Period 1
*Caste System* *Period 1, 1491-1607* *Key Concept 1.2:* Contact among Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans resulted in the Columbian Exchange and significant social, cultural, and political changes on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. II. The Columbian Exchange and development of the Spanish Empire in the Western Hemisphere resulted in extensive demographic, economic, and social changes. D) The Spanish developed a *caste system* that incorporated, and carefully defined the status of, the diverse population of Europeans, Africans, and Native Americans in their empire.
*Definition from Wikipedia.org:* hierarchical system of race classification created by Spanish elites in Hispanic America during the Spanish colonial period. *Significance to U.S. History:* The caste system placed full Spanish citizens in a dominant standing over mixed races, settlers, and Native Americans. An example of a new social hierarchy that differed from a traditional European society.
*Encomienda System* *Period 1, 1491-1607* *Key Concept 1.2:* Contact among Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans resulted in the Columbian Exchange and significant social, cultural, and political changes on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. II. The Columbian Exchange and development of the Spanish Empire in the Western Hemisphere resulted in extensive demographic, economic, and social changes. B) In the *encomienda system*, Spanish colonial economies marshaled Native American labor to support plantation-based agriculture and extract precious metals and other resources.
*Definition:* A system of forced labor. That granted Spanish officials authority over the native population. Provided the land owner with a supply of cheap labor and periodic payments of goods by the Amerindians. *Significance to U.S. History:* The encomienda system led to the abuse of many native's rights as owners declined to give wages or establish good working conditions. The system further cemented the Spanish as the dominant over Native Americans. The Spanish acquired an efficient labor system to supply work on mines and farms in colonial settlements.
*Northeast Settlement* *Period 1, 1491-1607* *Key Concept 1.1:* As native populations migrated and settled across the vast expanse of North America over time, they developed distinct and increasingly complex societies by adapting to and transforming their diverse environments. I. Different native societies adapted to and transformed their environments through innovations in agriculture, resource use, and social structure. C) In the *Northeast*, the Mississippi River Valley, and along the Atlantic seaboard some societies developed mixed agricultural and hunter-gatherer economies that favored the development of permanent villages.
*Definition:* American Indian tribes, from the Ohio River Valley to New York, eventually formed the Iroquois Confederation and continually exhausted soil because of their farming techniques, necessitating frequent migration to fresh land. *Significance to U.S. History:* The formation of the Iroquois Confederation represented the social stratification that was present in American Indian culture. These tribes in the Northeast also had extended contact with initial European settlers while becoming a powerful force in the region for years.
*Mutual Misunderstandings* *Period 1, 1491-1607* *Key Concept 1.2:* Contact among Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans resulted in the Columbian Exchange and significant social, cultural, and political changes on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. III. In their interactions, Europeans and Native Americans asserted divergent worldviews regarding issues such as religion, gender roles, family, land use, and power. A) *Mutual misunderstandings* between Europeans and Native Americans often defined the early years of interaction and trade as each group sought to make sense of the other. Over time, Europeans and Native Americans adopted some useful aspects of each other's culture.
*Definition:* American Indians and Europeans initially had multiple misunderstandings over the goals and intentions of both sides. American Indian's misunderstood the reasons for European exploration and settlement. *Significance to U.S. History:* The misunderstandings would eventually led to conflict as both groups shifted goals over time. The mutual misunderstandings also led to peaceful first contact and early relationships with American Indians who didn't see the Europeans as a threat.
*International Trade* *Period 1, 1491-1607* *Key Concept 1.2:* Contact among Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans resulted in the Columbian Exchange and significant social, cultural, and political changes on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. I. European expansion into the Western Hemisphere generated intense social, religious, political, and economic competition and changes within European societies. C) Improvements in maritime technology and more organized methods for conducting *international trade*, such as joint-stock companies, helped drive changes to economies in Europe and the Americas.
*Definition:* As European explorers solidified permanent contact with the New World, international trade across the Atlantic became more frequent as New World goods became trade commodities and settler plantations sold cash crops to European countries. *Significance to U.S. History:* The international trade during colonial settlement greatly improved the economic importance of the New World and North America. Slave trade from Africa into North America and the West Indies was introduced as a result of international trade. The Columbian exchange was also promoted by international trade between countries.
