OTHELLO

Machiavellian traits and quotes to support

1. Only focused on heir own ambition and interests "nothing can or shall content my soul until I am even with him" 2. Prioritise money and power over relationships "I have alredy chose my officer and what was he?" 3. Come across as charming and confident "Sir" "I'll have Michael Cassio on the hip" 4. Exploit and manipulate others to get ahead (Iago's persusasion of Roderigo in order to get revenge) 5. Lie and decieve where required "As honest as I am" 6. Use flattery often (Uses people) 7. Lacking in principles and values "I follow him to serve my turn upon him" 8. Cynical of goodness and morality "Lechery by this hand" 9. Capable of causing others harm to achieve their means "But for my sport and profit, I hate the Moor" 10. Low levels of empathy "I do love her to partly led to diet my revenge" 11. Often avoid commitment and emotional attachments (Hypercritical of Emilia e.g. lines 109-111) 12. Can be very patient due to calculating nature (Speech at end of Act 2 Sc1) "knaverys plain face is never seen till used" 13. Rarely reveal their true intentions "No more of drowning do you hear", doesn't want R to kill himself, for his own benefit 14. Can be good at reading social situations and others (Reading into Cassio and Desdemona's exchanges- manipulates the situation) 15. Lack of warmth in social interactions 16. Not always aware of the consequence of their actions (rude to Emilia- she ends up turning against him) 17. Might struggle to identify their own emotions "O gentle lady, do not put me to it; for I am nothing, if not critical" (plus hatred for Othello- does not articulate why)

Structural/formal language points

1. Tragic structure 2. Resolution provided in Act 5 as Shakespeare returns Othello to his noble controlled language 3. Pathos of the play comes from how preventable, yet inevitable the death is within the context society and the tragic structure of the play 4. Dramatic irony forged by machiavelli Iago 5. 3 unities of tragedy, as composed by Aristotle, compresses the plays action into a short time frame, emphasising Othello's rapid and sudden fall from grace 6. Fall from grace is the plays driving tragic impulse 7. Utilises the change in setting from Venice to Cyprus (a foreign and unknown setting) to reinforce the fall from grace as he acts no longer as a venetian but as a 'luscivious moor' 8. Speech/language- Othello: Rythmic and decorated, verse over prose Controlled and decorated language begins to deteriorate Trades his eloquent speech for exclamatory slurs and abusive epithets as he is pulled into the orbit of Iago's filthy linguistic energies Mimics Iago's crude and misogynistic speech, monosyllabic sexist labelling Swaps amorous verse for violence and ends up murdering his wife- dramatic contrast Fragmented, incoherent expressions, recurrence of apostrophes Clear loss of lyrical and mental control Desdemona: Consistent loyalty mirrors her consistently subservient, unchanging language throughout the course of the play 9. A3SC3 plays pivotal climax as Othello's allegiance switches from Desdemona to Iago 10. Harmartia (fatal flaw leading to Othello's downfall)- Misogynistic attitudes towards women which Iago plays on, fragile masculinity and pride

Historical Context

11th-15thC: Catholics battled to re-conquer Spain from the Islamic Arabs and Berbers ('Moors') who had occupied it since the 900s. The battle inspired intense prejudice and suspicion that lasted for a long time after. Lots of racial prejudice in the period as a result of political conflict In England during Shakespeare's time, views regarding "Moors" were slightly more complex because of strong anti-Catholic sentiment in England and English fears of invasion by the Spanish. In fact, England maintained independent trade relationships with "Moorish" Northern Africa, despite Spanish and Portuguese protest. The English slave trade also brought blacks to Europe, from mid-sixteenth century onward. Queen Elizabeth herself founded The Barbary Company, formally institutionalising this trade; in addition, she received a delegation of Moroccan diplomats in 1600. However, the English still felt a strong suspicion of Islam: Elizabeth issued a degree expelling Moors from Africa and Spanish "Moriscos" from the boundary of England in 1599 and 1601. Cuckold- Ultimate shame for males in Jacobean society, 17th century audience would perhaps sympathise with Othello's anger Masculinity manifested in male power over females- wife as a confirmation of control and status: Iago plays on Othello's fragile masculinity and pride (arguably his harmartia) Attitudes towards Venetian women and promiscuity/prostitution arguably influencing Othello's chauvinistic attitudes, allowing Iago to bring about his tragic fall from grace (by playing on ideas of his wifes infidelity) Patriarchal attitudes of renaissance Europe that ordered women to be obedient wives, lacking autonomy in relationships and society/Venetian chauvinisim Patriarchal society justifying female subordination as a result of the great chain of being 21stC audience might find her obedience uninspiring, 17thC audience would be unsurprised, arguably finding her submissive nature admirable Desdemona is arguably the only character in the play who does not view miscegenation with anxiety; something typically frowned upon in Renaissance society

Act 4 Sc3

>Desdemona remains as faithful here in her love as in 1.3, despite the fact that Othello has berated her and that she even seems to sense that he might kill her. Her devotion to Othello even should it cost her her life could not contrast more strongly with the graphic, misogynistic picture of female sexuality Iago has described throughout the play. Othello is so threatened by the possibility of having been cuckolded that he can't see the reality of his incredibly faithful wife. >Emilia presents a cynical view of marriage, in which one bad deed inspires another. Though it should be noted that Emilia seems to think that men always cheat first, while the men suspect the women will cheat first. Once again, Desdemona's displays her incredible virtue and faithfulness, which in his jealousy Othello can no longer see.

Act 3 Sc3

>Desdemona, who showed independence resisting her father's anger in 1.1, here proves herself willing to take an independent political stand against her husband. Iago once again manages to plant a seed of doubt in another person's mind without seeming to mean to. >Othello's sudden curtness to Desdemona may indicate that he is already suspicious of her, just from seeing Cassio rush away. For her part, Desdemona insists on her obedience to him as a virtuous wife. >Othello's exasperation with Iago's further supports that Othello has already become suspicious. Iago once again plants seeds of doubt while making himself look innocent by airing his suspicions and then arguing that they can't possibly be true. >Iago continues to strive to produce the effects of honesty. However, his words and shifts are carefully calculated to inspire jealousy. Notice, also, that until this moment, Othello has always been honest. Now, to protect his own honor, he lies and says that he is not jealous. Jealousy is a "green-eyed" monster because it takes you over and causes you to see what is not there. >As soon as doubt about Desdemona's faithfulness creeps in, Othello loses his sense of manhood and begins to be affected by the racial prejudice that he had formerly shrugged off. >The handkerchief is a symbol of Othello and Desdemona's love. Notice that it is Othello, now jealous, who says it is too small and lets it fall. Meanwhile, despite being misused by her own husband, Emilia nonetheless remains eager to please him. Emilia's making a copy of the handkerchief echoes her husband's diligently producing illusions. >Snatching the handkerchief, Iago retains exclusive control over "directing" the unfolding jealousy of Othello. The planting of the handkerchief, which Othello dropped, in Cassio's room shows how jealousy produces the effect it fears. >Othello here states that the uncertainty of jealousy is actually worse than the possible crime, and expressly connects his worrying with the loss of military glory, of honor and manhood. He seeks to eliminate the uncertainty by getting proof—by seeing reality. >Iago responds to Othello's demand for visible proof with the most circumstantial, unverifiable evidence. And Othello, overcome by jealousy, accepts it. Notice also that Othello immediately thinks of killing Desdemona. He believes that she has robbed him of his manhood, so he feels he must destroy her. >Yet again, Iago is most deceitful precisely in the moments in which he pretends to be most moderate. And, once again, he follows a moment of backing off with an insinuation calculated to drive Othello still madder with jealousy—all carefully staged. >This highly theatrical moment of vow-taking reflects the climax of Iago's plan. He has become lieutenant, and destroyed Othello's sense of his own honor in the process.

Act 4 Sc2

>Despite naively playing into Iago's hands earlier by giving him the handkerchief, Emilia shows her earnest loyalty to Desdemona. >Now that Othello suspects that Desdemona's virtue is just a cover for *****-like behavior, her denials of his accusation just makes him more certain of its truth. Jealousy feeds on itself. By paying Emilia, Othello is implying that Desdemona is a ***** whose time costs money. >Here Iago shows that he is both willing and able to manipulate everyone, including his own wife, to the end. Emilia herself exhibits some—but not enough—perceptiveness about the entire situation. >For the first time, Roderigo asserts a free will, and wants to do something that would not benefit Iago. >But Iago manages to maintain control of the situation by once again playing on Roderigo's jealous desire for Desdemona. Once he has convinced Roderigo to stay, he then weaves him even more fully into his plots.

Act1 Sc3

>Games of illusion and appearance play a serious role in politics and war as well as in jealousy and love. >Brabantio continues to insist, based on common racial, that Desdemona could never have been sexually drawn to someone of Othello's racial background in the absence of some kind of deception on his part. The Duke, though, who needs Othello's military leadership, is not so swayed by prejudice. >The truly remarkable story of Othello's life, described by Othello in plain language, contrasts with the illusions that Iago will later build out of flowery words. Yet note that Othello does explicitly assert that storytelling has a seductive power, and Iago will indeed seduce Othello with his inventions later on. >Desdemona asserts independence from her father and obedience to Othello. Women in this society were always obedient to some man, or at least were supposed to be. Men who did not keep their women obedient were seen as failures. >While she has both Othello and Brabantio backing her, here, Desdemona continues to assert her will in a highly public forum among men. >Brabantio defines Desdemona's independence as disloyalty to men. >Othello and Desdemona exhibit devotion to each other, although not excessive sexual passion. Othello clearly has faith in Iago, entrusting him with his wife. >In contrast to Roderigo's jealous despair, Iago emphasizes his belief that you can make yourself whatever you like—a theme related to his confidence in his own ability to direct everyone around him, tricking people into doing exactly what he wants. >Iago lays out his plans to deceive the other characters, putting himself in the role of "director" of a kind of play-within-the-play. While he suspects that Othello has slept with his own wife, he seems relatively indifferent to whether or not this is true: Iago derives his sense of self, his manhood, from his ability to manipulate others, rather than sexual pride. He suggests that Othello's weakness is that he doesn't understand that appearance can hide reality. Not also that Iago seems to hold no racial prejudice against Othello at all. He just uses prejudice against Othello when it's helpful to him.

Act 1 Sc2 Analysis

>Iago changes sides seamlessly. He tries to provoke Othello by suggesting that Roderigo has slighted his manly honour. But, at this point, Othello seems completely secure in himself, immune to challenges to his manhood. >Othello knows that his honourable military service will outweigh Brabantio's grievance. He's also the first character to speak of love. All the other men seem to think of women as something to possess, not love. >Cassio's news is proof that the state's need for Othello's military leadership will outweigh any racial prejudice against him. >Brabantio gives full voice to his injured sense of manhood by interweaving the language of racial prejudice with horror at interracial sexuality. He cannot believe that things are as they seem: that his daughter has voluntarily eloped with a "sooty...thing." >Agreeing to go before the Duke's court of law, Othello remains confident that his honorable service will outweigh his outsider status.

