated; homozygous dominant = blank; heterozygous = blank; homozygous recessive = blank

p^2, 2pq, q^2

blank mutation is an inversion where if a loop is formed and breakage and reunion occur at the point of overlap, a new sequence is formed with a rearranged gene order with the centromere excluded

paracentric

types of inversions: blank and blank

paracentric, pericentric

blank evolution occurs because genetically related species adapt to similar environmental changes in similar ways

parallel

ex of blank evolution: cactus relatives, euphorbia relatives, old world vs new world quills; mantis vs mantispid

parallel

blank blank is when species that have descended from the same ancestor remain similar because they independently acquire the same evolutionary adaptations

parallel evolution

blank speciation example: Anthoxanthum odoratum: Some of these plants live near mines where the soil has become contaminated with heavy metals. The plants around the mines have experienced natural selection for genotypes that are tolerant of heavy metals. Meanwhile, neighboring plants that don't live in polluted soil have not undergone selection for this trait. The two types of plants are close enough that tolerant and non-tolerant individuals could potentially fertilize each other but have evolved different flowering times. This change could be the first step in cutting off gene flow entirely between the two groups.

parapatric

ex of blank speciation: Two species of crows, Corvus corone and Corvus cornix, meet along a line in central Europe. Along that line they produce hybrids.

parapatric

in blank speciation mode, divergence happens because of the reduced gene flow within the population, varying selection pressures across the population's range, and non-random mating; there is something different about the environment on one end of the distribution

parapatric

in blank speciation, individuals are more likely to mate with their geographic neighbors than with individuals in a different part of the population's range

parapatric

in blank speciation, there is no specific extrinsic barrier to gene flow; the population is continuous but nonetheless, the population does not mate randomly

parapatric

the existence of a hybrid zone amongst 2 species may be evidence of a past process of speciation through blank

parapatry

blank mutation is an inversion where if a loop is formed and breakage and reunion occur at the point of overlap, a new sequence is formed with a rearranged gene order with the centromere included

pericentric

in blank speciation, the population is not necessarily well adapted, instead it is small and blank blank is a major factor

peripatric, genetic drift

blank is when one of the isolated population has very few individuals; this is a special version of allopatric speciation mode

peripatry

In the 1970s and 1980s, agricultural use of blank was banned in most developed countries, beginning with Hungary in 1968, followed by Norway and Sweden in 1970, West Germany and the United States in 1972, but not in the United Kingdom until 1984. By 1991 total blank, including for disease control, were in place in at least 26 countries; for example Cuba in 1970, Singapore in 1984, Chile in 1985 and the Republic of Korea in 1986. The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, which took effect in 2004, put a global ban on several persistent organic pollutants, and restricted blank use to vector control. The Convention was ratified by more than 170 countries. Recognizing that total elimination in many malaria-prone countries is currently unfeasible absent affordable/effective alternatives, the convention exempts public health use within World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines from the ban. Resolution 60.18 of the World Health Assembly commits WHO to the Stockholm Convention's aim of reducing and ultimately eliminating blank. Malaria Foundation International states, "The outcome of the treaty is arguably better than the status quo going into the negotiations. For the first time, there is now an insecticide which is restricted to vector control only, meaning that the selection of resistant mosquitoes will be slower than before." Only in 2009, blank was banned across all of Brazil

pesticides, bans, DDT, DDT, DDT

blank is the expression of the allele composition

phenotype

the number of chromosomes affects the number of blank that can be produced; more combinations are possible

phenotype

there are 4 types of selection in simple genetic systems: 2 refer to blank and 2 refer to blank: 1. selection against the blank phenotype 2. selection against the blank phenotype 3. selection against the blank - known as blank 4. selection against the blank - known as blank

phenotype, genotype, dominant, recessive, homozygotes, overdominance, heterozygotes, underdominance

natural selection acts on the blank not the blank, but blank is a complex term

phenotype, genotype, phenotype

if the genes were on separate chromosomes, additional blank would be present

phenotypes

the genes involved in a specific epistatic interaction may still show independent assortment at the genotypic level, but the blank ratios may appear to deviate from those expected with independent assortment

phenotypic

blank blank is when individuals of a population differ in one or more features

phenotypic variation

blank is an amino acid obtained through diet; it is found in proteins and some artificial sweeteners

phenylalanine

blank is an inherited disorder that increases the levels of phenylalanine in the blood