Divergent Worldviews *Period 1, 1491-1607* *Key Concept 1.2:* Contact among Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans resulted in the Columbian Exchange and significant social, cultural, and political changes on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. III. In their interactions, Europeans and Native Americans asserted *divergent worldviews* regarding issues such as religion, gender roles, family, land use, and power.
*Definition:* As Europeans and Native Americans interacted, they maintained their contradicting viewpoint over important subjects. *Significance to U.S. History:* The diverging viewpoints stagnated peaceful relationships with American Indians as Europeans had contradicting attitudes towards issues. The different viewpoints led Europeans having a sense of superiority compared to American Indian belief in animism and gender roles.
*Maize Cultivation* *Period 1, 1491-1607* *Key Concept 1.1:* As native populations migrated and settled across the vast expanse of North America over time,they developed distinct and increasingly complex societies by adapting to and transforming their diverse environments. I. Different native societies adapted to and transformed their environments through innovations in agriculture, resource use, and social structure. A) The spread of *maize cultivation* from present-day Mexico northward into the present-day American Southwest and beyond supported economic development, settlement, advanced irrigation, and social diversification among societies.
*Definition:* Central American civilizations cultivated maize, corn, as a main cash crop and trading resource. *Significance to U.S. History:* Maize cultivation and other cultivation techniques led to use of agriculture by American Indians, which promoted a sedentary life. Provided a stable food supply that promoted population growth and consequently more sophisticated civilizations. The spread of maize through trade helped foster further American Indian settlement into North America.
*Interaction and Trade* *Period 1, 1491-1607* *Key Concept 1.2:* Contact among Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans resulted in the Columbian Exchange and significant social, cultural, and political changes on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. III. In their interactions, Europeans and Native Americans asserted divergent worldviews regarding issues such as religion, gender roles, family, land use, and power. A) Mutual misunderstandings between Europeans and Native Americans often defined the early years of *interaction and trade* as each group sought to make sense of the other. Over time, Europeans and Native Americans adopted some useful aspects of each other's culture.
*Definition:* Contact with Native Americans and Europeans led to an exchange of goods for peace *Significance to U.S. History:* The interaction and trade between Native Americans and Europeans led to an eventual assimilation of both cultures as Europeans acclimated to the North American environment and Native Americans acquired horses and guns from trade. Increased interaction also led to the spread of diseases, such as small pox, that caused the death of millions of Native Americans.
*Spanish Exploration* *Period 1, 1491-1607* *Key Concept 1.2:* Contact among Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans resulted in the Columbian Exchange and significant social, cultural, and political changes on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. II. The Columbian Exchange and development of the Spanish Empire in the Western Hemisphere resulted in extensive demographic, economic, and social changes. A) *Spanish exploration* and conquest of the Americas were accompanied and furthered by widespread deadly epidemics that devastated native populations and by the introduction of crops and animals not found in the Americas.
*Definition:* Explorations across the Atlantic were funded by the Spanish empire as several conquistadors and explorers such as Columbus, Ferdinand Magellan, and Hernan Cortes were sent out in search of trade routes and gold. These explorations in the New World propelled Spain to a dominant status over other European empires. *Significance to U.S. History:* Achievements of Spanish explorations and conquistadors encouraged other European empires to settle and explore the Americas. The initial achievements also began the Columbian Exchange as Europe established permanent contact with North America and its native populations.
*Extended Contact* *Period 1, 1491-1607* *Key Concept 1.2:* Contact among Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans resulted in the Columbian Exchange and significant social, cultural, and political changes on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. III. In their interactions, Europeans and Native Americans asserted divergent worldviews regarding issues such as religion, gender roles, family, land use, and power. C) *Extended contact* with Native Americans and Africans fostered a debate among European religious and political leaders about how non-Europeans should be treated, as well as evolving religious, cultural, and racial justifications for the subjugation of Africans and Native Americans.