Act 5 Sc1

>Iago manipulates Roderigo's jealousy and sense of honor to get him to attach Cassio. Iago now shows the depths of his depravity. He doesn't just want to ruin Othello, he's willing to trick people into attacking each other and dying as long as it serves his own ends. >Iago's actions are cowardly, sending Roderigo ahead of him and then attacking Cassio from behind. Othello once again misinterprets what has happened, though, to Iago's benefit. Othello's professed admiration for Iago, coupled with his newly misogynistic and violent plans for Desdemona, contrast poignantly from his declarations of love in 1.3. >Iago here reveals the full extent of his treachery, killing the character with whom he has plotted onstage since 1.1 in order to cover his tracks. Iago, basically, has no honour to lose. >Although the other characters dismiss Bianca as a promiscuous woman, she shows real affection for Cassio. Iago, however, uses misogynistic stereotypes to implicate the (innocent) Bianca, and further put himself in the clear. >The brief fight between Emilia and Bianca shows that just as Othello might hold racist feelings about himself, so do women entertain gender prejudices and stereotypes against other women. >Iago's reference to the night as a dramatic climax once again underscores his self-consciously chosen role as "director."

Characters: Iago

>Othello's ensign (a job also known as an ancient or standard-bearer), and the villain of the play. Iago is twenty-eight years old. While his ostensible reason for desiring Othello's demise is that he has been passed over for promotion to lieutenant, Iago's motivations are never very clearly expressed and seem to originate in an obsessive, almost aesthetic delight in manipulation and destruction. >Possibly the most heinous villain in Shakespeare, Iago is fascinating for his most terrible characteristic: his utter lack of convincing motivation for his actions. In the first scene, he claims to be angry at Othello for having passed him over for the position of lieutenant. At the end of Act 1 Sc3, Iago says he thinks Othello may have slept with his wife, Emilia: "It is thought abroad that 'twixt my sheets He has done my office". Iago mentions this suspicion again at the end of Act 2 Sc1, explaining that he lusts after Desdemona because he wants to get even with Othello "wife for wife" None of these claims seems to adequately explain Iago's deep hatred of Othello, and Iago's lack of motivation—or his inability or unwillingness to express his true motivation—makes his actions all the more terrifying. He is willing to take revenge on anyone—Othello, Desdemona, Cassio, Roderigo, even Emilia—at the slightest provocation and enjoys the pain and damage he causes. >Iago is often funny, especially in his scenes with the foolish Roderigo, which serve as a showcase of Iago's manipulative -abilities and prevalent machiavellian traits. He seems almost to wink at the audience as he revels in his own skill. As entertained spectators, we find ourselves on Iago's side when he is with Roderigo, but the interactions between the two also reveal a streak of cowardice in Iago—a cowardice that becomes manifest in the final scene, when Iago kills his own wife. >Iago's murder of Emilia could also stem from the general hatred of women that he displays. Some readers have suggested that Iago's true, underlying motive for persecuting Othello is his homosexual love for the general. He certainly seems to take great pleasure in preventing Othello from enjoying marital happiness, and he expresses his love for Othello frequently and effusively. It is Iago's talent for understanding and manipulating the desires of those around him that makes him both a powerful and a compelling figure. Iago is able to take the handkerchief from Emilia and know that he can deflect her questions; he is able to tell Othello of the handkerchief and know that Othello will not doubt him; he is able to tell the audience, "And what's he then that says I play the villain," and know that it will laugh as though he were a clown. Though the most inveterate liar, Iago inspires all of the play's characters the trait that is most lethal to Othello: trust.

Act 4 Sc1

>Othello's fit robs him of his ability to speak, the trait that distinguishes humans from animals. Consumed by jealousy, without his honor, he has become the animal that the prejudiced characters have described him as being. >Although Cassio shows real concern for Othello, Iago skillfully maintains exclusive control over his situation. >Up until now, Iago has staged events and then enjoyed them as a spectator. Now he sets up a staged event with Othello as the spectator. >At the play's beginning, Othello was the center of the action, the military hero. Now, his honor gone, he skulks around the periphery, a kind of peeping tom. Cassio, by the way, is rather nasty to Bianca. >With Bianca's appearance, which Iago doesn't seem to have planned, his scene takes on a life of its own. Again, Bianca's jealousy provides a foil to Othello's own, while also further convincing Othello that Iago is telling the truth. >Othello still shows the residue of the tenderness that he and Desdemona eloquently expressed for each other in earlier scenes. But Iago turns this logic on its head, arguing that in Desdemona, as in all women, such attractive or noble traits are in fact just hiding a devious sexuality that threatens to steal men's honor and manhood. >The arrival of Lodovico, like that of Bianca just before, provides yet another serendipitous addition to Iago's plan. The presence of Lodovico as an emissary from Venice also reinforces how dramatically Othello has changed from the early scenes in Venice. Jealousy and the fear that he has been cuckolded have robbed him of his honor, and he now acts recklessly, angrily, and without self-control. >Iago quickly assumes control of this new dimension of the situation. Once again, Iago refuses to answer questions in such a way that makes him look loyal while at the same time inspiring the beliefs he wants his interlocutor to have.

Act 1 Sc 1

>Roderigo's primary reason for hating Othello is because of Desdemona, not racial prejudice. Iago has not managed to help Roderigo despite being paid hints at his duplicity. >Iago has his own jealous motives for hating Othello. When he calls Cassio a "spinster," Iago is questioning Cassio's manhood, while also implying that just as real men know how to fight, real women know how to have sex. A spinster is an old, unmarried woman who has no experience of sex, just as the military theorist Cassio has no experience of battle. >Iago reveals his capacity to hide his feelings and motives so that his actions don't reveal them: "In following him I but follow myself. I am not what I am" >Brabantio thinks little of Roderigo. But Iago rallies the white Brabantio on their side by using prejudice as a tool, describing Othello as an animal ("black ram") and sex with Desdoma as bestial. Iago also utilises the fact that Brabantio will feel his manly honor challenged by his daughter's having sex. Desdemona is also described in animal terms. The comparison is meant to evoke purity, but also indicates that the men do not think of her as an equal human being. >Brabantio's language of "dreams" plays into the theme of appearance vs. reality. As does Iago's slipping away without giving away his identity, so he can continue to plot against Othello. >Brabantio feels his manhood ruined by his daughter's deception, and insists that Othello could only have unmanned him in this way by twisting reality through some kind of sorcery. His change of heart regarding Roderigo as the lesser of two evils reveals his prejudice against Othello.

Characters: Desdemona

>The daughter of the Venetian senator Brabanzio. Desdemona and Othello are secretly married before the play begins. While in many ways stereotypically pure and meek, Desdemona is also determined and self-possessed. She is equally capable of defending her marriage, jesting bawdily with Iago, and responding with dignity to Othello's incomprehensible jealousy. >Desdemona is a plausible, well-rounded figure than much criticism has given her credit for. Arguments that see Desdemona as stereotypically weak and submissive ignore the conviction and authority of her first speech ("My noble father, / I do perceive here a divided duty" [I.iii.179-180]) and her terse fury after Othello strikes her ("I have not deserved this" [IV.i.236]). Similarly, critics who argue that Desdemona's slightly bizarre bawdy jesting with Iago in Act 2 Sc1, is either an interpolation not written by Shakespeare or a mere vulgarity ignore the fact that Desdemona is young, sexual, and recently married. She later displays the same chiding, almost mischievous wit in Act 3 Sc3 when she attempts to persuade Othello to forgive Cassio. >Desdemona is at times a submissive character, most notably in her willingness to take credit for her own murder. In response to Emilia's question, "O, who hath done this deed?" Desdemona's final words are, "Nobody, I myself. Farewell. / Commend me to my kind lord. O, farewell" The play, then, depicts Desdemona contradictorily as a self-effacing, faithful wife and as a bold, independent personality. This contradiction may be intentional, meant to portray the way Desdemona herself feels after defending her choice of marriage to her father in Act 1 Sc3, and then almost immediately being put in the position of defending her fidelity to her husband. >She begins the play as a supremely independent person, but midway through she must struggle against all odds to convince Othello that she is not too independent. The manner in which Desdemona is murdered—smothered by a pillow in a bed covered in her wedding sheets—is symbolic: she is literally suffocated beneath the demands put on her fidelity. Since her first lines, Desdemona has seemed capable of meeting or even rising above those demands. In the end, Othello stifles the speech that made Desdemona so powerful. Tragically, Desdemona is apparently aware of her imminent death. She, not Othello, asks Emilia to put her wedding sheets on the bed, and she asks Emilia to bury her in these sheets should she die first. The last time we see Desdemona before she awakens to find Othello standing over her with murder in his eyes, she sings a song she learned from her mother's maid: "She was in love; and he proved mad And did forsake her. She had a song of willow. And she died singing it. That song tonight Will not go from my mind" Like the audience, Desdemona seems able only to watch as her husband is driven insane with jealousy. Though she maintains to the end that she is "guiltless," Desdemona also forgives her husband. Her forgiveness of Othello may help the audience to forgive him as well.

Act 3 Sc1

>The musicians serenading create another scene within a scene. >Following Iago's final soliloquy in 2.3, the audience knows that no good can come of Cassio's seeking Desdemona as his advocate. The fact that even Emilia plays into Iago's manipulations draws attention to how limitless Iago's capacity for deception is: he will even use his own wife. >Emilia's report on Othello and Desdemona's conversation about Cassio's fate underlines the extreme differences between the Othello-Desdemona and Iago-Emilia couples. The first is based on mutual respect and love, in the second, Iago keeps Emilia completely in the dark and uses her for his own ends.

Characters: Othello

>The play's protagonist and hero. A Christian Moor and general of the armies of Venice, Othello is an eloquent and physically powerful figure, respected by all those around him. In spite of his elevated status, he is nevertheless easy prey to insecurities because of his age, his life as a soldier, and his race. He possesses a "free and open nature," which his ensign Iago uses to twist his love for his wife, Desdemona, into a powerful and destructive jealousy (I.iii.381). >From the beginning, Othello remains at a distance from much of the action that concerns and affects him. Roderigo and Iago refer ambiguously to a "he" or "him" for much of the first scene. When they finally begin to specify whom they are talking about, under Brabantio's window, they only do so with racial epithets: "the Moor", "the thick-lips" (I.i.66), "an old black ram" (I.i.88), and "a Barbary horse" (I.i.113). >Although Othello appears at the beginning of Sc2, we do not hear his name until well into Act 1 Sc3. Later, Othello's is the last of the three ships to arrive at Cyprus in Act 2 Sc3; Othello will stand apart while Cassio and Iago supposedly discuss Desdemona; and Othello will assume that Cassio is dead without being present when the fight takes place in Act 5 Sc1. Othello's status as an outsider may be the reason he is such easy prey for Iago. >Although Othello is a cultural and racial outsider in Venice, his skill as a soldier and leader is nevertheless valuable and necessary to the state, and he is an integral part of Venetian civic society. He is in great demand by the duke and senate, as evidenced by Cassio's comment that the senate "sent about three several quests" to look for Othello (I.ii.46). The Venetian government trusts Othello enough to put him in full martial and political command of Cyprus; indeed, in his dying speech, Othello reminds the Venetians of the "service" he has done their state (V.ii.348). >Those who consider Othello their social and civic peer, such as Desdemona and Brabantio, nevertheless seem drawn to him because of his exotic qualities. Othello admits as much when he tells the duke about his friendship with Brabantio. "Desdemona's father loved me, oft invited me, still questioned me the story of my life, from year to year" Othello is also able to captivate his peers with his speech. The duke's reply to Othello's speech about how he wooed Desdemona with his tales of adventure is "I think this tale would win my daughter too" >Othello sometimes makes a point of presenting himself as an outsider, whether because he recognises his exotic appeal or because he is self-conscious of and defensive about his difference from other Venetians. For example, in spite of his obvious eloquence in Act 1 Sc3, he protests, "Rude am I in my speech, And little blessed with the soft phrase of peace" While Othello is never rude in his speech, he does allow his eloquence to suffer as he is put under increasing strain by Iago's plots. >In the final moments of the play, Othello regains his composure and, once again, seduces both his onstage and offstage audiences with his words. The speech that precedes his suicide is a tale that could woo almost anyone. It is the tension between Othello's victimisation at the hands of a foreign culture and his own willingness to torment himself that makes him a tragic figure rather than simply Iago's ridiculous puppet.