phenylketonuria (PKU)

nucleotides are joined into a strand with the blank group connecting the blank carbon to the blank carbon of the adjacent blank molecule

phosphate, 5', 3', sugar

structure of nucleotide: 1. blank group 2. blank blank molecule 3. blank base

phosphate, pentose sugar, nitrogenous

blank blank concept states that a species is the smallest group of organisms that has at least one diagnostic character; these forms have evolved separately and have unique evolutionary histories

phylogenetic species

ex of blank blank concept all giraffes were placed in the same species: Giraffa camelopardalis Differences in coat color and pattern were noted but were thought to be local variations The 2016 study took small skin samples from 190 giraffes and sequenced 7 different nuclear genes and the mitochondrial DNA the sequences fell into 4 distinct patterns that the authors felt strongly suggest separate species Each of the four species is about as different from each other genetically as the brown bear (Ursus arctos) is from the polar bear (Ursus maritimus). In the blank blank Act, if one species, then the giraffe is not an endangered species. If four species, G. camelopardalis and G. reticulata are endangered. The authors of the study used the blank blaank concept. Other biologists (who insist on using the blank blank concept) are not convinced Coyne's point is that the four groups live in different areas and may not have the opportunity to mate ... but if they were to be able to produce viable offspring, they should be considered just one species.

phylogenetic species, Endangered Species, phylogenetic species, biological species,

in the blank blank concept, the smallest aggregations of populations, which are blank, or lineages, which are blank, are diagnosable by a unique combination of character states in comparable individuals

phylogenetic species, sexual, asexual

blank blank concept emphasizes the phylogenetic history of the organisms; a blank is the smallest diagnosable cluster of individual organisms within which there is a parental pattern of ancestry and descent

phylogenetic species, species

Caminalcules (from Camin and animalcule) are a fictive group of animal-like life forms invented by Professor Joseph H. Camin (University of Kansas) as a tool for understanding blank. Interested in how taxonomists group species, he designed these creatures to show an evolutionary pattern of divergence and diversification in morphology

phylogenetics

blank blank hypothesis states that there is a finite and small probability that each cell in the culture might survive the phage attack, and all subsequent progeny from survivors will be resistant; this mutation would be blank

physiological resistance, induced

2 hypothesis for Luria-Delbruck Fluctuation test - about resistant bacteria 1. blank blank hypothesis 2. blank blank hypothesis

physiological resistance, random mutation

blank is the phenomena where one gene influences 2 or more seemingly unrelated phenotypic traits

pleiotropy

ex of blank white cat with blue eyes are usually deaf; a single gene controls pigmentation; pigmentation plays a role in maintaining fluid in ear canals

pleiotropy

regulatory genes may affect more than one feature, such as in blank; ex. heat shock gene Hsp90 which encodes a heat shock protein which helps organisms cope with stress

pleiotropy

An interesting example of blank is seen in the Mexican cavefish. It's an ordinary-looking fish when found in rivers and creeks, but the cave-dwelling populations have lost their eyes and become albino. When the researchers treated embryos from surface fish with a chemical which blocks Hsp90, they grew into adults with a wide range of eye sizes. The team then selected the small-eyed fish and allowed them to breed; their offspring had small eyes even when Hsp90 wasn't inhibited. Clearly, Hsp90 was masking blank that affected eye size in the surface fish; once these mutations were exposed selection could act on them and even liberate them from being hidden by Hsp90. The next step was to show how something similar could have happened in the history of the cave-dwelling fish. The researchers suspected that it had to do with the stress of switching to a cave environment; Hsp90 might have become "too busy" dealing with stress-related changes to have the time to stabilize other proteins. The researchers measured the differences between the cave and river water. The biggest difference they found was much lower levels of salt in the cave water, so they tried growing embryos from surface fish in blank salinity water. Just like the embryos grown with the Hsp90-blocker, these grew into adults with big eyes, small eyes, and everything in between. Coping with the salinity was overwhelming Hsp90, and mutations were getting exposed. Fish with smaller eyes may have been favored by selection because eyes are energetically expensive but relatively useless in these dark environments

pleiotropy, mutations, low

2 types of DNA mutations: 1. blank mutation 2.