*Definition:* Extended contact between American Indians and European produced varying responses as both groups adapted to life with each other. *Significance to U.S. History:* In Spanish controlled territory, extended contact led to the assimilation of American Indians into society and the caste system. With French explorers, extended contact led to strong alliances with American Indians as they traded fur and goods. Extended contact with the English mostly led to violent conflict over land and fewer peaceful relationships.
*American Indian Debates* *Period 1, 1491-1607* *Key Concept 1.2:* Contact among Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans resulted in the Columbian Exchange and significant social, cultural, and political changes on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. III. In their interactions, Europeans and Native Americans asserted divergent worldviews regarding issues such as religion, gender roles, family, land use, and power. C) Extended contact with Native Americans and Africans fostered a *debate* among European religious and political leaders about how non-Europeans should be treated, as well as evolving religious, cultural, and racial justifications for the subjugation of Africans and Native Americans.
*Definition:* Few Europeans, such as Spanish priest named Bartolome de Las Casas, advocated for better treatment of natives by proposing to end the encomienda system, halt Indian labor, and end slavery. These debates over American Indians came to a head at the Valladolid debate in 1550. *Significance to U.S. History:* Debates over the humanitarian standing and rights of American Indians led to the native population being viewed as equal by few colonials. After the Valladolid debate, Native American didn't gain equal treatment, but did establish basic arguments on Indian rights.
*Atlantic Seaboard Settlements* *Period 1, 1491-1607* *Key Concept 1.1:* As native populations migrated and settled across the vast expanse of North America over time, they developed distinct and increasingly complex societies by adapting to and transforming their diverse environments. I. Different native societies adapted to and transformed their environments through innovations in agriculture, resource use, and social structure. C) In the Northeast, the Mississippi River Valley, and along the *Atlantic seaboard* some societies developed mixed agricultural and hunter-gatherer economies that favored the development of permanent villages.
*Definition:* From modern day New Jersey south to Florida, American Indian tribes resided along the Atlantic coast taking advantage of rich lumber supply and multiple rivers to build settlements. *Significance to U.S. History:* The tribes along the Atlantic seaboard had initial contact with European settlers and established the first relationships with settlers. These American Indian tribes taught European settlers agricultural techniques and other knowledge necessary to survive.
*Slavery* *Period 1, 1491-1607* *Key Concept 1.2:* Contact among Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans resulted in the Columbian Exchange and significant social, cultural, and political changes on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. II. The Columbian Exchange and development of the Spanish Empire in the Western Hemisphere resulted in extensive demographic, economic, and social changes. C) European traders partnered with some West African groups who practiced *slavery* to forcibly extract slave labor for the Americas. The Spanish imported enslaved Africans to labor in plantation agriculture and mining.
*Definition:* Institution where humans are categorized as property without rights, can be acquired through trade or capture, and most often for the use of labor or services. *Significance to U.S. History:* Slavery was present in multiple forms including natives being enslaved under Spanish rule or African slaves being imported to North American colonies through the Atlantic trade. Slaves became an important labor force for years on colonial plantations across the New World.
*Joint Stock Companies* *Period 1, 1491-1607* *Key Concept 1.2:* Contact among Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans resulted in the Columbian Exchange and significant social, cultural, and political changes on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. I. European expansion into the Western Hemisphere generated intense social, religious, political, and economic competition and changes within European societies. C) Improvements in maritime technology and more organized methods for conducting international trade, such as *joint-stock companies*, helped drive changes to economies in Europe and the Americas.
*Definition:* Joint stock companies allowed for a group of investors to share the risk of failure in entrepreneurial attempts rather than having heavier losses. *Significance to U.S. History:* The creation of joint stock companies encouraged investors to fund potentially dangerous exploration and settlement in the New World.
*Great Basin Settlement* *Period 1, 1491-1607* *Key Concept 1.1:* As native populations migrated and settled across the vast expanse of North America over time, they developed distinct and increasingly complex societies by adapting to and transforming their diverse environments. I. Different native societies adapted to and transformed their environments through innovations in agriculture, resource use, and social structure. B) Societies responded to the aridity of the *Great Basin* and the grasslands of the western Great Plains by developing largely mobile lifestyles.
*Definition:* Most Great Basin tribes, the most famous being the Sioux, near present day Nevada and Utah had a nomadic lifestyle and used irrigation techniques due to the dry environment. *Significance to U.S. History:* The nomadic lifestyle created a diverse and complex society through the adaptation of their environment.