Act 3 Sc4

>The sudden shift from the wrongly jealousy Othello at the end of the last scene to Desdemona emphasises just how innocent and virtuous she actually is. >In response to Desdemona's frank question Emilia exhibits some of her husband's duplicity. >Othello obsessively tries to find evidence of infidelity. The handkerchief's origins with an Egyptian sorceress connects it to: Othello's non-white background; illusion, such as those Iago is using the handkerchief to create; and to a threatening woman, hinting that, to men, all women are threatening. >Under Othello's pressure, the typically honest Desdemona is herself forced to equivocate. Bringing up Cassio in good faith, she plays right into Iago's hands. Emilia, who is less idealistic and more worldly than Desdemona, immediately understands that Othello's behaviour stems from jealousy. >Iago continues to handle every person involved in the unfolding drama carefully. The others remain clueless. >Like Othello, Desdemona doesn't understand that a skillful liar can twist reality to look like something else. She thinks that if she is virtuous, then Othello and the world will see it. Emilia, however, understands that jealousy can warp a person's vision, so that they see what isn't there. >Bianca's jealousy of Cassio provides a contrast for the jealousy that Othello feels for Desdemona—demonstrating that women are also subject to the jealousy that Emilia, earlier in this scene, attributes only to men. Bianca also serves as a contrast to Desdemona: Bianca is *****, while Desdemona's virtuous wife. But the depiction of Bianca as a jealous woman who truly cares for Cassio complicates the contrast.

Characters: Roderigo

A jealous suitor of Desdemona. Young, rich, and foolish, Roderigo is convinced that if he gives Iago all of his money, Iago will help him win Desdemona's hand. Repeatedly frustrated as Othello marries Desdemona and then takes her to Cyprus, Roderigo is ultimately desperate enough to agree to help Iago kill Cassio after Iago points out that Cassio is another potential rival for Desdemona.

Does Iago hate women?

A strong current of misogyny flows through Othello, and many of the play's tragic events emerge from this source. Iago in particular serves as a mouthpiece for misogyny, frequently making offensive comments about women both in private asides and soliloquies and in public conversations. Iago firmly believes that women are universally untrustworthy and sexually deviant. In Act II he outlines his perception of women as elusive, mercurial, and deceitful: "You are pictures out of doors, bells / in your parlors, wild-cats in your kitchens, saints in / your injuries, devils being offended, players in your / housewifery, and housewives in your beds" (II.i.). Later in the same scene he expresses his related suspicions about female sexuality. In one of his ironic couplets in "praise" of Desdemona he quips, "There's none so foul and foolish thereunto / But does foul pranks which fair and wise ones do" (II.i.), where "foul pranks" means sexual acts. Iago's misogyny also rubs off on others, most notably on Othello, who adopts Iago's hateful vocabulary and refers to both Emilia and Desdemona as "whores." One could argue that Iago's deep-seated misogyny represents the true source of the play's dramatic action. After all, his unfounded suspicion of his wife's adultery is what initially leads him to desire revenge against the men who have allegedly cuckolded him: Cassio and Othello. Iago admits as much in a covertly ironic statement he makes to Emilia in the final act. Referring to the wounding of Cassio and the near slaying of Roderigo, Iago asserts to his wife: "This is the fruits of whoring" (V.i.). In saying this to line Emilia, Iago clearly means that Desdemona's alleged adultery has led to violence. However, the audience also understands Iago's words in another light. We know that it was Iago who perpetrated these violent acts, so when he characterizes them as "the fruits of whoring," we can interpret him as covertly admitting responsibility while also denying fault. Such an interpretation makes sense when we recall Iago's suspicion that both Cassio and Othello have slept with Emilia. In this sense, then, all of the events in the play unfold from Emilia's supposed "whoring." Thus, Iago's words also serve as a warning to his wife. 60 Young Adult Movie Adaptations, Ranked | The SparkNotes Blog Against Iago's misogyny, Emilia provides a countervailing critique of women's inequality. When Desdemona expresses surprise that the incident with the misplaced handkerchief should cause so much grief, Emilia reminds her mistress that men can always find ways to exploit women for their own purposes. She explains, "'Tis not a year or two shows us a man. / They are all but stomachs, and we all but food; / They eat us hungerly, and, when they are full, / They belch us" (III.iv.). Later in the play Emilia goes on to make additional, subversive statements that go against the grain of the cultural misogyny of the contemporary era. When Desdemona asks her if she would consider committing adultery "for all the world," Emilia scandalizes her mistress with her response: "The world's a huge thing; it is a great prize / For a small vice" (IV.iii.). However, despite Emilia's nascent feminism, her worldview remains centered on the importance of male power. She demonstrates as much when she qualifies her scandalous statement about adultery as follows: "who would not make her husband a / cuckold to make him a monarch? I should venture / purgatory for 't" (IV.iii.).

Introduction checklist

As a result of the plays patriarchal setting Tragic hero, machiavelli antagonist, tragic victim Shakespeare's intentions

Symbols: The willow

As she prepares for bed in Act V, Desdemona sings a song about a woman who is betrayed by her lover. She was taught the song by her mother's maid, Barbary, who suffered a misfortune similar to that of the woman in the song; she even died singing "Willow." The song's lyrics suggest that both men and women are unfaithful to one another. To Desdemona, the song seems to represent a melancholy and resigned acceptance of her alienation from Othello's affections, and singing it leads her to question Emilia about the nature and practice of infidelity.

Protagonist

As the play's title indicates, Othello is the protagonist. At the beginning of the play, Othello occupies a complex position within Venetian society. He is well-respected for his military valor, and when the Duke learns about the impending threat posed by the Ottoman fleet, he immediately turns to Othello for help, imploring "Valiant Othello, we must straight employ you" (1.3.). However, Othello's race makes him a target of prejudice and distrust: when Roderigo complains that Othello has successfully wooed Desdemona, he refers to his rival as "thick-lips" (1.1.), mocking a facial feature stereotypically associated with people of color. Brabantio is so appalled to learn that his daughter has married Othello that he assumes she must have been bewitched, accusing Othello "damned as thou art, thou hast enchanted her" (1.2.). Othello's behavior throughout the play is influenced by the knowledge that many of the characters around him do not truly trust or accept him due to his racial difference; they tolerate his presence because he serves a purpose, but do not truly think of him as an equal. Othello at first wants to simply live a contented life with his new bride; as he movingly tells Desdemona, "If it were now to die / 'Twere now to be most happy" (2.1.). However, due to Iago's poisonous influence, Othello's desires shift significantly over the play. He comes to desperately want certainty about whether or not Desdemona is faithful. Once he is convinced of Desdemona's guilt, Othello's desires shift to wanting revenge: "To furnish me with some swift means of death / For the fair devil"(3.3.). At the start of the play, Othello is a confident, self-assured man who is calm in a crisis and gracious to everyone around him; for example, he remains calm when Brabantio is rudely insulting him, and immediately accepts the Duke's command that he go to Cypress to fight the Ottomans. By the end of the play, Othello is dangerously impulsive; once he has become convinced Desdemona is unfaithful, he vows that "thy bed, lust-stained, shall with lust's blood be spotted" (5.1.). Iago's psychological torment has broken Othello to the point where he no longer knows what to believe, and cannot distinguish truth and lies.

Characters: Graziano

Brabantio's kinsman and brother who accompanies Lodovico to Cyprus. Amidst the chaos of the final scene, Graziano mentions that Desdemona's father has died.

Storytelling: Reports of the storm

Chaotic, relying on others perceptions, desperate for information but having little to contribute etc In these pressured situations, it seems unsurprising that there is confusion and misunderstandings, especially when motives are blurred away from an official war-like setting

Context of the play

Cinthio de gli Hecatommi thi: Collection of short Italian tales, explore pros and cons of love, 10 sections of 'decades' split into 10 stories, 'Desdemona and the Moor' (Decade 3 Story 7)- Othello is based on this, he is the 'moor' (unnamed and insignificant because of his racial inferiority) Differences to Cinthio: Iago isn't drven by lust for Desdemona, introduces secondary antagonists (Brabantio, Roderigo...), refers to war between Muslim Turks and Christian venetians to add political resonance for an early modern audience Iago refuses to confess his crimes, while Othello commits suicide to atone for his sins Aristotle's tragedies: Aim to bring back a "catharsis of the spectators"- to arouse in them sensations of pity and fear and to purge them of these emotions so they leave feeling cleansed and uplifted Six main elements- plot, character, diction, thought, spectacle and song- without action there can't be tragedy Central character must be a figure with whom the audience can identify Harmartia- hero's error or fatality Peripetea- where the opposite of what was planned/hoped for by the protagonist takes place Anagnorisis- when the protagonist recognises the truth of a situation, discovers another characters identity or comes to a realisation about himself Shakespeare's tragedies: 5 part structure- exposition, development, climax, further developments, final crisis and resolution Their darker contents may reflect the general mood of the country following Elizabeth's death- Jacobean period- tragic hero whose fatal flaw causes their downfall. Renaissance: 14th-17thC, spread to England in 1600s, began in Italy. Was about rediscovering intellectual ambition of the Classical civilisations There were several advancements, including gunpowder and proving the Earth orbited the sun Women: still disregarded, no political rights and considered legally subject to their husbands Women of all classes were expected to perform housewife duties- peasant women worked in the field and ran the home Disobedience was seen as a crime against religion QE1 never married so never became subservient to a man Following the renaissance, some noble girls could be educated Racism: Fear of the races mixing through marriage and sex- miscegenation Act of proclamation in 1601 asked for the deportation of black people Racist slurs were common Ethnic minorities were ignored Victorian people tried to civilise colonies- public associated "blackness" with moral corruption and believe being white was a sign of purity Moors- black skin denoted evil, commonly stereotyped as sexually overactive, prone to jealousy and generally wicked Stereotypes: exuded an aura of exoticism and otherness Barbaric and tended towards savagery Not supposed to marry white people Exuded a sense of danger Driven by sexual desire Associated with witchcraft Emotionally demonstrative Fickle and untrustworthy Animalistic Lacked logic, reason and discipline

Characters: Brabantio

Desdemona's father, a somewhat blustering and self-important Venetian senator. As a friend of Othello, Brabanzio feels betrayed when the general marries his daughter in secret.