point

blank mutation is a base change in the nucleotide sequence of the DNA

point

blank blank or blank blank is a feature when many genes, each behaving individually, contribute to a phenotypic feature in a cumulative way

polygenic trait, quantitative trait

blank is the individual differences of form among the members of a species

polymorphism

diversifying selection results in blank, where two or more different forms are common

polymorphism

blank is changes in chromosome number - 3+ sets

polyploidy

blank is the condition of having 3 or more sets of chromosomes instead of the 2 present in diploids

polyploidy

causes of sympatric speciation: 1. blank 2. blank blank

polyploidy, sexual selection

blank is variation between groups

polytypy

all members of a species living in the same area are called a blank

population

it is at the blank level that the change of genes is observed, studied, and measured

population

blank isolating mechanisms are cytological and developmental factors that interfere with reproductive processes after fertilization

post-zygotic

blank-blank isolation is a type of reproductive isolation that occurs after members of 2 different species have mated and produce a hybrid offspring

post-zygotic

blank-blank isolation is where the zygote is not viable or the hybrid is not fertile

post-zygotic

blank-blank isolation is a type of reproductive isolation that occurs before the formation of a zygote can take place

pre-zygotic

blank-blank isolation prevents mating

pre-zygotic

2 categories of reproductive isolation: 1. blank-blank 2. blank-blank

pre-zygotic, post-zygotic

there are two types of cabinets in the European Cabinets of Curiosities; there is a blank cabinet, serving a largely representational function and dominated by aesthetic concerns and a marked predilection for the exotic, and then there is a blank blank cabinet, which is a more modest collection of the humanist scholar or virtuoso, which served more practical and scientific purposes; during this time, it became common for ships and expeditions to carry naturalists and collectors who would bring back new interesting curiosities to Europe

princely, less grandiose

duplication can cause more blank

product

open reading frame alters the blank of the gene and thus affects its function

product

Lamarck proposed that organisms could adapt to their environment during their life; this could move organisms upward from the ladder of blank into new and distinct forms with local adaptations; it could also drive organisms into evolutionary blank blank, where the organism becomes so finely adapted that no further change can occur; this adaptive force was powered by the interaction of organisms with their environment, by the blank and blank of certain characteristics

progress, blind alleys, use, disuse

blank is a region of DNA that initiates transcription of a particular gene

promoter

blank are located near the transcription start sites of genes, on the same strand and upstream on the DNA towards the blank region of the blank strand; this region size varies between 100 to 1000 bp

promoter, 5', sense

blank are the main building blocks of the organism

proteins

blank blank is when occasionally, a dramatic environmental change punctuates the equilibrium and rapid speciation occurs, like an evolutionary jump

punctuated equilibrium

blank is a nitrogenous base that has a double-ring structure

purine

there are 2 kinds of nitrogenous bases: blank and blank

purines, pyrimidines

blank is a nitrogenous base that has a single-ring structure

pyrimidine

there can be a lot of phenotypic diversity in populations; what factors affect phenotype diversity? 1. blank blank - multiple genes 2. interactions between different blank

quantitative traits, genes

in translation: 1. the mRNA attaches to the blank 2. the first blank attracts a blank with complementary triplet, which is blank, of bases on its tip 3. a second blank attaches to the adjacent codon and the amino acids link

rRNA, codon, tRNA, anticodon, tRNA

bottleneck effect selects survivors at blank

random

blank blank hypothesis states that there is a finite and small probability that a mutation from susceptible to resistant will occur at a constant rate; this mutation would be due to blank

random mutation, chance

blank blank is the mere random assortment of alleles through meiosis

random sampling

one way that genetic drift may occur is blank blank

random sampling

an elementary example of a blank blank is the random walk on the integer number line, which starts at 0 and at each step moves +1 or -1 with equal probability

random walk

when the movements of an object or changes in a variable follow no discernible pattern or trend, we say that this is a blank blank process; ex. Brownian motion is the chaotic movement of colloidal particles

random walk

blank blank can be studied using a computer simulation; the population is blank, which means there are two alleles for each gene; each individual survives and reproduces, which assumes no blank; and offspring inherit a particular allele at blank

random walk, diploid, selection, random

blank blank is a mathematical object, known as a stochastic or random process, that describes a path that consists of a succession of random steps on some mathematical space such as the blank

random walk, integers

genetic drift happens with equal and blank chance in all kinds of populations, however, if we reduce the number of people, we blank the odds of a significant event to be fixed in the population