*Mexico* *Period 1, 1491-1607* *Key Concept 1.1:* As native populations migrated and settled across the vast expanse of North America over time,they developed distinct and increasingly complex societies by adapting to and transforming their diverse environments. I. Different native societies adapted to and transformed their environments through innovations in agriculture, resource use, and social structure. A) The spread of maize cultivation from present-day *Mexico* northward into the present-day American Southwest and beyond supported economic development, settlement, advanced irrigation, and social diversification among societies.
*Definition:* Near present day Mexico, Central American tribes developed into sophisticated civilizations such as the Mayans, Olmecs, and Aztecs through conquest, cultivation of maize, and extensive trade. *Significance to U.S. History:* Central American civilizations represented the most complex American Indian society and culture. The conquest of the Aztecs by Hernan Cortes influenced further exploration of the New World in search of gold and settlement. Mineral wealth in Mexico attracted Spanish exploration and encouraged the establishment of mines using natives as a labor force.
*California* *Period 1, 1491-1607* *Key Concept 1.1:* As native populations migrated and settled across the vast expanse of North America over time, they developed distinct and increasingly complex societies by adapting to and transforming their diverse environments. I. Different native societies adapted to and transformed their environments through innovations in agriculture, resource use, and social structure. D) Societies in the Northwest and present-day *California* supported themselves by hunting and gathering, and in some areas developed settled communities supported by the vast resources of the ocean
*Definition:* Spanish settlers established a series of missions in modern day California such as San Diego and San Francisco in order to convert American Indians to Catholicism and discourage Russian exploration south of Alaska. *Significance to U.S. History:* The establishment of settlements solidified Spanish control in North America. The forced conversion to Catholicism in missions symbolized the assimilation of cultures between Spanish and Native Americans that would result in a diverse California.
*Maritime Technology* *Period 1, 1491-1607* *Key Concept 1.2:* Contact among Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans resulted in the Columbian Exchange and significant social, cultural, and political changes on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. I. European expansion into the Western Hemisphere generated intense social, religious, political, and economic competition and changes within European societies. C) Improvements in *maritime technology* and more organized methods for conducting international trade, such as joint-stock companies, helped drive changes to economies in Europe and the Americas.
*Definition:* Technological innovations such as the compass, astrolabe, and the stern rudder increased the rate and accuracy of sea travel. *Significance to U.S. History:* The advancement in maritime technology led to increased travel across the Atlantic to the New World in search of trade routes and settlement. Colonial settlement in North America became more viable with the advanced maritime travel allowing for the movement supplies and information from Europe.
*American Southwest Settlement* *Period 1, 1491-1607* *Key Concept 1.1:* As native populations migrated and settled across the vast expanse of North America over time,they developed distinct and increasingly complex societies by adapting to and transforming their diverse environments. I. Different native societies adapted to and transformed their environments through innovations in agriculture, resource use, and social structure. A) The spread of maize cultivation from present-day Mexico northward into the present-day *American Southwest* and beyond supported economic development, settlement, advanced irrigation, and social diversification among societies.
*Definition:* The American Southwest region included several American Indian tribes that adapted to the dry, desert environment through irrigation techniques and adobe houses. *Significance to U.S. History:* Irrigation techniques allowed for civilization to spread into desert and dry environments. The different environment increased the diversity of American Indian cultures across North America.
*Columbian Exchange* *Period 1, 1491-1607* *Key Concept 1.2:* Contact among Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans resulted in the Columbian Exchange and significant social, cultural, and political changes on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. I. European expansion into the Western Hemisphere generated intense social, religious, political, and economic competition and changes within European societies. B) The *Columbian Exchange* brought new crops to Europe from the Americas, stimulating European population growth, and new sources of mineral wealth, which facilitated the European shift from feudalism to capitalism
*Definition:* The exchange of people, plants, and animals between Europe, Africa, and North America that occurred after Columbus's arrival in the Western Hemisphere. *Significance to U.S. History:* The exchange of goods and ideas created a permanent connection with the New World as American Indians adopted parts of European culture and technological innovations. Diseases were also spread to American Indians as it devastated native population over time. The exchange of horses revitalized the nomadic lifestyle of American Indian tribes in the Great Plains and Great Basin.
