personal psychology unit 3: thinking & language

Decision Making

*Decision making* is the process of weighing the pros and cons of different alternatives and making a choice. We constantly make decisions, although you may not even be aware of some of them. For example, by reading this unit, you are making the decision not to play a game of solitaire or not to walk around the run clucking like a chicken. Some researchers argue that when we make a decision, we consider two things: utility (or the value that the choice has for us) and the probability (or the chance each choice has). For example, you might have to choose between a college that you really want to go to, but don't have as a good a chance of getting into and a college that you don't like quite as well, but you know that you'll get into it. If you could only apply to one college, which one do you think you'd choose?

Problem Solving

*Problem solving* is the process of changing one situation into another in order to meet a goal. It generally involves taking a situation that is not the way you want it to be (the initial state) and finding a way to change the situation to meet your expectations (the goal state). To get from the initial state to the goal state, you use operators or behavioral and mental processes that change the situation. We generally use *problem solving strategies* or techniques that guide us in solving a problem when we have a situation that we want to change. *Mental simulation* is one example of a problem solving strategy. It involves imagining the steps that you'll have to take to solve the problem before you actually begin them. For example, you may consider different arguments for convincing your parents that you need your own car to see which one you think will work best before approaching them about your request. We also use *algorithms* or systematic procedures that provide solutions. An example of this would be if you counted up the number of people on your softball team and compared that number to the number of seats available in several vehicles so that you knew how many cars you needed to take in order to get everyone there. Problem solving doesn't always go smoothly, however. One common problem is *functional fixedness*, which is the tendency to focus on one function of an item and ignore other potential functions. For example, one study asked individuals to tie two sticks together. Although many of the participants noted that a picture in the room was held up with a piece of string, most did not recognize that they could use that string to tie the sticks together. Another common problem is *confirmation bias*, which is the tendency to look for affirmation of what we already believe. For example, if we believe that the reason that the car won't start is that the battery is dead, we may look for proof of this, rather than checking the gas gauge to see that the car doesn't have any gas.

Reasoning

*Reasoning* is the process by which we formulate and evaluate arguments and beliefs. For centuries, thinkers have separated reasoning into two types: inductive and deductive. *Inductive reasoning* involves reasoning from specific information to general information. For example, if we saw a four-legged animal that barked, we would inductively reason that this animal was a dog. This type of reasoning rests on probabilities or choosing reasoning that is most likely to be true. Inductive reasoning can lead to errors. For example, the animal may be a really odd cat that makes dog noises or it might be a coyote or wolf. Yet, depending on the situation, we would choose the category of dog since that choice has the greatest chance of being correct. *Deductive reasoning* involves reasoning from a set of assumptions or premises, moving from general information to specific information. Generally, deductive reasoning starts with an idea or concept before considering the specific elements. One type of deductive reasoning uses *syllogism* or using two premises to come to a logical conclusion. For example, let's take our dog example again. Using a syllogism, we might come up with something like this: All dogs bark. Fido barks. Thus, Fido is a dog. Deductive reasoning attempts to come to certain answers, unlike inductive reasoning which seeks the most probable answer. We also use analogies when we reason. *Analogical reasoning* is the process of understanding a novel or new situation by using a familiar one. For example, a scientist might compare the human brain to a computer or a person might describe their relationship with another person to a roller coaster. We also see analogical reasoning in national affairs, such as when a leader of a country is compared to Adolf Hitler. In working with analogies, the two situations do not need to exactly resemble each other. For example Saddam Hussein was often compared to Hitler, but he didn't really look like Hitler and Iraq was not exactly like Nazi Germany. Rather, the two situations have to have an explainable relation. For example, if we say that a relationship is like a roller coaster, we are accepting that both relationships and roller coasters have ups and downs in them.

Thinking

*Thinking* is the manipulation of information for a purpose, such as making decisions, forming concepts, and reasoning. Although you may be aware of some forms of thinking, such as working out a math problem, other forms of thinking go almost unnoticed. You identify objects in your environment, compare them to your existing representations, and categorize the new item. For example, you may see a four-legged animal that you've never seen before. Because it most closely resembles your mental images of dogs, you correctly identify the animal as a type of dog, perhaps a breed of dog that you haven't seen before. Much of our thinking happens with words and images. *Mental images* are visual representations that we use when we think. For example, if you are asked to think about a triangle, it's likely that you get a visual image of a triangle in your mind rather than a description of it. We also use *mental models*, representations that predict, explain, or describe the way that things work. For example, you may use a mental model to explain to someone how to get to the mall. Although mental models often include visual images, like of the mall, the roads, or the things that you pass on the way to the mall, they also include explanations or descriptions of the relationships between these things. So, in thinking about how to get to the mall, you may think of turning left or right, stopping at a stop sign, or of parking at a certain place.