random, increase

processes that cause evolution: random or nonrandom 1. gene flow is blank 2. genetic drift is blank 3. mutation is blank 4. natural selection is blank

random, random, random, nonrandom

a blank soul is one that has thoughts and reflection

rational

as the number of dominant alleles continue to increase, the blank allele decreases so that the blank genotype also decreases; when all the alleles are dominant, the frequency of the heterozygote is blank

recessive, heterozygote, 0

when the blank phenotype is selected against, it will be removed from the population but it will take several generations, even if the phenotype is blank; this leaves the blank blank genotype and blank genotype to reproduce; because the blank genotype has a blank allele, it is not completely removed from the population; at first, because there are many blank blank individuals in the population, the frequency of the blank phenotype drops rapidly when selected against; change becomes progressively blank as fewer and fewer blank blank individuals appear; it can take a long time to completely remove the blank allele from the population

recessive, lethal, homozygous dominant, heterozygous, heterozygous, recessive, homozygous recessive, recessive, slower, homozygous recessive, recessive

in equation delta q = -m(q0-qm): delta q is the change in frequency of the blank allele caused by the migrants -m is the proportion of migrants relative to the population: proportion equation = number of blank / number of blank ; drop the negative sign if you are calculating the effect on the population of migrants that are blank q0 is the blank frequency of the blank allele in the population prior to the migration qm is the frequency of the blank allele in the migrating population

recessive, migrants, population, leaving, original, recessive, recessive

when selection acts agains the blank phenotype, the blank allele will be removed from the population over time; even if the allele is lethal, it may take several generations to remove it from the population since it will not be selected against in blank individuals

recessive, recessive, heterozygous

by breaking and reunion, 2 non-homologous chromosomes may exchange segments, resulting in a blank blank

reciprocal translocation

blank proteins dictate the pace of processes; such as hormones

regulation

blank blank is an isolating mechanism which limits or prohibits the gene flow between populations

reproductive isolation

blank blank is when there is separation between members of one species and members of all other species

reproductive isolation

blank success is the result of hundreds of factors, but it helps understand basic points to start with a simplified view looking at how blank blank affects one gene

reproductive, natural selection

fitness is a summation of different factors such as the probability to survive to a blank age, the average number of blank produced by blank function (ex. eggs, seeds, etc), and the average number of blank produced by blank function

reproductive, offspring, female, spring (gamete), male

horizontal gene transfer is significant in prokaryote evolution, specifically in drug blank and blank

resistance, virulence

blank blank is a type of theology which is based on scripture and religious experience

revealed theology

The colobine monkeys are unique among primates in having adapted to a diet of leaves rather than insects and fruit. Like cows, colobines make use of symbiotic bacteria to ferment leaves in the gut, and then obtain nutrients from digestion of the bacteria. blank (blank) is one of the enzymes involved in digestion of bacteria but in most monkeys it is not produced in high enough amounts to get significant nutrition from bacteria. Researchers found that there has been a blank of the RNase gene in colobines compared to other monkeys and that the extra RNase lets them obtain enough nutrients from fermented leaves to survive

ribonuclease (RNase), duplication

ex. of blank blank model: herring gull - "Based on mitochondrial DNA variation among 21 gull taxa, we show that members of this complex differentiated largely in allopatry following multiple vicariance and long-distance-colonization events, not primarily through isolation by distance."

ring species

blank blank model: when a species has a large geographic range, populations that live adjacent to each other may be very similar and the individuals may frequently mate; sometimes, the blank ranges of the species will loop back and overlap with each other; in the zone of blank, there may be no mating and significant morphological differentiation; this special type of geographic variability is often called a blank blank

ring species, extreme, overlap, ring species

when genes for a female choice and the male characteristic are on the same chromosomes, we get blank blank blank

runaway sexual selection

blank or blank selection occurs if female mate choice genes and male attribute genes will be inherited together; this could generate a blank process in which ever more extreme female preferences and male attributes spread together as new mutations affecting these traits occur

runaway, Fisherian, runaway

in blank sexual selection, there is genetic correlation of blank trait and blank preference ex. stalk-eyed fly - genes for stalk length and female preference are linked on the blank chromosome

runaway, male, female, same

blank is a sudden and large mutational change from one generation to the next

saltation

blank blank is a hierarchical organization of life increasing perfection

scala naturae

law of blank states that gametes carry only 1 of the alleles for each gene

segregation

law of blank states that every individual organism contains blank alleles for each trait, and that these alleles blank, or separate, during blank such that each gamete contains only one of the alleles; an offspring thus receives a pair of alleles for a trait by inheriting blank chromosomes from the parent organisms: blank alleles for each trait from each parent

