P1

Gamma camera

Machine to detect gamma rays given off by radioactive compounds used during scanning for diagnostic purposes. One version of this is called a PET scan.

What is wasted energy?

Wasted energy is the other form of energy that is transferred without it being wanted e.g. heat coming out of a light bulb

Wavelength

Wavelength (λ) is the shortest continuously repeatable unit in a wave measured in meters.

Beta particle

When a neutron in a nucleus is converted to a proton by breaking down and releasing an electron (a beta particle)

When what is happening will a system stay at a constant temperature?

When it is radiating the same amount of power as it is absorbing.

What is triangulation?

Where you use at least three seismometres in different areas to pick up the seismic waves- then work out the difference in the arrival of the P and S waves for all of them. Draw circles, and where they all overlap is where the epicentre is.

Luminous

Luminous objects give out light (such as stars or light bulbs)

Nebula

an immense cloud of gas (mainly hydrogen) and dust in space

John Ritter

A Polish chemist who used silver chloride to demonstrate the presence of ultraviolet rays (beyond the violet on a spectrum).

White dwarf

A collapsed red giant which no longer has any fusion reactions occurring. This cools down over a billion years to form a black dwarf.

Universe

A collection of galaxies which makes up all known space. It is thought to contain 100-200 billion galaxies.

Galaxy

A collection of star systems. These typically contain around 100 billion stars.

Spectrometer

A device that measures interactions between matter and radiated energy. One such device can be used to measure absorption spectra

Converging lens

A lens that is thicker in the middle than at the edges and that refracts parallel rays to a focus.

Eyepiece lens

A magnifying lens used to view the image produced at the focus of a telescope or microscope.

What happens when radiation hits a surface

It can be Absorbed, Reflected or Transmitted (ART)

Johann Ritter

Johann Wilhelm Ritter a German chemist, physicist and philosopher who discovered UV radiation using silver chloride. This chemical breaks down and turns black in light.

use the turns ratio equation for transformers to predict either the missing voltage or the missing number of turns.

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What are the two equations for the speed of a wave?

1. wave speed(m/s)=distance(m)/time(s) 2. wave speed(m/s)=frequency(Hz)x wavelength(m)

Speed of light

300,000,000 m/s aka 300 million m/s aka 3 x 10⁸ m/s aka 'c' (this is the speed of all EM radiation (including light) in a vacuum)

William Herschel

A German-born British astronomer, technical expert, and composer who discovered infra red radiation by using a blackened thermometer and a prism.

non-renewable fossil fuels

(coal, oil and gas) which are burned to heat water or air. The burning of fossil fuels leads to all sorts of pollution and environmental impact issues. The carbon dioxide produced by combustion is a 'greenhouse gas' implicated in global warming and climate change. In the smoke are acidic gases like sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides which are harmful to our health as air pollutants, and, by forming 'acid rain' wreak havoc with ecosystems (particularly aquatic ones and trees) and cause extra corrosion of stone and metal structures. It is possible to remove most of the sulfur from oil hydrocarbons before their use, and smoke from power stations can be treated with an alkali to remove acidic gases. There are other environmental issues eg the 'high price' dangers of coal mining, ugly open-cast coal mines, oil pipelines/tankers and oil spillage effects on wildlife.In the UK, old coal/oil fired power stations are being replaced with cleaner less polluting gas fired power stations which have faster start up times - much easier to respond to higher/lower power demands. Non-renewable fossil fuel power stations do provide a stable and reliable electricity supply, unlike some renewable energy resources which are distinctly unreliable eg wind power and solar power which depend on the weather.

What are the uses of ultrasound?

* Sonar (animals making ultrasound waves and waiting for them to be reflected to detect obstacles in their path) * Sonar for humans- detecting how far a boat is from the sea bed, etc. * Foetal scanning * Communication between animals

Is it possible to feed the carbon dioxide to algae from which to derive a biofuel?

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Revise any investigation into factors affecting the generation of electric current by induction.