*European Expansion* *Period 1, 1491-1607* *Key Concept 1.2:* Contact among Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans resulted in the Columbian Exchange and significant social, cultural, and political changes on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. I. *European expansion* into the Western Hemisphere generated intense social, religious, political, and economic competition and changes within European societies.
*Definition:* The expansion of European empires, such as France, Britain, and Spain, in the New World led to several after effects of widespread colonization. *Significance to U.S. History:* The search for gold and increased settlement led to increased competition between European empires. European expansion also led to severe changes in the American Indian society.
*Northwest Settlements * *Period 1, 1491-1607* *Key Concept 1.1:* As native populations migrated and settled across the vast expanse of North America over time, they developed distinct and increasingly complex societies by adapting to and transforming their diverse environments. I. Different native societies adapted to and transformed their environments through innovations in agriculture, resource use, and social structure. D) Societies in the *Northwest* and present-day California supported themselves by hunting and gathering, and in some areas developed settled communities supported by the vast resources of the ocean
*Definition:* Tribal lands centralized in modern Oregon along the Pacific coast that made use longhouses and a rich diet composed of hunting, fishing, and gathering. *Significance to U.S. History:* Northwest settlements represented the rich diet that became common after the Columbian Exchange. These settlements didn't have much contact with Europeans due to their distance from the Atlantic.
*Great Plains Settlements* *Period 1, 1491-1607* *Key Concept 1.1:* As native populations migrated and settled across the vast expanse of North America over time, they developed distinct and increasingly complex societies by adapting to and transforming their diverse environments. I. Different native societies adapted to and transformed their environments through innovations in agriculture, resource use, and social structure. B) Societies responded to the aridity of the Great Basin and the grasslands of the western *Great Plains* by developing largely mobile lifestyles.
*Definition:* Tribes in the Great Plains were mostly nomadic hunters or sedentary tribes that farmed and traded. The nomadic lifestyle revolved mostly around the hunting buffalo and the use of its dead remains. Those who lived in earthen lodges grew a variety of crops from beans and squash to corn. *Significance to U.S. History:* The nomadic lifestyle of native tribes populated much of the Western U.S., and the continued farming would eventually lead to complete soil exhaustion in the Great Plains.
*Mississippi River Valley Settlements* *Period 1, 1491-1607* *Key Concept 1.1:* As native populations migrated and settled across the vast expanse of North America over time, they developed distinct and increasingly complex societies by adapting to and transforming their diverse environments. I. Different native societies adapted to and transformed their environments through innovations in agriculture, resource use, and social structure. C) In the Northeast, the *Mississippi River Valley*, and along the Atlantic seaboard some societies developed mixed agricultural and hunter-gatherer economies that favored the development of permanent villages.
*Definition:* Tribes residing along the Mississippi River thrived from food supply of hunting, fishing, and agriculture. Large earthen mounds for settlement were built in several places across the Midwest with the largest being Cahokia, near present day St. Louis. *Significance to U.S. History:* Earthen mounds created the earliest trade routes for American Indians as goods and crops were exchanged across North America.
*European Encroachments* *Period 1, 1491-1607* *Key Concept 1.2:* Contact among Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans resulted in the Columbian Exchange and significant social, cultural, and political changes on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. III. In their interactions, Europeans and Native Americans asserted divergent worldviews regarding issues such as religion, gender roles, family, land use, and power. B) As *European encroachments* on Native Americans' lands and demands on their labor increased, native peoples sought to defend and maintain their political sovereignty, economic prosperity, religious beliefs, and concepts of gender relations through diplomatic negotiations and military resistance.
*Definition:*Over time Europeans slowly migrated deeper inland, fostering disputes over land with American Indian tribes . *Significance to U.S. History:* European encroachment into American Indian land displaced native tribes and sometimes led to violent conflict with colonial Europeans. Labor demand increased as Europeans established more plantations and settlements. American Indians attempted to resist further encroachment as neighboring tribes were displaced.