Language

Although we think with visual representation, much of our thought also includes words. For example, consider how you would do a math problem without using words or numbers. We also rely on the ability to read words in many situations, including ordering food at a restaurant, navigating an unfamiliar city with street signs, and reading instructions to work a new media player. *Language* is the system of symbols, meanings, and sounds that allows us to communicate with each other. Psychologists have found that language and thought influence each other in a variety of ways. One theory about the relationship between language and thought is the *Whorfian hypothesis of linguistic relativity*. This theory argues that language shapes the way that we think. The idea is that languages which have many words for the subtypes in a category will make people perceive the world differently than the people who have limited terms for subcategories. For example, some cultures have many different terms to describe the subcategories of snow. According to this theory, these cultures would perceive snow differently than warm cultures that only have one or two terms to describe snow.

Prototypes

Another possibility is that we compare similarities in items. *Prototypes* are abstractions that contain the most common elements of a category. In other words, prototypes are like airbrushed images of an item, taking away all the small differences, but leaving the main similarities intact. For example, if you saw an image of a parrot, you'd mentally compare it to the prototype of "bird" in your mind, which might include feathers, beak, wings, two legs, and the usual shape of a bird. Birds that don't exactly fit the prototype in your mind, like a penguin, would take you longer to identify as a bird than one that almost exactly fits, like a robin. Researchers have found that shape is an important element in prototypes, particularly when a visual comparison is being made. When making verbal distinctions, main characteristics are used, such as laying eggs and flying for birds. If we examine these two possible ways of explaining categorization, we find that the first one uses defining features, or differences. Prototypes, however, rely on similarities. Does this mean that one explanation is wrong? Not necessarily. Researchers think that we may begin by using prototypes or similarities to define an item. If that alone doesn't give us an answer, then we may turn to the defining features of the item to help us further narrow it down. In most cases, however, both of these processes happen very quickly and you may not even realize consciously that you are using them. When we use concepts in our thinking, we order them hierarchically into different levels. For example, if our main concept is car, we make further distinctions like Ford and Chevy and from there we might break it down further into a Ford Focus or a Ford Mustang. In order to think most efficiently, we have to choose the correct level of categorization for an item, depending on the thought process and the situation. Let's take a closer look at the different levels of categories. The *basic level* is the broadest category where items share common characteristics that are distinctive. This is the level that we most often jump to when characterizing objects. For example, concepts like dog, cat, horse, and cow would be basic level concepts. In some cases, we further distinguish between items in the basic level. The *subordinate level* is the level below the basic level where items share more specialized characteristics. For example, subordinate examples of the basic level category dog would be Beagle, Golden Retriever, Labrador, and Boxer. We often use the subordinate level to discuss unusual items rather than jumping right to the basic level. For example, we often identify penguins as penguins instead of birds since they don't fit the category of birds quite as well as other types. In some cases, we also identify items by more abstract categories than the basic level. The *superordinate level* is a more abstract level where items share few characteristics. For example, animal or mammal would be examples of the superordinate level for the basic category of the dog.

Nonverbal Communication

As you are probably already aware, humans also communicate with each other without speaking. *Nonverbal communications* include gestures, facial expressions, body language, and nonverbal vocalizations (such as a sigh). Understanding nonverbal communication can be as important as understanding verbal communication. You've probably encountered a situation at some point in your life where what someone was saying didn't match their body language or facial expression. If you didn't know the meaning of the nonverbal communication, you might miss what the person really meant in the situation. Researchers have examined various aspects of nonverbal communication. Studies have shown that young children use nonverbal communication to help them figure out the meaning of verbal communication when they haven't been exposed to the word before. Children often learn that they can figure out a new word by following the gaze of the adult to figure out what item the word is referring to.