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Revise any investigation you did into the power consumption of low-voltage electrical items.

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advantages of the use of low-energy appliances.

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describe the hazards associated with electricity transmission.

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explain how to produce an electric current by the relative movement of a magnet and a coil of wire a) on a small scale b) in the large-scale generation of electrical energy

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explain the difference between direct and alternating current.

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show the factors that affect the size and direction of the induced current.

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use data to compare and contrast the advantages and disadvantages of energy-saving devices.

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use data to consider cost-efficiency by calculating payback times.

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use the equation: cost (p) = power (kilowatts, kW) x time (hour, h) x cost of 1 kilowatt-hour (p/kW h)

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use the equation: power (watt, W) = energy used (joule, J) / time taken (second, s) ie in the usual shorthand symbols P = E / t

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Nuclear fusion

A nuclear reaction which is caused by small nuclei smashing together to form larger nuclei and release energy as a result. This is the reaction which powers stars.

Big crunch

A possible outcome for the universe which comes about if there is enough mass for gravity to stop the universe's expansion and cause its eventual collapse.

Big yawn

A possible outcome for the universe which comes about if there is not enough mass for gravity to stop the universes expansion.

Radioactivity

A process where energy is released (in the form of either EM radiation or high energy particles) when the nucleus of an atom breaks down in something called a radioactive decay.

Pumped storage systems - hydroelectricity (iii)

A pumped storage system is way of storing extra energy (GPE) by linking to the National Grid in 'both directions'. Normally a hydroelectric power station works in one direction ie supplies the National Grid with electricity. In a pumped storage system, any excess electricity in the National Grid is used to run the generators and turbines in reverse, that is to pump water from a lower reservoir to the upper reservoir. At peak demand times, the extra stored water is released to generate additional electricity. So where does the excess electricity come from? Conventional fossil fuel or nuclear fuelled power stations operate most efficiently, and therefore most economically by running at a fairly high and constant level of power production ie it is inconvenient and inefficient to alternate between high and low rates of power production. However, through the night, power demand is at its lowest and so excess electricity is being generated. So, quite simply, the pumped storage system uses the surplus electricity at night to pump up and store water and release it when required the following day at peak demand times.

Red Giant

A red giant is formed when a star first runs out of fuel. This causes it's core to collapse and the outer layers expand as it cools.

Black hole

A region of space that has so much gravity that even light can not escape. These can be formed after a supernova.

Neutron star

A remnant of a supernova that consists almost entirely of neutrons. These are so dense it is approximately equivalent to the mass of a Boeing 747 compressed to the size of a small grain of sand.

Steady state model

A rival theory to the big bang for how the universe was formed. This theory states that new matter is produced through white holes as the universe expands.

Solar system

A star (such our sun) with the celestial bodies (planets and asteroids etc) that revolve around it in its gravitational field.

Hubble telescope

A telescope which has been in orbit around the earth since 1990. This produces a very clear image because the light that reaches it has not been scattered by the earth's atmosphere.

explain where and why step-up and step-down transformers are used in the transmission of electricity in the National Grid.

A transformer is a means of changing an input voltage in one circuit, into another output voltage in a separate circuit. At the power station end is a step-up transformer to increase the voltage for power line transmission. At the user end is a step-down transformer, to reduce the voltage that is a safe level for factories, domestic homes, street lighting etc.

Incident wave

A wave that strikes a boundary between two media

Fluorescence

Light which is emitted from a substance when EM radiation of a higher energy is shone on it (e.g. a UV light shone on DNA)

Wave speed and media

Light will travel faster in a less dense medium. Sound travels faster in a more dense medium.

Supernova

An explosion that occurs when a red supergiant collapses. This is one of the most powerful events in the universe and is one of the only places where elements larger than Iron are formed.

What is a seismometre?

An instrument that can detect seismic waves

Why is it difficult to predict earthquakes and tsunamis?

