Persuasion Final Exam

Ethics, culture, and issue of central vs. peripheral processing

Central processing: logical, rational thought, involves actively thinking about issues, reflecting on information, and scrutinizing the content of messages Peripheral processing: based on factors such as source credibility, imagery, social cues CENTRAL ROUTE GENERALLY preferred route of persuasion

Architecture

Churches (shaped in cross, stained glass windows, high ceilings) ex. Vietnam War Memorial (dark, cut into, somber, silent)

Movements and countermovements

Civil rights ... KKK Antiwar ....Pro war Women rights... Antifeminist

Things that Help:

Cognitive Load Approach: based on the assumption that lying is more mentally taxing than telling the truth (if you increase cognitive demands further, liars, who have fewer cognitive resources, will struggle more than truth tellers Strategic-questioning approach: suggests that different ways of questioning suspects might elicit differences between liars and truth tellers.

Sex Appeals

Common, 27% of print ads us sex appeals (MAGAZINES) Objectification theory: females are more likely to be depicted as sex objects. Women are also more likely to be portrayed as passive, submissive, subordinate Sex appeal as enthymeme: "if you use this product, you will be sexy" sex appeals can backlash, distract and cause resentment

Antithesis

Contrasting opposing ideas in adjacent phrases, clauses, or sentences Ex. Give me liberty or give me death

Image restoration strategies:

Denial: -simple ("i didn't do it) -shift the blame (blame someone/thing other than org.) Evading responsibility: -provocation (response to someones actions) -defeasibility (lack of info., about control over situation "I was drink") -accidental (did not mean for it to happen "speeding -> I wasn't thinking") -good intentions (actor meant well "I was trying to do something right") Reducing offensiveness: -bolstering (remind of pos. qualities) -minimizing offensiveness of act (claim little damage from crisis) -differentiation (compare act to similar one) -transcendence (place act in different context) -attack accuser (challenge those who say there is a crisis) -compensation (offer money or goods) Corrective action: -restore situation to pre-act status and/or promise change and prevent a repeat of the act Mortification: -ask for forgiveness, admit guilt and express regret

Feedback

Direct requests are often the most polite, efficient approach -viewed more favorably than threats -viewed more favorably than hinting

Quality of Arguments vs. Quantity of Arguments

ELM: Peripheral route: do not scrutinize message, involves mental shortcuts and simple decision rules Quantity: for low involvement audiences (think of buffet) Central route: when people are persuade by a message that they have carefully scrutinized Quality: high-involvement audiences (think of high-end restaurant)

Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB)

EXTENSION of TRA ADDS perceived behavioral control, acknowledges that behavior is not always (*volitional- cognitive process in which an individual decides on and commits to a particular course of action) -internal factors: lack of knowledge or skills -external factors: limited resources or extenuating circumstances

Appeals to pride/patriotism

Ex. We must stay in Vietnam because the US doesn't lose wars Ex. The war is clearly justified, support our troops

Cognitive Dissonance

after making a decision or performing a behavior, a person worries if he or she made the right decision or did the right thing Factors that affect magnitude of dissonance: -free choice paradigm (more free choice a person has, the more dissonance one will suffer) -belief disconfirmation (argues dissonance is around when person encounters info. contrary to beliefs) -induced compliance (when a person is forced to do something, little dissonance is around because the person can rationalize the action "I had no choice" -effort justification paradigm (centers on amount of effort or sacrifice required greater effort, great the dissonance

Politeness Theory

all people are motivated to maintain 2 kinds of face, (pos. and neg.), we maintain pos. face when others respect and approve of us

Unimodel of Persuasion

alternative to dual process models rejects notion of 2 distinct types of processing simply more or less processing scale less elaboration <---------------> more elaboration

What is a social movement?

an organization with minimal organization significantly large in scope NOT institutionalized Encounter opposition in MORAL STRUGGLE PROPOSE or OPPOSE programs for societal change in norms, values, or both ex. Tea Party (angry with Obama, created in 2009) ex. Occupy Wall Street ex. Black Lives Matter

Art

artists persuade in and through their art provide social critiques can spark controversy Increases awareness Ex. Piss Christ (crucifix of Christ --> organic) Ex. Picasso Cornica (bombing of a village --> Spanish Civil war)

Motivational impairment effect

as people become motivated to lie successfully, their behavior becomes more rigid and over-controlled (being overly motivated may cause you to be especially detectable) telling high stakes lies motivates people to succeed, and makes themselves more detectable

Dump and Chase

asking for something, when they flatly refuse, ask why or why not depending on how the situation is phrased then turn discussion into a negotiation whereby you remove the reasons for them not agreeing with you or otherwise complying with your request

Direct effects model of immediacy

behaviors are warm, friendly, and involving we tend to trust people we are close to easier to comply with those we like open body language eye contact, mirroring

Apothesis/Paralipis

bringing up a taboo subject by either denying it to pretend to pass over it Ex. Trump Tweet "I refuse to call Megyn Kelly a bimbo, because that would be politically incorrect Denying something, to pass over it