Story telling: Role of Emilia

Emilia's function as the 'straight talking' working woman seeking to cut through patriarchal misreadings make her one of the texts most memorable figures It gives her death a real poignancy too Her cry before death 'twill out! twill out!' is loud and fills the auditorium The vigour and force of these exclamations come from her recognition that her struggle is not just again the tendency for concealment and obscurity with her husband or Othello She is shouting against a whole society's desire to complicate what should be made plain

Foreshadowing: Emilia's revelation of Iago's plot

Emilia's role as a truth-teller gradually increases over the course of the play, culminating in the moment when she reveals Iago's plot to Othello and dies as a consequence. One of the earliest moments when she speaks her mind comes in Act III, scene iv, when she bemoans the social hierarchy that places men above women: "They are all but stomachs, and we all but food; / They eat us hungerly, and, when they are full, / They belch us" (III.iv.). In saying this line to Desdemona, her social superior, Emilia demonstrates her willingness to risk censure in order to speak the truth. Emilia's outspokenness becomes more acute in Act IV, where in Iago's presence she defends Desdemona against Othello's claim that she is a "*****." In response to Desdemona, who declares that Heaven should pardon the man who planted the idea in her husband's mind, Emilia makes a foreboding substitution: "A halter pardon him, and Hell gnaw his bones!" (IV.ii.). A halter is a noose, and in using this word—in front of Iago, the villain himself—Emilia not only foreshadows her role as the ultimate truth-teller, but she also foretells Iago's probable future execution.

Story telling: Control of the narrative

Emilia: 'let husbands know their wives have sense like them; they see, and smell, and have their palates both for sweet and sour, as husbands have' Women have stories told about them and to them, but don't get to tell themselves E.g. Othello tells the story of his wooing of Desdemona- we do not hear it from side Iago begins to a spin a story about Bianca's complicity of Cassio's 'murder', but she is denied a chance to speak for herself The only story told by a woman is Emilia's revelation of the truth in 5.2 and she tells the story of the men and is killed for her trouble The powerless in society are powerless in the face of the narratives that the powerful have told Suggests that if men would have allowed women a voice, much of this wouldn't have happened

Key Facts

Full Title: The Tragedy of Othello, the Moor of Venice Author: William Shakespeare Type Of Work: Play Genre: Tragedy Language: English Time And Place Written: Between 1601 and 1604, England Date Of First Publication: 1622 Publisher: Thomas Walkley Tone: Shakespeare clearly views the events of the play as tragic. He seems to view the marriage between Desdemona and Othello as noble and heroic, for the most part. Setting (Time): Late sixteenth century, during the wars between Venice and Turkey Setting (Place): Venice in Act I; the island of Cyprus thereafter Protagonist: Othello Major Conflict: Othello and Desdemona marry and attempt to build a life together, despite their differences in age, race, and experience. Their marriage is sabotaged by the envious Iago, who convinces Othello that Desdemona is unfaithful. Rising Action: Iago tells the audience of his scheme, arranges for Cassio to lose his position as lieutenant, and gradually insinuates to Othello that Desdemona is unfaithful. Climax: The climax occurs at the end of Act III, scene iii, when Othello kneels with Iago and vows not to change course until he has achieved bloody revenge. Falling Action: Iago plants the handkerchief in Cassio's room and later arranges a conversation with Cassio, which Othello watches and sees as "proof" that Cassio and Desdemona have slept together. Iago unsuccessfully attempts to kill Cassio, and Othello smothers Desdemona with a pillow. Emilia exposes Iago's deceptions, Othello kills himself, and Iago is taken away to be tortured. Themes: The incompatibility of military heroism and love; the danger of isolation Motifs: Sight and blindness; plants; animals; hell, demons, and monsters Symbols: The handkerchief; the song "Willow" Foreshadowing: Othello and Desdemona's speeches about love foreshadow the disaster to come; Othello's description of his past and of his wooing of Desdemona foreshadow his suicide speech; Desdemona's "Willow" song and remarks to Emilia in Act 4 Sc3, foreshadow her death.

Critical essay: Aristotle on tragedy

He determines that tragedy is a kind of imitation (mimesis), but has a serious purpose and uses direct action rather than narrative to achieve its ends. The aim of tragedy is to bring about a "catharsis" of the spectators (to make them sad and then feel emotionally cleansed) tragedy has six main elements: plot, character, diction, thought, spectacle (scenic effect), and song (music), of which the first two are primary. e says that the plot must be a complete whole — with a definite beginning, middle, and end The plot is intended to illustrate matters of cosmic rather than individual significance, and the protagonist is viewed primarily as the character who experiences the changes that take place In addition, the hero should not offend the moral sensibilities of the spectators, and as a character he must be true to type, true to life, and consistent. The hero's error or frailty (harmartia) is often misleadingly explained as his "tragic flaw," in the sense of that personal quality which inevitably causes his downfall or subjects him to retribution. It is worth noting that some scholars believe the "flaw" was intended by Aristotle as a necessary corollary of his requirement that the hero should not be a completely admirable man. (peripeteia), where the opposite of what was planned or hoped for by the protagonist takes place, "recognition" (anagnorisis), the point when the protagonist recognizes the truth of a situation, discovers another character's identity, or comes to a realization about himself

Motifs: Animals

Iago calls Othello a "Barbary horse," an "old black ram," and also tells Brabanzio that his daughter and Othello are "making the beast with two backs" (I.i.117-118). In Act I, scene iii, Iago tells Roderigo, "Ere I would say I would drown myself for the love of a guinea-hen, I would change my humanity with a baboon" (I.iii.312-313). He then remarks that drowning is for "cats and blind puppies" (I.iii.330-331). Cassio laments that, when drunk, he is "by and by a fool, and presently a beast!" (II.iii.284-285). Othello tells Iago, "Exchange me for a goat / When I shall turn the business of my soul / To such exsufflicate and blowed surmises" (III.iii.184-186). He later says that "[a] horned man's a monster and a beast" (IV.i.59). Even Emilia, in the final scene, says that she will "play the swan, / And die in music" (V.ii.254-255). Like the repeated references to plants, these references to animals convey a sense that the laws of nature, rather than those of society, are the primary forces governing the characters in this play. When animal references are used with regard to Othello, as they frequently are, they reflect the racism both of characters in the play and of Shakespeare's contemporary audience. "Barbary horse" is a vulgarity particularly appropriate in the mouth of Iago, but even without having seen Othello, the Jacobean audience would have known from Iago's metaphor that he meant to connote a savage Moor.

Storytelling: Iago and others

Iago ensures that all stories fit the character he is playing at the time. Everything is self serving Act 2.3: Iago tells his different stories to different characters to further his plans There are no actual events in this play- this scene demonstrates all of the play revolves around Iago's stories Act 3: effectively demonstrates the control Iago has as he masterfully ensures the other characters beg for his stories- he is apparently the reluctant storyteller. In introducing Desdemona's apparent infidelity as 'he knows from first hand experience that, not seeing and only imagining others having sex can be as titillating as actually witnessing the proof' (Thompson) The narrative is more powerful than ocular proof Act 4.1: Introduces the narrative before the event- hes got Othello do hooked on his stories that he now accepts Iago's version of reality before reality even happens Act 5: Iago refuses to tell his story when asked. The eloquent

Motifs: Plants

Iago is strangely preoccupied with plants. His speeches to Roderigo in particular make extensive and elaborate use of vegetable metaphors and conceits. Some examples are: "Our bodies are our gardens, to which our wills are gardeners; so that if we will plant nettles or sow lettuce, set hyssop and weed up thyme . . . the power and corrigible authority of this lies in our wills" (I.iii.317-322); "Though other things grow fair against the sun, / Yet fruits that blossom first will first be ripe" (II.iii.349-350); "And then, sir, would he gripe and wring my hand, / Cry 'O sweet creature!', then kiss me hard, / As if he plucked kisses up by the roots, / That grew upon my lips" (III.iii.425-428). The first of these examples best explains Iago's preoccupation with the plant metaphor and how it functions within the play. Characters in this play seem to be the product of certain inevitable, natural forces, which, if left unchecked, will grow wild. Iago understands these natural forces particularly well: he is, according to his own metaphor, a good "gardener," both of himself and of others. Many of Iago's botanical references concern poison: "I'll pour this pestilence into his ear" (II.iii.330); "The Moor already changes with my poison. / Dangerous conceits are in their natures poisons, / . . . / . . . Not poppy nor mandragora / Nor all the drowsy syrups of the world / Shall ever medicine thee to that sweet sleep" (III.iii.329-336). Iago cultivates his "conceits" so that they become lethal poisons and then plants their seeds in the minds of others. The organic way in which Iago's plots consume the other characters and determine their behavior makes his conniving, human evil seem like a force of nature. That organic growth also indicates that the minds of the other characters are fertile ground for Iago's efforts.

Antagonist

Iago is the antagonist of the play; in fact, his character is often cited as one of the clearest examples of an antagonist in all of literature. Iago actively works to thwart Othello by convincing Othello that Desdemona is being unfaithful to him, knowing that this belief will torment Othello. Part of what makes Iago such a chilling antagonist is his lack of clear motivation for tormenting Othello. Iago mentions that he believes Othello may have had an affair with Emilia, explaining "I do suspect the lusty Moor / Hath leaped into my seat" (2.1.). However, he doesn't dwell on this possibility, and only mentions it infrequently, which suggests there are other reasons why he decides to destroy Othello. Iago also seems to be tormented by jealousy that others are rising to more prominent positions than he is; in the play's first scene, we see him fuming that Cassio, who "never set a squadron in the field" (1.1.) has been promoted. Iago's frustrated ambition might be an additional motivation for his behavior as antagonist, but his primary motivation seems to be a sadistic and megalomaniac desire to exert power over those around him. Iago primarily acts independently, functioning as a master manipulator of those around him. For example, when Iago suggests the idea of Cassio and Desdemona's relationship, Othello has to coax Iago into voicing his suspicions, but only because Iago has manipulated the situation so effectively. Because Iago is able to retain control of how other characters behave and how events unfold, he is seldom influenced by other characters. Iago is only significantly influenced by the behavior of another person at the end of the play, when his own wife turns against him and reveals him to be a villain responsible for all of the violence and suffering. Emilia's betrayal makes Iago behave impulsively for the first time in the play: he stabs Emilia in front of witnesses. In the play's ending, Iago shifts from a calculating figure always one step ahead of everyone else to a panicked killer trying desperately to save himself. In his final moments, however, Iago does regain some of his chilling composure: when Othello implores him to explain himself, Iago responds "What you know, you know / From this time forth, I never will speak a word" (5.2.). The rationale for his villainous antagonism is never fully revealed.