Because although scientists can work out where earthquakes may occur (at plate boundaries), they can't measure the forces or friction between the plates- meaning its difficult to predict when movement will happen

Why do scientists not know whether a tsunami will happen by looking at seismometre traces?

Because they don't show the pressure of the oceans- whereas tsunami detectors do.

How are seismic waves produced?

By earthquakes or explosions

How can you work out how far away the earthquake has happened using the seismometre?

By measuring the time difference between the arrival of the faster P waves and slower S waves

Trough

Lowest point of a transverse wave below the rest position

Mutations

Changes in the DNA code which can be caused by chemicals (mutagenic compounds) , copying mistakes or ionising radiation

What are the uses of infrasound?

Communication between animals Biologists can use microphones that detect infrasound to study the movement of those animals in remote locations The detection of volcanic eruptions in remote areas Studying the passage of meteors in the atmosphere

How are earthquakes caused?

Convection currents in the mantle cause the tectonic plates move. If the currents push two plates right past each other, friction builds up & stops the plates moving. When enough pressure builds to overcome the friction, the plates move with a sudden jerk

CMBR

Cosmic microwave background radiation. This is detectable microwave radiation that is present throughout the universe that is thought to be the cooled remnants of the big bang.

Infrared radiation

EM waves between microwaves and visible light. These are associated with warm objects which is why they are used for night vision goggles.

Ultraviolet radiation

EM waves between visible light and x-rays. These are part of the radiation from the sun and can cause tanning and cancer when they interact with the skin.

What is the equation for energy efficiency?

Efficiency = useful energy transferred by the device / total energy supplied to the device x 100%

What are the nine forms of energy?

Elastic potential, gravitational potential, kintetic, nuclear, chemical, light, thermal, sound, electrical

William Herschel

English astronomer (born in Germany) who discovered infrared light (before the red on a spectrum) and who catalogued the stars and discovered the planet Uranus (originally calling it "the Georgium Sidus")

What range of frequency is ultrasound?

Frequences more than 20000 Hz- above the audible range

What range of frequency is infrasound?

Frequencies less than 20 Hz

Frequency

Frequency (f) the number of waves going past a given point in one second, measured in Hertz (Hz)

Regions of the electromagnetic spectrum

Gamma, X-ray, UV, Visible, Infrared, Microwave, Radio Grandma's Xylophone Usually Vibrates In Many Rooms

X-rays

High energy EM waves which are used for medical imaging because they can pass through soft tissues but are absorbed by bones.

Crest

Highest point on a transverse wave above the rest position

Geocentric model

Model of solar system with the earth at the centre. The most famous version of this being described by Ptolemy in ancient Greece.

Life cycle of a standard star

Nebula - protostar - average star - red giant - shell of gas - white dwarf - black dwarf

Life cycle of a massive star

Nebula - protostar - massive star - red supergiant - supernova - black hole or neutron star

Wave power

One method of using wave movement is to use its kinetic energy of up and down oscillation to compress air in a funnel and tunnel the air through a turbine connected to a generator on the sea shore. It has not so far (as I know?) proved very successful. There are several problems eg variable wave height giving variable power output, storm damage is a regular risk. The initial cost is high, but bar storm damage, the running costs are low, there is no pollution and the energy is free.

Size order of celestial bodies.

Planet, Star, Solar systems, Galaxies, Universe

Evidence for big bang

Red shifted galaxies showing they are moving away and CMBR which appears to be the cooled radiation from the initial explosion.

Galileo Galilei

Scientist who discovered moons orbiting Jupiter and was then persecuted for supporting Copernicus' ideas

SETI

Search for Extra Terrestrial Intelligence is a set of radio telescopes and other devices that scan the stars looking for signals that might be from alien civilisations.