segregation, 2, segregate, homologous, 1

molecular proof of law of blank was subsequently found through observation of blank by two scientists independently, the German botanist Oscar Hertwig in 1876, and the Belgian zoologist Edouard Van Beneden in 1883; blank and blank chromosomes get separated in blank and the alleles with the traits of a character are blank into blank different gametes; each parent contributes a single gamete, and thus a single, randomly successful allele copy to their offspring and fertilization

segregation, meiosis, paternal, maternal, meiosis, segregated, 2

if a population is not at Hardy-Weinberg, then they show evidence of blank, blank, blank, blank blank, and blank-blank blank

selection, mutation, migration, gene drift, non-random mating

occasions may not be infrequent when a sexual preference of a particular kind may confer a blank advantage, and therefore become established in the species. Whenever appreciable differences exist in a species, which are in fact correlated with blank advantage, there will be a tendency to select those individuals of the blank sex which most clearly discriminate the difference to be observed, and which most decidedly prefer the more advantageous type. Sexual preference originated in this way may or may not confer any direct advantage upon the individuals selected, and so hasten the effect of the Natural Selection in progress. It may therefore be far more widespread than the occurrence of striking blank sexual characters

selective, selective, opposite, secondary

blank is an extreme inbreeding category

selfing

blank is self-fertilization

selfing

blank strand is the coding strand

sense

a blank soul is one that has mobility and sensation

sensitive

non-random mating is blank selection

sexual

Darwin's blank blank theory - those individuals that are better suited for environment tend to have more reproductive success

sexual selection

blank blank can cause speciation; If some females prefer males that look one way and other females prefer different looking males, the species may split

sexual selection

ex of blank blank causing speciation: Individuals of two closely related sympatric cichlid species will not mate under normal light because females have specific color preferences and males differ in color. However, under light conditions that de-emphasize color differences, females will mate with males of the other species and produce viable, fertile offspring

sexual selection

Darwin and Wallace differences Darwin put much more emphasis among the competition between individuals of the same species to survive and reproduce, which is known as blank blank Wallace was more interested on the environmental pressures that lead populations to diverge and to be more in tune with their environments; speciation occurs through blank, which is survival of the blank

sexual selection, adaptation, fittest

"(...) Whichever is the case, blank selection is the most likely explanation for why the antlers of Megaloceros were so huge. The larger and stronger the antlers, the more successful in blank the male deer would be, and the more offspring he would have — offspring which could inherit parental genes for large antlers."

sexual, mating

blank blank are closely related species that have no gene flow but are nearly indistinguishable

sibling species

problems with the morphological species concept: 1. blank species 2. blank variation 3. blank blank blank

sibling, intraspecific, extreme sexual dimorphism

blank or blank mutations are point mutations that do not change the amino acid

silent, neutral

3 types of point mutations simply based on effect of mutation: blank/blank mutation, blank mutation, and blank mutation

silent/neutral, missense, nonsense

we have seen how gene drift, gene flow, mutation, and natural selection individually affect allele frequencies in traits are controlled by blank genes

single

genetic drift occurs in populations of all sizes, but its effects are more pronounced in blank populations, where the genetic composition of a blank individuals makes a significant impact on the gene pool

small, few

if there are two populations with the same allelic frequencies, then the one with larger population will have a blank standard deviation than the one with smaller population

smaller

in sum, the blank your population is, the more important are the stochastic effects

smaller

the blank the population, the more relevant are inbreeding and genetic drift

smaller

the bottleneck effect and founders effect are effects that are way more significant the blank the population is

smaller

blank blank example: wild lion populations have genetic differences that result in different manes and that vary gradually with local climate differences

smooth cline

blank blank shows that the variable phenotypes are not distinct from each other so that over the geographic range the adaptations blend into each other

smooth cline

blank is a factor where beneficial alleles are favored by natural selection, while harmful ones are filtered out

sorting

blank is when isolating mechanisms appear

speciation

Darwin believed blank was slow and gradual. - Small genetic differences would be selected for or against and the species would change gradually from one generation to the next. - Some genetic analysis of some species supports this. but broad patterns of blank studied using the blank record and morphological data show a different path - a faster path