Theme: Jealousy

Iago refers to jealousy as the "green-eyed monster." As this metaphor suggests, jealousy is closely associated with the theme of appearance and reality. For instance, at one point Othello demands that Iago provide "ocular proof" of Desdemona's infidelity—he demands to see reality. But Iago instead provides the circumstantial evidence of the handkerchief, which Othello, consumed by his jealousy, accepts as a substitute for "ocular proof." Othello's jealousy impedes his ability to distinguish between reality and appearance. While the prejudiced characters in the play denigrate Othello as an animal or a beast based on his race, Othello's obvious honor and intelligence makes these attacks obviously ridiculous. Yet when Othello is overcome by jealousy, he does become beast-like, falling into epileptic fits that rob him of the ability to speak intelligibly. Othello is also not the only character in Othello to feel jealousy. Both Iago and Roderigo act to destroy Othello out of jealousy, with disastrous consequences.

Motifs: Hell, demons and monsters

Iago tells Othello to beware of jealousy, the "green-eyed monster which doth mock/ The meat it feeds on" (III.iii.170-171). Likewise, Emilia describes jealousy as dangerously and uncannily self-generating, a "monster / Begot upon itself, born on itself" (III.iv.156-157). Imagery of hell and damnation also recurs throughout Othello, especially toward the end of the play, when Othello becomes preoccupied with the religious and moral judgment of Desdemona and himself. After he has learned the truth about Iago, Othello calls Iago a devil and a demon several times in Act V, scene ii. Othello's earlier allusion to "some monster in [his] thought" ironically refers to Iago (III.iii.111). Likewise, his vision of Desdemona's betrayal is "monstrous, monstrous!" (III.iii.431). Shortly before he kills himself, Othello wishes for eternal spiritual and physical torture in hell, crying out, "Whip me, ye devils, / . . . / . . . roast me in sulphur, / Wash me in steep-down gulfs of liquid fire!" (V.ii.284-287). The imagery of the monstrous and diabolical takes over where the imagery of animals can go no further, presenting the jealousy-crazed characters not simply as brutish, but as grotesque, deformed, and demonic.

Foreshadowing

In Othello, Iago uses his many asides and soliloquies as opportunities to tell the audience exactly what he is planning to do. He outlines his entire scheme early in the play, explaining in no uncertain terms how he plans to exact his revenge: "Make the Moor thank me, love me, and reward me/ For making him egregiously an ass/ And practicing upon his peace and quiet/ Even to madness" (II.i.). We can also find many instance of subtle foreshadowing of the play's tragic ending from the beginning, as all the characters speak rhetorically about the deaths they eventually come to suffer.

Act 2 Sc1

In the early scenes of the play, Othello is completely in command of himself, and the idea that someone could manipulate him seems almost ludicrous. But Othello's self-possession is based on his knowledge that his military leadership is needed by the state. But the storm that destroys the Turks also means that Othello's military leadership, the source of his manhood, is no longer necessary. >Desdemona again demonstrates her loyalty and love toward her husband. >Iago expounds the prejudices against women and female sexuality that he will later use to manipulate Othello. Given the comic tone of his banter with Desdemona, however, it's hard to tell how he "really" feels about anything. >Iago, in his "director" role, seems to directly address the audience. He explains how he will use "reality," Cassio taking Desdemona's hand, to spin an illusion—that Cassio and Desdemona are having an affair. >With the Turks defeated, the scene on Cyprus is domestic rather than military. Othello and Desdemona continue to act out their love for each other in front of all. Yet in commenting that he could happily die at this moment, Othello unwittingly adds a dark tone to the love he shares with Desdemona. >In his plotting, Iago lies to everyone, all the time. Here he gets Roderigo to dislike Cassio by making Roderigo jealous of Cassio's chances with Desdemona. Notice that Iago's description of Cassio is actually a good description of himself. >Iago continues to play on Roderigo's jealousy. Roderigo had in fact correctly interpreted the briefly touching hands of Desdemona and Cassio as just courtesy, but Iago is able to use Roderigo's jealousy to warp his understanding, to mistake appearance for reality. >Once again, Iago directly addresses the audience, laying out his plans to the audience and once again taking on the role of "director." In fact, nearly all of the rest of the action of Othello involves the character's "acting out" the "play" that Iago is "writing." Also note how clear it is to Iago that if Othello suspects he has been unable to control his wife that he would lose his sense of manhood and his mind.

Style

Othello is a play primarily concerned with language's ability to conceal the truth, and the play's style reflects the duality of speech. From the opening scene, Iago uses language to manipulate others and disguise his true intentions. When Iago tells Roderigo "I am not what I am," (I.i) he is actually showing the audience just how duplicitous he is. Iago shifts registers depending on who he is talking to: When he warns Brabanzio that Othello is having sex with his daughter, he uses coarse, crass language, saying, "an old black ram/ Is tupping your white ewe." (I.i.) But when he is talking in asides to the audience directly, Iago uses poetic, metaphoric language: "Dangerous conceits are in their natures poisons/ Which at the first are scarce found to distaste,/ But, with a little act upon the blood,/ Burn like the mines of sulphur." (III.iii). This line suggests that Iago uses vulgarity more as a rhetorical device to anger his listener, than because it truly expresses who he is. Iago's facility with language reveals his cunning and intelligence, and makes his manipulation of Othello believable. If Iago is able to manipulate language to get others to do what he wants, Othello is manipulated by language. The style of Othello's speech reflects how he is manipulated. Othello begins the play speaking in a lofty register. Although he protests that war has made him ineloquent, he proves the opposite as he accepts a mission against the Turks: "The tyrant custom, most grave senators,/ Hath made the flinty and steel couch of war/ My thrice-driven bed of down..." (I.iii.) However, as Othello descends into jealous reveries, he begins repeating himself, as when he says, "Oh, blood, blood, blood!" (III.iii.), or "But yet the pity of it, Iago! O Iago, the pity of it, Iago!" (IV.i.) This repetition suggests that he is so overwrought he has lost control of his words. He also may be repeating himself in an attempt to convince himself that what Iago says is true, and that murdering Desdemona is the only acceptable course of action. Once Othello resolves to kill Desdemona, his speech becomes poetic again, heavy with a sense of the inevitability of what he is about to do: He kisses the sleeping Desedemona, saying, "So sweet was ne'er so fatal. I must weep,/ But they are cruel tears. This sorrow's heavenly;/ It strikes where it doth love." (V.ii.) As Othello is always honest in his speech, he is unable to detect the dishonesty in Iago's words and emotions.

Genre

Othello is a tragedy because it tells the story of a noble, principled hero who makes a tragic error of judgment, leading to a devastating climax in which most of the characters end up either dead or seriously wounded. In assuming Iago operates according to the same rules of honor as he does, Othello cannot conceive that Iago might be lying to him about Desdemona. Othello's fatal misunderstanding of Iago causes Othello to murder his wife, then kill himself once he realizes his error. Similarly, Othello misreads Desdemona: she gives him no reason to suspect her fidelity, but Othello ignores all indications of her loyalty once Iago suggests she's cheating on him. Othello's inability to distinguish between truth and falseness, and to conceive that not everyone acts according to the same principles he does leads to many innocent characters suffering before Iago's villainy is revealed. Othello gains knowledge of his errors of judgment at the end of the play, but cannot reconcile the jealous, murderous person he's become with his concept of himself as an honorable and moral person. Shakespeare's tragedies usually feature a protagonist who begins the play in harmony with his community. For example, King Lear opens with Lear in charge of his kingdom and enjoying all the privileges of his position. Macbeth starts with Macbeth as a promising general in line for promotion. Othello, on the other hand, begins the play alienated from his community. Unlike Iago and Desdemona, he is neither a Venetian nor a noble nor a civilian. As Iago points out, Othello is different from Desdemona in "clime, complexion, and degree" (III.iii). Furthermore, he has spent so much time in battle, he is unaccustomed to civic life: "Rude am I in my speech/ And little blessed with the soft phrase of peace" (I.ii) he says. In presenting a protagonist who begins the play as an outsider, Othello deviates from other Shakespearean tragedies, and provides potential reasons for Othello's vulnerability to Iago's manipulations. Othello's uncertain social standing may incline him to disbelieve that Desdemona could actually love him, and to assume Iago's stories about Desdemona's infidelity are plausible.

Story telling: Audience power

Othello is about stories so they become personal allegories for ourselves and our time The play warns us of a singular, fixed interpretation of a story, rather than actively encouraging us to constantly challenge and question the narrative before us The audience have the power to frame the narrative, reclaiming control from the villainous Iago 'The play invites revisions, retelling, appropriations and adaptions because it shows just how powerful it is to control the master narrative' Thompson, 2016 Hence why some see it as a play of misogyny and toxic masculinity, while others wold view it as a play of trust and the dangers of purposelessness

Setting

Othello is set in Venice, presumably sometime in the latter half of the sixteenth-century. Venice was at war with the Ottoman empire between 1570 and 1573, so the play's reference to the threat of an attack on Cyprus could reflect a setting sometime during this period. Venice was well-known as an early example of what might later be called a multicultural city, boasting a much greater diversity of ethnicities and religions amongst its inhabitants than most other European cities could. Othello is identified in the play's subtitle as a "Moor": a term most typically used in this period to signal someone who was either of African descent, Muslim faith, or both. Whatever the precise details of Othello's racial and religious identity, they are clearly enough to provoke anxiety when Iago torments Brabantio by referring to Othello as "an old black ram" (1.1.) and a "Barbary horse" (1.1.). While Brabantio is outraged that his daughter has married a man marked as an outsider, Othello has also clearly gained a significant amount of prestige and respect in Venice since the Duke trusts him with the crucial military defense of Cyprus. As a setting, Venice serves Shakespeare's needs of a place where a non-European, and potentially non-Christian, man could both hold significant authority but still be distrusted. A second factor which may have informed Shakespeare's decision to set his play in Venice was the city's reputation as a hub of prostitution. While prostitution existed everywhere, a number of visitors to Venice in the early modern period published accounts of an established courtesan profession. Venetian prostitutes were often well-educated and lived in relative luxury, and as long they obeyed state-determined rules about when and how they practiced their trade, they were relatively free to conduct their business. The Venetian state tolerated prostitution as another feature of the city's bustling commercial life, and the city gained a reputation as a place potentially loaded with sexual innuendo. Shakespeare's incorporation of the prostitute Bianca, "a huswife that by selling her desires / Buys herself bread and cloth" (4.1.), was likely more plausible to contemporary audiences in a play set in Venice. Moreover, Othello's fears that his bride could rapidly slide into sexual promiscuity seem linked to a belief that the line between virtuous wives and common courtesans is dangerously thin.