Absorption spectra

Shows the particular wavelengths of light that are absorbed by gasses when light is shone through them.

explain why electrical energy is transmitted at high voltages

So that you can transmit (transfer) the very large quantities of electrical energy needed you need to use, either, a very high current or a very high voltage or both. the four possible choices are (i) low current/low voltage, (ii) high current/low voltage, (iii) low current/high voltage and (iv) high current/high voltage. (i) couldn't deliver what is needed, but (iii) is the actual choice. So why is 'low current/high voltage' the desired choice for electrical power line transmission? The greater the current flowing through a wire, the greater the heat generated, which in the context of power lines means waste heat energy, which is why (ii) and (iv) are not employed. However, power = current x voltage, so to deliver a particular power rating, you can increase one of the two variables and decrease the other. Therefore by using a very high voltage (eg 400 000 V, 400 kV) and relatively low current you maximise power transmission for the minimal heat loss of wasted energy.

What causes reflection of seismic waves?

Some energy is reflected when a wave reaches a boundary between different types of rock.

spectrum of light

Something which is produced when a white light is passed through a prism. The order of the colours is Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet (Remember: Richard Of York Gave Battle In Vein)

Pioneer 10 and 11

Space probes that were launched in the 1970's. They are messages to other intelligent life but they will not reach another star for 2 million years.

Oscillation

Swinging back and forth with a steady, uninterrupted rhythm

What is the law of conservation of energy?

That energy can't be created or destroyed- it can only be transferred and transformed. The input energy always equals the output energy.

Heliocentric model

The accepted model of our solar system with the sun in the centre. This was first formalised by Nicolaus Copernicus.

What will happen of we stop producing greenhouse gases?

The earth will reach its new constant (but higher) temperature, because it will absorb more heat than before ( since greenhouse gases absorb heat), and will radiate more heat as well.

What is the difference between the focus and epicentre?

The focus is the centre of the earthquake- where the the rock suddenly moves or fractures, causing the earthquake. The epicentre is the point on the earth's surface above the focus.

Milky way

The galaxy that contains our solar system. It is around 100 million light years wide with a bulge in the centre around 16 million light years. It takes 200 million years for us to complete one orbit around the centre.

Primary mirror

The large, concave, light-gathering mirror in a reflecting telescope.

Red shift

The moving of spectral lines towards the red part of the spectrum. This is caused by the distant objects moving away.

Hydroelectric power - hydroelectricity (ii)

The potential energy of a head of water (deep water) can be released by allowing the falling water to flow down through turbines connected to electrical generators. You need to build a dam to flood a valley and set the turbines and generators deep down in the dam's lower structure. The dam will hold back water from any river or stream running into the valley and the water supply fairly constant as long as it rains regularly, there maybe problems in a drought! It is very costly to build but there is no pollution and running costs are relatively low. It also has the advantage of delivering lots of power rapidly for peak demands of the National Grid by releasing more water through the turbines. However, there is a huge environment impact eg villages may have to be evacuated and rehoused, agricultural land and wildlife habitats are lost. In more recent times more local small scale electricity generation schemes are being developed eg in remote areas using an Archimedes screw driven by river water to drive a turbine. gravitational potential energy==> kinetic energy ==> electrical energy

What causes refraction of seismic waves?

The properties of rock change with depth, so the path of the wave bends gradually. When the wave suddenly travels into a new type of rock, refraction occurs and send the wave in a completely different direction

What is energy efficiency?

The proportion of energy transferred to useful forms

Extra notes for sections 5.16, 5.17, 5.20 and 5.21

The quantity of electricity that is transferred ('used') in an appliance depends on its power and how long you use it for ie time its switched on.Energy is measured in joules (E in J) and power in watts (P in W) 1 watt = 1 J of energy transferred in 1 second (1 W = 1 J/s) Since a joule is a very tiny amount of energy, we often quote power in kilowatts (P in kW). 1 kW = 1000 W = 1 1000 J/s

Wave speed

The speed that a wave travels can be calculated by multiplying the frequency by the wavelength. c=fλ

how are, In some power stations, an energy source is used to heat water.

The steam produced drives a turbine that is coupled to an electrical generator. ENERGY FLOW: chemical/nuclear energy (fuel) ==> heat energy (steam) ==> kinetic energy (turbine blades) ==> electrical energy (generator)

Big Bang Theory

The theory that the universe originated 13.5 billion years ago from the cataclysmic explosion of a small mass of matter at extremely high density and temperature.