speciation, speciation, fossil

Theodosius Dobzhansky (1937, Genetics and the Origin of Species) - blank as a juncture "at which the once actually or potentially interbreeding array of forms becomes segregated in two or more separate arrays which are physiologically incapable of interbreeding" or "blank are systems of populations: the gene exchange between these systems is limited or prevented by a reproductive isolating mechanism or perhaps by a combination of several such mechanisms"; Ernst Mayr (1942, Systematics and the Origin of Species) - blank are groups of actually or potentially interbreeding populations, which are reproductively isolated from such other groups"

speciation, species, species

It is surprisingly difficult to define a "species" in a way that applies to all naturally occurring organisms, and the debate among biologists about how to define "species" and how to identify actual species is called the blank problem

species

the blank problem - no one knows what the exact definition, but everyone knows what the word vaguely means

species

blank blank questions: Is there a single sort of species? Or many different sorts? Is there a single level of organization across all organisms that is in some significant sense the "same"? A scientist's choice of species concept often reflects his or her research focus.

species problem

Philosophy behind species concepts: Does biodiversity really fall into discrete units we can call a blank? Or are species a man-made blank category? If blank are they natural kinds? Or individuals?

species, artificial, real

blank blank is when life arises from non-life

spontaneous generation

Lamarck ideas: 1. simple organisms arise by blank blank from non-living material and this happens constantly 2. all beings have a blank power that pushes the organism to progress to better forms 3. first law: blank and blank; organisms use this power to adapt their characteristics in response to changes in the blank 4. second law: blank of blank blank; characteristics acquired in response to changes in the environment are passed on to blank

spontaneous generation, innate, use, disuse, environment, inheritance, acquired traits, offspring

causes of mutation: if it is blank or blank

spontaneous, induced

what did the Luria-Delbruck Experiment show: 1. mutations are blank 2. mutations are blank

spontaneous, random

blank/blank blank theory is that if a resistance is acquired due to mutations that happen in a non-predictable or random fashion, resistance will occur at low rate, even before any contact with the phages, as it happens independent of exposition to it

spontaneous/random mutation

blank/blank blank theory shows in experiments: - this will generate resistant blank, and their prevalence will be determined by how blank in culture growth the mutation event occurred - the proportion of resistant bacteria will blank over time, prior to selection - if you study a large number of small cultures, the proportion of resistant bacteria in each culture will vary or blank wildly, depending on how early the mutation occurred

spontaneous/random mutation, clones, increase, fluctuate

standard deviation = blank

sqrt pq/n, where n is the size of the population

in blank selection, individuals with extreme phenotypes die or fail to reproduce resulting in populations of individuals with intermediate phenotypes; this is most common in stable, unchanging environments where selection has remained the same for years

stabilizing

blank blank is a measure that is used to quantify the amount of variation or dispersion of a set of data values

standard deviation

in one generation, we could expect the gene frequencies to vary as much as +_ the blank blank by chance alone

standard deviation

in order to predict the effects of chance on gene frequencies, population geneticists use the standard formula from statistics for random variation: blank blank

standard deviation (sd)

blank blank example: the rat snake, Elaphe obsoleta, differs markedly in color and pattern over its range

step cline

blank blank is where each geographical subarea has its own unique adaptations and dominant phenotypes

step cline

blank proteins make up the physical structure of cells and tissues

structural

ex of blank isolation Continental Africa is home to a group of small, arboreal primates called galagos (Family Galagidae) or more commonly known as bushbabies. There are over 20 species in this group. Each of these species has distinctly shaped genitalia. The genitalia of a male bushbaby will only fit into the genitalia of a female belonging to the same species.

structural

blank blank is when interbreeding is restricted by differences in the morphology of the reproductive parts

structural isolation

Wallace's blank blank blank blank theory - some individuals are better suited to the environmental conditions than others

survival of the fittest

a blank blank is when the chances of successful migration are poor, so organisms that disperse over the barrier generally find an unexploited habitat for their use

sweepstakes route

on the blank blank, the barrier is equally hazardous to all species and the transposition of the barrier is quite unlikely; however, on the event of a successful transition, the population will have a fairly blank, blank-rich blank-free habitat to dispose

sweepstakes route, empty, resource, competition

blank blank are hazardous or accidental dispersal mechanisms by which animals move from place to place