Story telling: The setting

Othello seems to characterise Venice as an immensely sensationalist society- adding to the characters difficulty in acquiring unequivocal knowledge Desdemona's flirtatious 'devouring up' of Othello's discourse and her 'serious inclining' towards his autobiographical stories are reflective of Shakespeare's Venice at large; a society eager for the most colourful version of events and with no pressing concern for the truth of the tales it is solid The reputations for sensationalist stories coming out of the city implies the inhabitants are the generators of such narratives

Characters: Michael Cassio

Othello's lieutenant. Cassio is a young and inexperienced soldier, whose high position is much resented by Iago. Truly devoted to Othello, Cassio is extremely ashamed after being implicated in a drunken brawl on Cyprus and losing his place as lieutenant. Iago uses Cassio's youth, good looks, and friendship with Desdemona to play on Othello's insecurities about Desdemona's fidelity.

Characters: The Clown

Othello's servant. Although the clown appears only in two short scenes, his appearances reflect and distort the action and words of the main plots: his puns on the word "lie" in Act 3 Scene 4, for example, anticipate Othello's confusion of two meanings of that word in Act 4 Scene 1

Point of View

Shakespeare frames much of Othello through the perspective of its antagonist, which amplifies the play's dramatic tension by giving the audience more information than the main character. Iago is the first character we see onstage, and we initially sympathize with him, as he's just been passed over for a promotion. Although our sympathy quickly evaporates once we understand the intensity of Iago's treachery, we see Iago's side of the story first. Iago is also the only character with substantive asides and soliloquies. He's often alone onstage, and in scenes with others he addresses his secret thoughts to the audience, establishing a sense of collusion and providing an insider perspective from which to view the unfolding events. By outlining his terrible plans ahead of time, Iago indicates what the audience should expect to happen. The fact that only Iago and the audience know what to expect amplifies the dramatic irony, in which the audience knows more than the characters, of watching Othello and others gradually succumb to Iago's foul influence. Iago's perspective even frames other characters' points of view, so we understand the play through his eyes even when he is not the principle actor on stage. For example, when Iago stages a meeting with Cassio while Othello looks on from a secret hiding place, our attention is on Othello to see how he'll react to hearing Cassio talk about Desdemona. However, Othello stands too far away to actually hear what Iago and Cassio are talking about, and so must rely on the men's expressions and body language to decipher the meaning of their conversation. Before Cassio enters, Iago tells the audience: "Othello shall go mad, / And his unbookish jealousy must construe / Poor Cassio's smiles, gestures, and light behaviors / Quite in the wrong" (IV.i.). The audience witnesses Iago's plan coming to fruition through Othello's asides, in which he misinterprets what he sees, thinking Cassio is talking about Desdemona, not Bianca. Unlike Iago's asides, which express his own perspective, Othello's asides simply express what Iago's manipulations have coerced him into believing. Iago's point of view prevails.

Prose vs Verse

Shakespeare intermingles verse and prose frequently in Othello. In a general sense, Shakespeare uses prose as an expression of debasement, as in the cases of Cassio's drunkenness (Act II, scene iii), the Clown's bawdiness (Act III, scene i), and Othello's rage (Act IV, scene i). More specifically, Shakespeare often shifts from verse to prose in order to shift emotional registers. This shift occurs in Act IV, scene i, when Othello responds to Iago's confirmation that Desdemona and Cassio have had sex. He begins the scene using verse to create a metaphor ("As doth the raven o'er the infectious house") but devolves into prose once Iago has made his case for Desdemona's infidelity. Othello ends the scene falling into a speechless fit, having moved from poetic language to inarticulate rage in a few short minutes. Iago, on the other hand, has no trouble moving between poetry and prose more frequently than any other character, which indicates his facile use of rhetoric to manage the appearance of honesty.

Othello and the war of Cyprus

Shakespeare set Othello against the epic backdrop of an ongoing religious conflict between Christian Republic of Venice and the Muslim Ottoman Empire. This conflict had raged off and on since the mid-fifteenth century, and by the time the play premiered at the beginning of the seventeenth century, four Ottoman-Venetian wars had already taken place. The most recent bout of violence, which occurred between 1570 and 1573, was known as the War of Cyprus. Shakespeare situated the events of Othello in the midst of this war. In doing so, he made a significant change from his main source material, Giraldi Cinthio's Hecatommithi. Like Giovanni Boccaccio's earlier Decameron, the Hecatommithi contains one hundred individual tales. However, unlike the work of his predecessor, which was framed by the historical nightmare of the Black Plague's arrival in Florence, Cinthio's tales are not united by an overarching frame narrative. In other words, his tales lack an obvious connection to historical reality. Thus, by setting his adaptation of Cinthio's tale during the War of Cyprus, Shakespeare has amplified the tensions of an intimate drama by placing them in relation to a political crisis from recent historical memory. The War of Cyprus began when Sultan Selim II ordered the invasion of Cyprus, an island situated in a part of the Mediterranean Sea near Turkey. The Republic of Venice had controlled Cyprus since 1489. The Venetians profited from the island's production of exports like sugar, cotton, and wine, and they had a longstanding arrangement with Egyptian rulers who protected Venetian interests on the island from Ottoman invaders. However, by the beginning of the sixteenth century, the Ottoman Empire's holdings had expanded to encompass a greater swath the Mediterranean, including the Levant (comprised of modern-day Syria, Lebanon, Israel, and Jordan) as well as Egypt. Cyprus therefore became the natural focus for subsequent Ottoman expansion. But the Ottomans would have to wait until the middle of the century for the right conditions. The Ottoman Empire had been engaged in a protracted war with the Hapsburg Empire that did not come to an end until 1568. It was thus not until 1570 that Selim II had gathered sufficient men and resources. In the summer of that year, the Ottoman fleet set sail for Cyprus. Selim's army fought for several months before successfully capturing Nicosia, the island's capitol. Video SparkNotes: Aldous Huxley's Brave New World summary The action of Othello likely takes place one year after the Ottoman conquest of Cyprus, during the Battle of Lepanto. This battle brought together the vast majority of all galley ships that then existed in the Mediterranean region, and the results of the engagement were decisive. The Venetians, along with their allies in the Holy League, amassed a fleet of nearly 200 ships, which they pitted against 300 Ottoman vessels. Despite the Ottoman advantage in terms of ships, the two fleets were well matched in terms of men. The Holy League won a decisive victory, destroying most of the Ottoman fleet and ending their three-decade naval dominance. Shakespeare's choice to set Othello during the Battle of Lepanto is significant. The victory helped restore Christian control of the region, and in leading the charge against the Muslim fleet, the former Muslim Othello cements his allegiance to Christian Europe. However, Othello's victory also enflames Iago's jealousy, and the celebrations that follow Othello's achievement provide Iago with an opportunity to set his plan in motion. The continued instability in the play's domestic drama may be said to mirror the tensions between the Venetians and Ottomans, which continued well into the eighteenth century.

Foreshadowing: Iago's betrayal of Othello

The audience knows from the beginning that Iago is not the loving friend of Othello that he claims to be. But several other characters foreshadow where the play is going as well. When Iago tells Roderigo that Othello gave a promotion to Cassio and made Iago a lowly ancient, Roderigo says "By heaven, I would rather have been his hangman," (I.i.) meaning if he were in Iago's place, he'd rather kill Othello than serve as his ancient. Iago does exactly what Roderigo says, by convincing Othello that Desdemona has cheated on him. Even Othello seems to subconsciously understand that Iago is not who he seems: he says "By Heaven, thou echo'st me/ As if there were some monster in thy thought/ Too hideous to be shown." (III.iii.) Without consciously being aware of Iago's treachery, Othello describes Iago's truly monstrous character accurately.

Symbols: The Handkerchief

The handkerchief symbolizes different things to different characters. Since the handkerchief was the first gift Desdemona received from Othello, she keeps it about her constantly as a symbol of Othello's love. Iago manipulates the handkerchief so that Othello comes to see it as a symbol of Desdemona herself—her faith and chastity. By taking possession of it, he is able to convert it into evidence of her infidelity. But the handkerchief's importance to Iago and Desdemona derives from its importance to Othello himself. He tells Desdemona that it was woven by a 200-year-old sibyl, or female prophet, using silk from sacred worms and dye extracted from the hearts of mummified virgins. Othello claims that his mother used it to keep his father faithful to her, so, to him, the handkerchief represents marital fidelity. The pattern of strawberries (dyed with virgins' blood) on a white background strongly suggests the bloodstains left on the sheets on a virgin's wedding night, so the handkerchief implicitly suggests a guarantee of virginity as well as fidelity.

Theme: Prejudice

The most prominent form of prejudice on display in Othello is racial prejudice. In the very first scene, Roderigo and Iago disparage Othello in explicitly racial terms, calling him, among other things, "Barbary horse" and "thick lips." In nearly every case, the prejudiced characters use terms that describe Othello as an animal or beast. In other words, they use racist language to try to define Othello not only as an outsider to white Venetian society, but as being less human and therefore less deserving of respect. Othello himself seems to have internalized this prejudice. On a number of occasions he describes himself in similarly unflattering racial terms. And when he believes that he has lost his honor and manhood through Desdemona's supposed unfaithfulness, he quickly becomes the kind of un-rational animal or monster that the white Venetians accuse him of being. Yet racial prejudice is not the only prejudice on display in Othello. Many characters in the play also exhibit misogyny, or hatred of women, primarily focused on women's honesty or dishonesty about their sexuality. Several times, Othello's age is also a reason for insulting him. In all of these cases, the characters displaying prejudice seek to control and define another person or group who frighten them. In other words, prejudice works as a kind of strategy to identify outsiders and insiders and to place yourself within the dominant group. And Othello himself seems to understand this—he concludes his suicide speech by boasting that he, a Christian, once killed a Muslim Turk, a "circumcised dog" (5.2.355) who had murdered a Venetian citizen. Othello tries to use religious prejudice against Muslims to cement his place within mainstream Christian Venetian society.

Characters: The Duke of Venice

The official authority in Venice, the duke has great respect for Othello as a public and military servant. His primary role within the play is to reconcile Othello and Brabanzio in Act I, scene iii, and then to send Othello to Cyprus.

Story telling: Gender divide

The power of a story has particular resonance in current world Feminist reading of 'Othello' would show us that Desdemona is victimised even by the narrative- the silence of women throughout history Shows us that she is the victim of the plot but also frequently denied her voice The 'Willow' Song of Barbary is there purely for irony and to increase pathos While Desdemona gets to a tell a story, it does not influence the overall narrative but deepens her character and Emilia's singing of 'willow' at her death links all three women killed by the man they loved, but it does little otherwise Women have no control over the narrative of the play and therefore this story is a pleasing addition but ultimately disposable

Tone

The tone of Othello largely reflects Iago's worldview, which is characterized by cynicism and suspicion. Iago expresses his cynicism frequently, and particularly in the play's opening acts. When Roderigo, sorrowful at losing his chance with Desdemona, confesses, "it is my shame to be so / fond, but it is not in my virtue to amend it" (I.iii.), Iago has none of it. Iago responds that one's "virtue" (or character) is not so static or predetermined as Roderigo's conventional expression would suggest. "Virtue? A fig! 'Tis in ourselves that we are thus or thus. / Our bodies are our gardens, to the which our wills are / gardeners" (I.iii.). Iago's horticultural metaphor forcefully rejects the idea that a person's character is set in stone; one can cultivate the attributes that are helpful in achieving goals, and suppress attributes that are harmful. Iago's cynical philosophy of life prevents him from feeling remorse for his actions. From his perspective, he simply exercises his will on others and cannot be held accountable if those others lack his innate distrust and suspicion. To Iago, Othello's naïve belief in an "honest Iago" is the real problem—not Iago's treachery. Iago's cynicism sets the stage for the paranoid tone of the play's second half. As Othello gradually falls under Iago's sway, he too begins to utter suspicious comments that echo Iago's cynical worldview. In particular, Othello adopts Iago's misogyny. Not only does he begin alluding to the falseness of women, but he eventually calls his wife a "*****" to her face. His intensifying doubt reflects an all-consuming paranoia that stokes the fires of jealousy. As he grows increasingly paranoid, he descends into a nearly schizophrenic confusion. In a moment of unreason he posits: "Nature would not / invest herself in such shadowing passion without some instruction" (IV.i.). Othello is saying he would not feel so deeply disturbed if nothing had really happened between Cassio and Desdemona. Therefore, since he does feel disturbed, the charge of adultery must be well founded. Othello, usually so reasonable, well-spoken, and self-assured, now employs a confused logic that showcases the tone of paranoia that overtakes the play.