Radiotherapy

The use of ionising radiation (x-rays of gamma) to kill cancer cells

Spectral lines

These are specific wavelengths of light which are absorbed by particular elements when light passes through them. These appear as a pattern of black lines on a spectrum.

Gamma Rays

These are very high energy EM waves which are emitted from most radioactive decays

what is Non-renewable energy sources

These energy resources are finite and will run out eventually, there are major associated environmental issues BUT at the moment, most of our useful energy is derived from them. These are historically, and to the present day, the major energy sources for large power stations. e.g. Coal (mainly carbon), crude oil (certain hydrocarbon fractions), natural gas (mainly methane) and nuclear fuels (based on the metals uranium and plutonium).

What do sankey diagrams show and how?

They show energy efficiency of an appliance by showing the total input energy and the useful and wasted output forms. The width of the arrow represent the amount of energy in joules.

Ionising radiation

This is radiation that has enough energy (a short enough wavelength) to break chemical bonds and form ions. This can cause damage to cells or even cause conditions such as cataracts or cancer.

Doppler effect

This is the compressing or stretching of a wave due to the movement of the object that it is going to or from.

Tidal power - hydroelectricity (i)

Tides are caused by the gravitational pull of the moon and sun, and the flow of tides involving huge quantities of water, and a rise and fall in height of water of several metres. The incoming tide involves kinetic energy, but at the turn of high tide we now have a great store of gravitational potential energy (GPE), which on flowing back down is converted to kinetic energy. If this tidal flow can be controlled on a large scale and channelled through turbines connected to generators, then you effectively have a power station. This has been achieved by building a huge tidal barrage across a suitable estuary and building turbines and generators into the dam like structure. The incoming tide drives the turbines as does the controlled released of the huge amount of stored water (GPE) stored behind the barrage at high tide. Hydroelectric dam schemes are very costly to build needing a large capital investment and take a long time to build, but the energy is free and there is no pollution and maintenance costs are low. However, there maybe some environmental cost by disrupting the local ecosystems and wildlife and leisure/commercial craft on the river. Tides are reliable and times/heights can be accurately predicted but there periods of time when the water levels are similar on both sides, therefore little effective water flow and electricity generation. It is an advantage to store huge quantities of water that can be released at electricity peak demand times. GPE ==> kinetic energy ==> electrical energy

Viking Landers

Two of these landed on Mars in 1976 looking for evidence of life. None was found

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Use of these extremely high voltages (1667 x your domestic voltage of 240 V), means health and safety issues arise and you need lots of big ceramic insulators on pylons and transformers and lots of barbed wire to deter people from climbing up pylons!

Microwaves

Used for communications and cooking. Microwaves are emitted by very cold objects such as those in deep space.

What are some features of P waves? (wave type, what they can travel through, speed, amplitude etc)

WAVE TYPE: longitudinal TRAVEL THROUGH: solids and liquids (crust, mantle and core) SPEED: faster than s waves AMPLITUDE: smaller than s waves

What are some features of S waves? (wave type, what they can travel through, speed, amplitude etc)

WAVE TYPE: transverse TRAVEL THROUGH: solids only SPEED: slower than p waves AMPLITUDE: larger than p waves

discuss the advantages and disadvantages of methods of large-scale electricity production using a variety of renewable and nonrenewable resources.

You must also be able to consider the reliability of different methods. There are other general issues such as environmental impact - pros and cons for the local community (eg jobs versus environmental damage, visual impact), how long will it take to build?, at what cost versus eventual power output?, planning delays etc. Ideally you would want to site a large fossil fuel/nuclear power station as near as possible to the major/bulk users AND in the case of coal, near a coal mine, since power line transmission involves wasted energy (see National Grid section). Large scale tidal and river/lake hydroelectric schemes and geothermal power plants all need very specific geographical locations. For safety reasons, nuclear power plants are sited in remote locations, often near the coast. Small scale power generation with solar cells and wind turbines can be sited anywhere, but larger wind farms need to be in a windy area eg on low hills or out at sea.

real image

a copy of an object formed at the point where light rays actually meet

Wave

a disturbance that transfers vibrational energy.