sweepstakes routes

good example of blank blank are oceanic volcanic islands in a general way

sweepstakes routes

ex of blank speciation: 200 years ago, the ancestors of apple maggot flies laid their eggs only on hawthorns — but today, these flies lay eggs on hawthorns (which are native to America) and domestic apples (which were introduced to America by immigrants and bred). Females generally choose to lay their eggs on the type of fruit they grew up in, and males tend to look for mates on the type of fruit they grew up in. So hawthorn flies generally end up mating with other hawthorn flies and apple flies generally end up mating with other apple flies. This means that gene flow between parts of the population that mate on different types of fruit is reduced. This host shift from hawthorns to apples may be the first step toward sympatric speciation — in fewer than 200 years, some genetic differences between these two groups of flies have evolved.

sympatric

blank blank is when individuals continue to live amongst one another but some type of biological difference appears to divide the members into different reproductive groups

sympatric speciation

ex of blank isolation Rana draytonii Lives in Oregon and California Breeds April-June Rana aurora Lives in Washington, Oregon and California Breeds January-March

temporal

blank blank is when differences in time of activity separates populations

temporal isolation

blank is a tendency of a species or population to remain within a circumscribed area

territoriality

blank is home range tendency

territoriality

a blank blank concept is one that must describe a real event and further our understanding of that event

theoretically significant

The biological blank mechanism is not entirely understood, but blank appears to be more potent than blank, and strong evidence indicates that p,p'-blank inhibits calcium ATPase in the membrane of the shell gland and reduces the transport of calcium carbonate from blood into the eggshell gland. This results in a dose-dependent thickness blank. Other evidence indicates that o,p'-blank disrupts female reproductive tract development, later impairing eggshell quality. Multiple mechanisms may be at work, or different mechanisms may operate in different species

thinning, DDE, DDT, DDE, reduction, DDT

there are 2 types of pyrimidines: blank and blank

thymine, cytosine

enhancer alters the blank and level of blank of the gene

timing, expression

blank stones were found embedded in rock and their origin was a mystery; they were believed to have magical powers

tongue

blank-blank are changing one feature for the better that might change another for the worse

trade-offs

blank blank is a type of theology which is based on prior reasoning

transcendental theology

blank is the process where a complementary strand of mRNA is formed on this template through action of RNA polymerase

transcription

blank blank are proteins that bind to enhancer sequences resulting in stimulation or repression of transcription of the related gene

transcription factors

proteins called blank blank bind to the promoter region and recruit the enzyme blank blank

transcription factors, RNA polymerase

3 mechanisms of horizontal gene transfer: 1. blank 2. blank 3. blank

transformation, conjugation, transduction

blank mutation is a type of point mutation that switches between purines A and G and pyrimidines C and T

transition

2 types of point mutations simply based on what is changed: blank and blank

transitions, transversions

blank is a process where a sequence of amino acids is put together in an order indicated by the bases in the mRNA

translation

blank is when the location of a piece of chromatin is changed in a chromosome or between chromosomes

translocation

blank is the conversion of an atom of one element to an atom of another element

transmutation

blank and blank proteins deal with moving them around and storing chemicals; ex. hemoglobin

transportation, storage

A blank blank or blank is a DNA sequence that can change its position within a genome, sometimes creating or reversing mutations and altering the cell's genetic identity and genome size. blank often results in duplication of the same genetic material.

transposable element, transposon, transposition

when these genes can promote their own by special blank enzymes, they are called blank or jumping genes

transposase, transposons

blank may be viral in origin since they introduce new genes ex. syncytin - a gene active in formation of placenta that may have been derived from a virus envelope gene

transposons

types of MGEs: 1. blank 2. blank blank blank

transposons, horizontal gene transfer

blank mutation is a type of point mutation that switches between a purine and pyrimidine

transversion

genetic drift is blank, so the frequency might go up or it might go down; it is totally random; drift can cause some alleles to be blank; drift can also cause 2 populations to become blank

unbiased, lost, different

selection against the heterozygote genotype is called blank; there must be blank blank or blank of the 2 alleles so that the blank can be phenotypically distinguished from the homozygotes

underdominance, incomplete dominance, codominance, heterozygotes

blank crossing over can blank or blank genes

unequal, duplicate, delete

James Hutton and Charles Lyell believed in blank, which is an ideology that Earth's landscape is changing constantly, being modified by the same slow, uniform action of geological forces