Appearance VS Reality

The tragic plot of Othello hinges on the ability of the villain, Iago, to mislead other characters, particularly Roderigo and Othello, by encouraging them to misinterpret what they see. Othello is susceptible to Iago's ploys because he himself is so honest and straightforward. As Iago puts it: "the Moor is of a free and open nature/ That thinks men honest that but seem to be so; and will as tenderly be led by th' nose/ As asses are" (2.1.391-4) In Othello, Shakespeare plays with the idea of unreliable reality in a number of ways. The language of the play, which time and again refers to dreams, trances, and vision, constantly highlights the way in which what seems to be real may actually be fake. In addition, Shakespeare extends the theme of appearance vs. reality to include the art of playwriting and acting. As he develops his plot against Othello, Iago creates scenes within scenes. He sets up encounters between two characters and putting a third in the position of a spectator. For instance, he has Othello watch Cassio and Desdemona speak, and he has Othello watch him speak with Cassio about Bianca. In each case, Iago manipulates Othello so that Othello sees the appearance that Iago wants him to see, rather than the reality of what is actually happening. In this way, Iago becomes a kind of "director"—he even directly addresses the audience through his many soliloquies—and Shakespeare draws attention to the way that a playwright and actors create an appearance onstage that tricks the audience into seeing something other than reality.

Theme: Manhood and honour

Throughout the play, various male figures seek to assert and protect their manhood and their honor. Based on the Duke's regard for him in 1.3, it is clear that Othello has attained political power through his military might. The subplot in which Iago gets Cassio drunk and causes him to humiliate himself, also indicates the importance of "reputation, reputation, reputation." In fact, Cassio asserts that reputation is all that makes you human ("I have lost the immortal part of myself, and what remains is bestial" [2.3.252-3]). Iago asserts—however genuinely or disingenuously—that reputation is more valuable than anything in the world: "good name in man and woman [...] is the immediate jewel of their souls" (3.3.156). Though military exploits are one way for men to build their honor, when not in war the primary means by which men define their honor is their ability to command the faithfulness of their women. In 1.1, Iago and Roderigo call Brabantio's honor into question because he hasn't been able to control the romantic or sexual impulses of his daughter, Desdemona. Later, Iago drives Othello to question his own manhood—indeed, his very humanity—by making him doubt whether he has power over his wife. In despair over his suspicions about his wife's faithfulness, Othello laments of himself: "A horned man's a monster and a beast" (4.2.62). That is, in his view, to lose control of the woman in his life is to lose everything that makes him human. In other words, without his honor, he sees himself in the same terms that the prejudiced characters see him: as an animal.

Theme: Womanhood and sexuality

Two contrasting images of womanhood dominate Othello: the virtuous and loyal woman, or Madonna, embodied by Desdemona; and the *****, embodied, to a certain extent by Bianca. Yet over the course of the play, it becomes clear that these two different ways of describing women don't actually apply to real women. Instead, they are male fantasies imposed on women—ideals that men want woman to fulfill, and roles that women therefore purposefully play for men. For instance, Desdemona often describes her devotion to Othello in front of other people, underscoring that, even though she does love him very deeply, she is to a certain extent playing the role of the virtuous wife. Iago then stokes Othello's jealousy in part by forcing Othello to realize that there is no way for a man to tell the difference between a truly virtuous wife and one who is just playing the role of virtuous wife while actually acting as a ***** and being unfaithful. Meanwhile, Iago's wife, Emilia, complicates the simple contract between the Madonna and the *****. Initially, she wants to please her husband—and does so by stealing Desdemona's handkerchief, knowing that he has long hankered after it. Yet she is not wholly loyal, and even tells Desdemona in 4.3 that she believes many women, including she herself, would cheat on their husbands under certain circumstances. And, finally, she proves her own, independent virtue by defending Desdemona's virtue and revealing her husband's crimes in the process. So while womanhood in Othello is, therefore, often defined by men in terms of pure virtue or voracious and deceptive sexuality, the play ultimately shows that real women are far more complex.

Shakespeare Context

Wasn't born into a privileged family, received no more than a grammar school education Married Anne Hathaway (1582) but left his family behind around 1590 and moved to London, where he became an actor and playwright Was an immediate success and soon became the most popular playwright of the day Retired as a rich and prominent man to Stratford-upon-Avon in 1613, and died three years later

Motifs: Sight and blindness

When Desdemona asks to be allowed to accompany Othello to Cyprus, she says that she "saw Othello's visage in his mind, / And to his honours and his valiant parts / Did I my soul and fortunes consecrate" (I.iii. 250-252). Othello's blackness, his visible difference from everyone around him, is of little importance to Desdemona: she has the power to see him for what he is in a way that even Othello himself cannot. Desdemona's line is one of many references to different kinds of sight in the play. Earlier in Act I, scene iii, a senator suggests that the Turkish retreat to Rhodes is "a pageant / To keep us in false gaze" (I.iii.19-20). The beginning of Act II consists entirely of people staring out to sea, waiting to see the arrival of ships, friendly or otherwise. Othello, though he demands "ocular proof" (III.iii.365), is frequently convinced by things he does not see: he strips Cassio of his position as lieutenant based on the story Iago tells; he relies on Iago's story of seeing Cassio wipe his beard with Desdemona's handkerchief (III.iii.437-440); and he believes Cassio to be dead simply because he hears him scream. After Othello has killed himself in the final scene, Lodovico says to Iago, "Look on the tragic loading of this bed. / This is thy work. The object poisons sight. / Let it be hid" (V.ii.373-375). The action of the play depends heavily on characters not seeing things: Othello accuses his wife although he never sees her infidelity, and Emilia, although she watches Othello erupt into a rage about the missing handkerchief, does not figuratively "see" what her husband has done.

Is Othello black?

When Iago calls Othello a "black Moor," or Roderigo calls him "thick lips" and an "old black ram," these lines sound like racial epithets, but modern ideas about race make it difficult for us to grasp what Othello's blackness really means in the context of the play. Unlike today, early modern Europeans did not link skin color to genetic or evolutionary heritage; these concepts would not become prevalent until the emergence of modern biological science. Similarly, notions of racial superiority didn't become widespread until the rise of colonialism and slavery. Although early modern European culture did maintain a color prejudice, this prejudice stemmed from two very different sources. The first was medieval climate theory, which linked dark skin to sun exposure, linking the hot climate of Mediterranean North Africa with blackness. The second source of early modern color prejudice stemmed from Christian mythology, which tells the story of how God cursed Noah's son Ham to be "black and loathsome." According to this narrative, Ham's line went on to populate the lands of Africa. Presumably the blackness of Ham's lineage does refer to skin color, but the primary function of that blackness in the story is metaphorical—that is, it serves as a lingering mark of Ham's sin. Othello's "blackness" does relate to his skin color, but its primary function in the play is symbolic. Some theatergoers watching the play in Shakespeare's time would have known that Moors come from North Africa, but few if any would have actually encountered any such individuals. Othello himself would have been played by an actor who had darkened his skin with soot or coal, a common technique used to indicate a character's Moorish or Turkish roots. But audiences would also have understood that Othello's dark skin was emblematic of his dark or evil nature. Similarly, Aaron in Shakespeare's Titus Andronicus was played by an actor with a darkened face, indicating both that he was a Moor and that he was an evil character. Othello would therefore have struck early modern audiences as exaggerated and even monstrous—not a real human person, but a living manifestation of jealousy and sin. What this means is that Othello's blackness cannot be understood solely in terms of physical appearance. Nor does it have obvious links to the long history of racism that has formed our current cultural moment. The question of Othello's race has received a great deal of attention in recent decades. Modern critics have examined the play through the context of contemporary ideas about race and racism, pointing out that Othello's violence, jealousy, and alleged sexual prowess (according to Iago and Roderigo) reinforce contemporary stereotypes about black men. Also problematic is that fact that until the middle of the twentieth century, Othello was played by white actors like Laurence Olivier who darkened their skin with makeup, a practice that recalls the deeply racist use of "blackface" in minstrel shows of the nineteenth century. When black actor Paul Robeson played the role in London in the 1930s, audiences were shocked to see a black man kiss a white woman onstage. But Robeson revived the role on Broadway in the 1940s, and since then Othello has almost always been played by a black actor in major productions. (Productions of the opera Otello, on the other hand, have featured white singers in dark makeup much more recently.) In 1997, the white actor Patrick Stewart played Othello in an otherwise all-black production; a more recent staging featured black actors as both Othello and Iago. While the original meaning of Othello's blackness has grown obscure, the provocative and timeless nature of the play's subject matter make it fit for countless interpretations as notions of racial identity continue to evolve.