Concepts & Categories

In general, before we can think about something, we need to classify it in some way. This helps us to know what an item is, what it does, and what it might do in the future. We place items into *categories* or groupings of things based on common characteristics. The process of placing something into a category is called *categorization*. Placing something into a category, or identifying how it is similar to or different from other things that we are familiar with, is an important part of thinking. We also create mental representations of categories, which are called *concepts*. Concepts are broad ideas about categories. Some concepts have visual images attached to them (such as animal, car, building), but others are more abstract (such as honest, peace, love). Placing items into categories and concepts helps us to know more about them. For example, if we categorize an apple as a fruit and as a food, we know that we can eat this object. Scientists are not entirely clear on how we go about categorizing items in our minds. There are several different ideas about how we do this. One possible explanation is that we compare the defining features (or the qualities that are essential in order for an item to fit a category) of the object when we are making our determination. For example, we may look at wings as the defining feature of birds. However, there are many things in our daily lives that are not so easily defined or clear. How do we decide what fits the category of "good" or "honest"?

Elements of Language

Language is made up of many different elements that work in relationship with each other to enable us to communicate with others. One of the basic parts of language is that meaning is assigned to symbols and sounds. It is important to keep in mind that the symbols we use in language are often arbitrary. In other words, we attach a particular meaning to a particular symbol, but there is not always a logical explanation for the combination. We could have just as easily called a cow a horse and a horse a cow. *Phonemes* are the smallest units of sounds that make up speech. In English, phonemes are vowels and consonants, as well as the different pronunciations that we have for each (such the "a" in cat and coat). In order for a phoneme to have meaning, we combine them to form *morphemes*, or the smallest units of meaning. Morphemes include words, as well as prefixes and suffixes. We group morphemes together into *phrases* or groups of words that convey meaning and act as a unit. Finally, we put together phrases to form *sentences *or organized groups of words that express intention and thought. At some point, you may have been asked to diagram a sentence. This activity shows how sentences are constructed through the use of phrases and morphemes. Each language has its own rules about how words and phrases can be grouped together to convey meaning. *Syntax* refers to the rules in a language that define how words and phrases can be placed in a sentence. *Grammar* is the system in a given language for generating acceptable utterances and for identifying those that are not acceptable. On the surface, these two terms may sound similar, but they do refer to somewhat difference aspects. For example, examine the following: "The mub nicketed over the caesp." Several of the words in this grouping have no meaning, but you probably identified the grouping as a sentence. "Mub" is the correct spot for a noun subject, "nicketed" sounds like a verb, and "caesp" could be the object of the sentence. Thus, this grouping conforms to the syntax for the English language. However, it would not be correct grammar because the utterance has no meaning. You probably were able to identify that something was off about the sentence because the words made no sense. In dealing with syntax and grammar, we also encounter *semantics*, which are the rules in a language about the meaning of morphemes, words, and phrases. There are many words in the English language that have multiple meanings. For example, if you heard the sentence, "The girl liked her date," you would have to decide whether the "date" referred to a person or a fruit. The interaction of syntax, grammar, and semantics helps us to determine the correct meanings. This process often happens quickly and almost unconsciously. Generally, we don't even stop to think about all the various possibilities that the various meanings might have.

quiz ?'s

T/F: Confirmation bias can affect our problem solving abilities. ~true T/F: Placing items into categories and concepts helps us to know more about them. ~true T/F: Mental models include both visual images and explanations or descriptions of the relationships between items. ~true T/F: We are constantly making decisions, even if many of the choices are unconscious ones. ~true "All dogs bark. Fido barks. Thus, Fido is a dog," is an example of which of the following? ~Deductive reasoning Which theory argues that language shapes the way that we think? ~Whorfian Which of the following are abstractions that contain the most common elements of a category? ~Prototypes Which of the following is an obstacle that can affect problem solving? ~Functional fixedness Which level of categorization are we most likely to jump to first? ~Basic Prototypes rely on which of the following? ~Similarities Which level of categorization is the most abstract with few similarities among items? ~Superordinate Mental models help us do what to understand the way things work? ~All of the above (describe, predict, explain) Figuring out which meaning a word has in a sentence when the word can have more than one meaning (such as "date") involves which of the following? ~Semantics What is the process of understanding a novel or new situation by using a familiar one? ~Analogical reasoning Which of the following are the smallest units of sounds that make up speech? ~Phonemes