Transverse

a wave in which the particles vibrate at right angles to the direction of the wave

Longitudinal

a wave in which the vibration is in the same direction the wave is travelling

Reflected wave

a wave that bounces back from a barrier.

Normal line

an imaginary line drawn perpendicular to a surface; all angles are measured from this line.

describe voltage

an electrical pressure giving a measure of the energy transferred.

Virtual image

an image that forms at a location from which light rays appear to come but do not actually come (i.e. a mirror image)

Renewable Biofuels

can be burned to heat water to make steam to drive a turbine and generator. Biofuels are renewable energy sources and come in a variety of forms eg woodchips (trees or waste from timber products), alcohol (ethanol from fermenting sugar cane), biodiesel (from vegetable oil) and biogas (methane from anaerobic digestion of sewage waste) and are all derived from plant materials eg crops or bacterial digestion/decay of waste organic material. The theoretical 'carbon neutral' idea behind using biofuels is that the carbon dioxide released on burning is re-absorbed by plants and utilised in photosynthesis to create the next fuel crop. But, even though this sounds fine in principle, there are still environmental issues eg in Brazil and other countries, huge areas of ecological valuable natural rain forest (habitats, species rich) are being cut down to grow crops for biofuels.

what does a transformer do?

can change the size of an alternating voltage.

how to prevent carbon dioxide building up in the atmosphere?

carbon capture and storage is a rapidly evolving technology.To prevent carbon dioxide building up in the atmosphere we can catch and store it.

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carbon dioxide from a fermentation process is fed into greenhouses to promote growth of crops like tomatoes

How far is a boat from the sea bed if the sound wave travels at 1000 m/s and takes 3.5 seconds?

distance(m) = 1000m/s x 3.5s = 3500 3500/2 = 1750m

How do you calculate depth/distance with ultrasound?

distance(m) = speed(m/s) x time (s) then divide the distance by two

what is Renewable energy sources

e.g. biofuels, geothermal, hydroelectric, solar radiation, tidal changes, wave action, wind turbines Theoretically these energy resources will never run out and generally speaking their environmental impact is not as great as non-renewables, but they only provide a small % of our energy needs at the moment and can be unreliable like the wind. Most of these energy sources, apart from hydroelectric schemes and a few tidal barrage sites, are deployed on an experimental or small commercial scale. Renewable energy resource technology should be the cheapest to run with no primary fuel costs.

how are the small-scale production of electricity may be useful in some areas and for some uses

eg hydroelectricity in remote areas, solar cells for roadside signs, remote telephone kiosks.while small-scale production can be locally useful because it is sometimes uneconomic to connect such generation to the National Grid.

equation for clalculating electrical power

electrical power (watt, W) = current (ampere, A) x potential difference (volt, V) ie in the usual shorthand symbols P = I x V

ions

electrically charged atoms that have either gained or lost electrons.

what is energy from the mains supply measured in?

energy from the mains supply is measured in kilowatt-hours.

Objective lens

lens used to enlarge images

Electromagnetic radiation

radiation consisting of waves of energy resulting from the acceleration of an electric charge

other ways to reduce carbon dioxide

reducing electricity demand, so less fossil fuel is burned. You can reduce electricity demand in the home by insulation, better designed and more energy efficient appliances like washing machines, low energy light bulbs, turning off all devices/appliances not in use.