uniformitarianism

blank means that a concept must be possible to apply the species definition to as many different types of organisms as possible

universality

what do scientists want in a concept? 1. blank 2. blank 3. blank blank

universality, applicability, theoretically significant

since the environment cannot support blank population growth, not all individuals get to reproduce to their full blank; some are eaten, some fail to find mates, some get diseases and die

unlimited, potential

blank and blank states that in every animal which has not passed the limit of its development, a more frequent and continuous blank of any organ gradually strengthens, develops and enlarges that organ, and gives it a power proportional to the length of time it has been applied; while the permanent blank of any organ imperceptibly weakens and deteriorates it, and progressively diminishes its functional capacity, until it finally disappears

use, disuse, use, disuse

the rate of evolution is limited by the genetic blank of a population; the more variability, the blank the possible evolution; the less variability, the blank the evolution; populations long subjected to blank blank should have little remaining variability since blank fit forms would be removed by selection; without blank, evolution will slow down and stop

variability, faster, slower, natural selection, less, variability

standard deviation is the square root of blank

variance

blank discusses breeds, races, and subspecies

variation

for allele frequencies to change, there has to be blank, or different alleles

variation

the more genes involves, the more blank exists for polygenic traits; 1 gene has blank phenotypes; 2 genes have blank genotypes; this superficially appears to be a blank inheritance; the phenotype often comes close to a blank distribution

variation, 3, 5, blending, normal

a larger number of chromosomes may allow more genetic blank, which could be an advantage in a blank environment

variation, changing

population genetics: - individuals in a population do not have exactly the same allele; instead, there is blank in a population - blank blank is the sum of all the genetic material from all the individuals in a population - the genetic variation in a gene pool is described as relative proportions called blank; there are three types of these: blank, blank, and blank

variation, gene pool, frequencies, genotype, phenotype, allele

a blank soul is one that has reproduction and growth

vegetative

blank is when a species with a large distribution is divided by a newly arising barrier; the separated populations develop differences; even if the barrier disappears, they cannot successfully mate

vicariance

2 main categories of allopatric/geographic speciation: 1. blank 2. blank

vicariance, peripatry

in blank speciation, new species start as the population becomes locally adapted and blank blank causes it to become different

vicariant, directional selection

one of the examples of MGEs in evolutionary context is that blank factors and blank resistance genes of MGEs can be transported to share them with neighboring blank; newly acquired genes through this mechanism can increase blank by gaining new or additional functions; on the other hand, MGEs can also decrease blank by introducing disease-causing alleles or mutations

virulence, antibiotic, bacteria, fitness, fitness

example of tracking natural selection affecting quantitative traits: beak of finch steps: 1. capture blank, measure and identify hundreds of birds and record their diets of seeds; do this every year for 25 years 2. for the seeds the finches eat, measure seed blank and seed blank; do this every year for 25 years 3. identify and count the blank present on a representative plot; repeat 50 times; do this every year for 25 years 4. correlate the information with climate data, blank or blank conclusions: - beak size changes incrementally as the blank changes - blank traits allow organisms to respond more precisely to environment change

weight, size, hardness, seeds, wet, dry, environment, quantitative

there is pervasive duplication of both coding and non-coding genes in a spider, including two clusters of Hox genes. Analysis of synteny conservation across the P. tepidariorum genome suggests that there has been an ancient blank blank duplication in spiders. Comparison with the genomes of other chelicerates, including that of the newly sequenced bark scorpion Centruroides sculpturatus, suggests that this event occurred in the common ancestor of spiders and scorpions, and is probably independent of the WGDs in horseshoe crabs.(....)"

whole genome

morphological species concept follows this checklist: 1. universality - blank 2. applicability - blank 3. theoretically significant - blank

yes, no, no

genetic species concept follows this checklist: 1. universality - blank 2. applicability - blank 3. theoretically significant - blank

yes, yes, no

phylogenetic species concept follows this checklist: 1. universality - blank 2. applicability - blank 3. theoretically significant - blank it may indicate minor blank variation

yes, yes, no, intraspecific

blank blank is when the resulting zygote dies because chromosomes from the mother and father are incompatible

zygotic mortality

post-zygotic isolating mechanisms: 1. blank blank 2. blank blank 3. blank blank 4. blank blank

zygotic mortality, hybrid inviability, hybrid sterility, hybrid breakdown