Machiavellianism

displays a cynical view of human nature and condones opportunistic and unethical ways of manipulating people, putting results over principles

Characters: Emilia

>Iago's wife and Desdemona's attendant. A cynical, worldly woman, she is deeply attached to her mistress and distrustful of her husband. >Emilia at first appears to be one of her husband Iago's puppets. When Iago wants to set up the appearance of inappropriate behavior between Cassio and Desdemona, he decides that "my wife must move for Cassio to her mistress" and shortly thereafter Emilia facilitates a meeting between Desdemona and Cassio, and encourages her mistress to advocate on behalf of Cassio. Later, when Desdemona accidentally drops her handkerchief, Emilia seizes the opportunity to pick it up, noting that "my wayward husband hath a hundred times / Wooed me to steal it". >She shows only a small amount of suspicion as to what Iago plans to do with it, and accepts his refusal to tell her. These actions suggest that Emilia, at least initially, is at best passive, and at worst complicit in Iago's schemes. He often speaks sharply or rudely to her, as when he quips "It is a common thing... to have a foolish wife" suggesting he doesn't respect her intelligence. >As the action progresses, Emilia reveals a sharp-eyed and self-aware perspective on how women are often vulnerable to abuse at the hands of their husbands. She tells Desdemona that "they eat us hungerly, and when they are full / They belch us" and later explains to her mistress that "I do think it is their husbands' faults If wives do fall" Emilia also shows courage and self-assurance in chastising Othello for doubting his wife's virtue, scolding him "If you think other Remove your thought" When she realises Othello has killed Desdemona, Emilia immediately lashes out at him, stating "Thou dost belie her and thou art a devil". Even though she is in a highly dangerous situation, alone with a man who has just proven himself capable of murder and might well kill her in order to conceal his crime, Emilia fearlessly insists on bringing him to justice, explaining "I'll make thee known Though I lost twenty lives" >As she realises the role her husband has played in bringing about Desdemona's death, Emilia insists on outing Iago's plot, stating in front of everyone that "your reports have set the murder on" Iago repeatedly threatens her and tells her to be quiet, but Emilia insists that "I will speak as liberal as the north" Her insistence on speaking out costs her her life when Iago stabs her in desperation. >Emilia becomes a parallel to Desdemona, as another woman killed by her husband for insisting on a truth that he did not want to hear. However, while Desdemona's death reflects the murder of an innocent victim, Emilia dies seeking atonement for her participation in Iago's crimes. Emilia helped Iago persuade Othello of Desdemona's guilt, and while she cannot undo Desdemona's death, she can at least bear witness to the truth of what really happened. >Emilia dies hoping that her final bravery will redeem her previous silence and obedience: "So come my soul to bliss, as I speak true", but her death also shows that within the world of the play, there is no promise of a happy fate for a woman.

Act 2 Sc 2

>In a military situation, where facts and actions are crucial, Othello is dominant. But in a domestic world of interpersonal relationships, facts can be fudged and Iago is in his element.

Act 5 Sc2

>In comparison to his frantic, epileptic state in the prior scenes, Othello now seems dignified. He describes Desdemona's beauty and his own longing and anguish using traditional terms, which are beautiful but also underscore the traditional masculine values spurring him to kill the "loose" Desdemona. >By refusing to even listen to Desdemona's denials of her suspected infidelity, Othello reveals how fully he has lost his independent perspective and succumbed to Iago's web of illusions. In fact, he refuses even to let her live a bit longer so she can prove her innocence. He is not interested in her innocence, in her pleas to be given a chance to explain the truth behind appearances, because he is so consumed by the "monster" of jealousy that he is certain that she is guilty. >Othello can't analyze reality—he can't even differentiate between Emilia's and Desdemona's voices. >The slow pace of Desdemona's death stretches out its brutality and the terrible consequences of Othello's delusion. The news that Cassio has killed Roderigo is the first sign of Iago's plots unraveling. That these two things happen almost simultaneously heightens the play's tragedy. >In changing her story, Desdemona tries to spare Othello from the punishments he will receive, proving her love and devotion to him to the very last. >However, Othello does not seek to profit from Desdemona's own attempt to "direct" a scene to his benefit. The repetition of "honest" in his description of Iago compounds the tragedy by highlighting how completely he was duped. >The speed with which Othello is transformed from respected general to reviled outsider reveals the strength of prejudices more or less repressed by other characters throughout the majority of the play. Once there's reason to exclude him from the social group, Othello quickly is diminished to the status of outsider among the Venetians. >Iago tries to control Emilia, commanding her as his wife to be silent. But she shows her independence and loyalty to both Desdemona and to the truth. Othello, meanwhile, his crime staring him in the face, now can only preserve his honor by insisting that Iago's version must be the truth. >Othello killed Desdemona because he thought she betrayed him. Iago kills Emilia because she did betray him—but she betrayed him for the greater good, and Iago's violence toward her is more graphic and terrible than the smothering of Desdemona, bringing home his full villainy. >Cassio's relative restraint, despite having been wounded by Roderigo and Iago and mistrusted by Othello, reveals his strength of character, which contrasts with Iago's increasingly sadistic malice as the extent of his plot is revealed. By refusing to speak, Iago retains some of the directorial control of events that he has striven for throughout: he never reveals his inner reality to the other characters. >Othello, now comprehending everything, shows frank, deep remorse. His curious final anecdote asserts his rightful membership in Venetian society. In a gesture reminiscent of how other characters (Iago, Roderigo, Brabantio) have drawn on racial stereotypes to exclude Othello and cement their own relationships, he here defines himself as an "insider," a Christian, against the "outsider" or enemy, the Turk. Yet, at the same time, when he tells of stabbing the Turk, he also stabs himself. In effect, he is defining himself as both an insider and an outsider, someone who defended Venice but was nevertheless seen as both a possible enemy and an animal by other Venetians. >In the final moment of the play, Iago, who has directed action throughout, ends up as a spectator to his own misdeeds.

Act 3 Sc2

>Othello yet again exhibits his trust in Iago. Such trust shows Othello's honour, yet also highlights how this good trait makes him vulnerable he is to Iago's machinations.

Act 2 Sc 3

>Both Othello and Cassio wildly misjudge Iago, revealing just how duplicitous Iago is. Also notice that Othello and Desdemona did not have sex until they were married, in contrast to the graphic imaginations that the other characters have indulged in. >Iago tries to convince Cassio to actually take a shot at seducing Desdemona by alluding to the idea that demure women are probably just hiding their inner wh*re. Cassio, like Othello, takes people at face value. >Unable to manipulate Cassio only with words, Iago progresses toward more directly bodily means: *lcohol Cassio, however, knows himself and refrains. >Updating the audience about his secret plans, Iago continues to act as a "director." Earlier he used people's prejudices to manipulate them to do what he wants. Now he uses honour. >Cassio, insisting that he is not drunk when he clearly is, seeks to maintain his honour or dignity via an illusion about himself. At the same time, at a trivial level, he also starts to speak untruths as a result of Iago's manipulations. >Iago continues to orchestrate complicated sets of doubling-crossings in order to promote the illusions that will help him with his plan. He is a master at making someone look bad while seemingly trying to defend that person. >All of the characters in this scene, misled about each other by Iago, now do exactly what Iago wants them to do. Just as Iago hoped, Cassio's honor is offended when his drunkenness is noticed, and he reacts by fighting. >Othello keeps up his strong, quiet dignity in contrast to Iago's flurry of manipulations. By saying he doesn't know what happened, Iago makes it look like he is trying to protect Cassio. >As usual, Iago pretends that he does not want to say what he is about to say, which makes what he is saying seem even more authentic. Because the audience knows that he's lying, though, his tactics are clear to us, but not to the any of the other characters. In this way, Iago makes the audience complicit in his lies, and audience almost comes to root for his success. >Othello is just as decisive as he was in earlier scenes, but now he, too, has been tricked by Iago and his actions only further Iago's plot. Even so, Desdemona's arrival and then exit with Othello shows her continued obedience to Othello, and, more importantly, his confidence in that obedience. >Cassio sees his reputation, his honor, as what makes him human. Without it, he sees himself as a beast, using the kind of animal imagery that other racist characters had used only to describe Othello. Meanwhile, Iago moves his plot into its second phase: to twist two noble traits—Cassio's desire to regain his honor and Desdemona's generosity—to provoke Othello's doubt of Desdemona and sexual jealousy of Cassio. >Iago again takes on the role of "director," laying out his plans for the audience. In the soliloquy he makes the difference between appearance and reality still more obscure. He suggests that even really good actions can produce bad effects. He promises to turn Desdemona's generosity against her, and use it to provoke Othello's jealousy and ruin everyone >Encouraging patience, Iago subtly reinforces the parallel between his plots and drama in general: both need time to come to their climaxes. >Iago describes how he will stage yet another scene and control how the other characters will interpret it, much as a playwright does with every scene he or she writes.

Characters: Lodovico

One of Brabanzio's kinsmen, Lodovico acts as a messenger from Venice to Cyprus. He arrives in Cyprus in Act IV with letters announcing that Othello has been replaced by Cassio as governor.

Critical essay: Masculine language in Othello

Othello's race makes him intensely vulnerable to easy prejudice and revenge. The bonding between the male characters is complex and competitive, while the female roles exist in a separate society, that obeys its own language and values, but which is subservient to the desires of the male. Emilia's impassioned attack on the ethical 'double standard' that conventionally condoned male infidelities while expecting absolute female virtue in marriage, is an eloquent protest against this unjust division by gender. Will Tosh: relationships between men in the late 16th century comprehended a far richer mix of instrumental, affective and erotic connections than we have assumed' 2016 It is the loss of his 'occupation' that Othello first laments The initial motivation for the tragedy springs from Iago's thwarted, male ambition, and what he takes to be a direct insult to his own abilities. The tragic hero is defined overwhelmingly by repetition of the term 'Moor', which is then variously qualified and disparaged by Iago, as he seeks to impose his conception of Othello on others. Initially the audience is shocked by his clarity and confidence erased by this racial type in Emilia's outraged attack on him: 'thou dull Moor [...] she loved thee, cruel Moor' and 'thou' 'thee' which further degrades Othello's cherished status - it is another denial of his 'occupation'. that almost invariant type, the foul-mouthed N.C.O.' of whom Kermode himself had memories, happily remote, of Iago-like warrant officers, sycophantic self-seekers Kermode 2000 He can speak mysteriously, as well as obscenely; his logic is self-enclosed, circular, and finally impenetrable: 'In following him I follow but myself' (1.1.57), 'I am not what I am' he declines to rationalise his terrible actions, he refuses to beg for mercy. Iago opts to become synonymous with the murders he created 'You the blacker devil' Cassio's language is another subtle variant on the varieties of male discourse He slightly too effusive in his appreciation of Desdemona, and this makes him easily vulnerable to Iago's stratagem. Shakespeare does seem to have written at speed and with urgency during this period, and often obscurely. Othello's his idioms are another means of differentiating him from the society that he is seeking to enter, as if he speaks a foreign discourse.

Marxist Theory

The definition of Marxism is the theory of Karl Marx which says that society's classes are the cause of struggle and that society should have no classes. An example of Marxism is replacing private ownership with co-operative ownership.

Characters: Montano

The governor of Cyprus before Othello. We see him first in Act II, as he recounts the status of the war and awaits the Venetian ships.

Foreshadowing: Desdemona's death

Two significant moments point toward the inevitability of Desdemona's death. The first comes in Act III, scene iii, after Othello has evaded Desdemona's attempts to designate a time to dine with Cassio. Once Desdemona exits, Othello utters to himself: "Excellent wretch! Perdition catch my soul / But I do love thee! And when I love thee not, / Chaos is come again" (III.iii.). Here, Othello indicates the nature of his affection: either he loves her intensely and feels protective, or else he feels scorned and succumbs to an emotional "chaos." Another moment that foreshadows Desdemona's death comes in Act IV, scene iii, when she sings for Emilia a song called "Willow" about a lover who becomes mad, foreshadowing Othello's madness. Desdemona says her mother's maid died while singing the song, further foreshadowing that Desdemona will soon die as well. She misremembers one line, singing "Let nobody blame him; his scorn I approve." This misremembered line foreshadows Desdemona's dying words, in which she attempts to take the blame for her own murder. Following her mistress's death, Emilia recalls the song and asks, with the clarity of hindsight, "What did thy song bode, lady?" (V.ii.).