How can the flow of water and wind be used to drive turbines directly.

renewable energy sources used in this way include, but are not limited to, wind, waves, tides and the falling of water in hydroelectric schemes and all involve converting FREE kinetic energy into electrical energy using a generator. None of these schemes needs a fuel, or produces any kind of chemical pollution on the site, and all are 'green' in terms of not consuming fossil fuels ie carbon dioxide, but they may have quite an environmental impact. All these methods can contribute to National Grid of electricity supply.

how can 'Renewable' electricity be produced directly from the Sun's radiation.

solar cells can be used to generate electricity.Solar cells (photovoltaic cells) produce 'small scale' electricity direct from sunlight energy, it is no good for a large scale electricity supply. Its free, but variable eg from cloudy days to bright sunny days, and of course it cannot work at night - so variable output is a problem, but it is being widely exploited in very sunny countries from eg Spain to African states. The technology eg installation is expensive, but getting cheaper and it is non-polluting when installed and runs off free energy with very low maintenance costs. One important advantage is that it easy to install on a small scale in remote areas not connected to the mains electricity supply. Lately, many people in developed countries are putting solar panels on their house roofs to generate electricity which adds to the electricity supply (National Grid) and reduces their own electricity bill. In developing countries it is a most important and convenient way of generating electricity on a local small scale in locations far from a national electricity supply.

what are natural containers

some of the best natural containers are old oil and gas fields, such as those under the North Sea.The idea is to capture the carbon dioxide from fossil fuel burning before it is released into the atmosphere and pump it to some suitable storage location.

what do generators do?

supply current which alternates in direction.

Law of Reflection

the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection

Refraction

the bending of a wave caused by a change in its speed as it moves from one medium to another

Focal length

the distance from the center of the lens to the focal point

Amplitude

the maximum displacement from the equilibrium position that the wave will experience

Focal point

the point at which light rays meet when reflected or refracted

describe current

the rate of flow of charge

Medium

the region or space containing a material (i.e. air/glass/water)

Using different energy resources has different effects on the environment and these effects include?

the release of substances into the atmosphere, the production of waste materials, noise and visual pollution, the destruction of wildlife habitats.

how, in some volcanic areas, hot water and steam can rise to the surface.

the steam can be tapped and used to drive turbines and this is known as geothermal energy.The rising hot water and steam is used to drive a turbine which in turns a generator, again free energy and no pollution.heat energy ==> kinetic energy ==> electrical energy Although there is little impact on the environment, it is quite costly to build for the power you get, and there are a limited number of places where this is a convenient means of electrical power production. You can also use this geothermal energy from hot water/steam can be used to heat home directly

Fibre optics

the transmission of light and infrared signals via glass fibers, used extensively in modern communication systems

Alpha particle

two protons and two neutron (the equivalent of a helium nuclei) which can emitted from a nucleus during radioactive decay.

non-renewable nuclear fuels

uranium and plutonium provide energy from nuclear fission (splitting atomic nuclei) and is used to heat water or carbon dioxide gas, either way, the hot fluid is used to make steam via a heat exchanger for safety reasons to drive turbines and generators. Environmental issues include how do we store, and where do we put, dangerous radioactive waste from nuclear power stations?, disasters such as the Chernobyl nuclear power plant explosion in Russia with its long term effects on people and the local flora (plants) and fauna (animals). Nuclear power stations may take over a decade to build and involve the most complicated technology of any means of power production. Safety standards must be exceptionally high and very costly.

Wind power

wind turbines: Wind turbine blades are driven by the kinetic energy of wind movement which in turn drive a generator (electrical energy). They are sited in clusters ('wind farms') on open land or out at sea (the latter is a more expensive location to erect the turbines) where, from surveys done, a commercial amount of wind blows! Wind turbine technology isn't cheap, but as more are built and designs improve, they are becoming more commercially more viable and the energy is free and maintenance costs are low. It takes a great many wind turbines to generate the same amount of electricity as a large scale power station. Some people object to what they see as 'visual pollution' or 'noise pollution' but at one time hundreds of windmills were a common sight in the countryside. There are several other problems too eg wind speed is variable and if it drops to zero, so does the power generation. Wind power generation is not capable of dealing with the high energy demands of peak times eg peak travel times. and cooking because unfortunately you cannot increase power production at all.