Appeals to Warmth

can be conveyed through actions that generate a sense of friendship, bonding, or camaraderie can be quite effective, depends on BELIEVABILITY offer positive approach to using motivational appeals by engendering warm, happy feelings in receivers Ex. when you're here, you're home Ex. Pillsbury -> communicates love to children

Color

colors have attitudinal associations -"going green" -"white symbolizes purity" -"red is sexy" colors and behavior: -influences consumer ratings of products and product purchases Colorism: use of skin tone as status maker Color complex: refers more to intra-racial color prejudice (what is considered black or white) we often equate colors with moods ambient colors can affect moods, emotions Pastels (warming, calming, relaxing) Brands identify by logos or colors (ex. McDonalds -> golden arches, Coke ->Red)

Appeals to hope/warmth

common in product advertising appeals to family/children ex. extreme makeover, cheerios, Dove Men Shampoo

Confrontation

confronts the audience, often offending and attacking them DO NOT adapt, purposely go where the aren't not just for social movements DO NOT start where audience is

Repetition

creates power and emotion amp up delivery Ex. Obama Speech

Point of Purchase

critical component of successful marketing campaign because it exists at the point of "convergence" at no other instance are people, products and $$$ in these same place

Un-theme

designed to appear not like a theme, but it is ex. Sams, Cosco

Hyperbole

exaggeration, usually for comic effect

Why is confrontation used?

external and internal audiences

Advertising

eye catching visuals help and ad stand out images in ads make arguments about product or brand Almost $300billion spent a year on advertising in US Image oriented ads: -social status and elitism -sex and romance -cause related -youth culture -cool, hip, trendy -safety, security -sense of place, belonging

Victor Gruen

father of modern mall

familiarity bias

Intimates may be worse at spotting suspicious partners lies than strangers lies

Subliminal

James Vicary flash frames below human perception (doesn't work) Embedded images (pictures or words hidden or flashed quickly) Sub-audible (sounds or words too faint or too extremely high to hear)

What is deception? Why do people deceive? (Lies)

Lies to benefit other (save face): because she knows her husband doesn't want to be bothered, Babbs tells salesman that her husband isn't home Lie to affiliate: Buffy wants to spend more time with her father, she tells him she needs help with homework even though she is capable if doing it by herself Lied to avoid invasion of privacy: Muff tells coworkers she is younger than she really is because she feels its nobody's business Lie to avoid conflict: Biff tells his neighbor who complained about his dog that he can't talk because dinner is ready Lie to protect self: Trudy says the cat broke the vase even though she did it Lie to benefit self: Favio tells his parents he needs extra $ for money so that he can go to the Lady Gaga concert with the money Lie to harm other: Barney's in a mood so he points someone in the wrong direction when they ask for directions

Aristotelian Modes of proof

Logos: logic and truth ethos: est. speakers character pathos: emotion

Lowball tactic + Bait and Switch

Lowballing -Looks to good to refuse -hidden fees - ex. Cruises (internet fee, beverage fee etc.) Bait and Switch -when you agree to intial offer, you become psychologically committed, hard to change decision -ex. "that Hawaii cruise isn't available anymore but we have another one in Alaska!"

Loss Framed Messages

MORE persuasive than gain framed looks at costs/consequences of situation works best on PRESENT-minded people tell our audience what it stands to lose by non-compliance

Metaphor

MOST USED similes and metaphors Metaphors frame and define Make comparisons (similes use "like or as")

Appeal to fear

Message designed to elicit fear in an attempt to persuade Ex. LBJ's Daisy Ad (opponent would use nuclear weapons) Fear appeals work when: -listeners feel vulnerable -there is clear, specific recommendation for avoiding or lessening the danger -recommendation is perceived as effective -listeners perceive that they can perform the actions recommended -combined with high-quality arguments

Political communication

Optics: (what will it look like?) Larry Speakes Law: " you don't tell us how to stage the news and we don't tell you how to cover it" Media event: mediagenic event that has been staged to produce press coverage and favorably influence public opinion -scripted and controlled -dramatic -simple -created for mediated audience, not a direct audience -cast of colorful characters -produce iconic images

Role of Power

People with LOW power/status tend to not threaten and be very polite People with HIGH power/status have greater leeway to use impolite strategies Reward Power: control over some valued resource (ex. promotions or raises) Coercive Power: ability to inflict punishment (ex. fire you) Expert Power: based on what person knows (you may do what the doctor says because he knows more about medicine than you) Legitimate Power: based on formal rank/position (ex. obey someone because they are the CEO) Referent Power: when the person they are trying to influence wants to be like them (a mentor)

Types of Rational Argument

Persuading audiences using evidence, reasoning, and logic Aristotle called this "logos" "aiming for the brain" Type 1: Syllogism -form of logical deduction -every syllogism contains at least parts: -Major Premise (global assumption) -Minor Premise (specific claim) -conclusion - If A=B, and B=C, then A=C Type 2: enthymeme -less formal than syllogism - a syllogism without stating either major or minor premise (it is implied) -sometimes called a "truncated syllogism" or implied argument -Ex. we cannot trust this man BECAUSE he has perjured himself in the past (OFTEN BECAUSE STATEMENTS)

Politeness and Face-work

Pos. Face: we maintain when others like, respect, and approve of us Neg Face: we maintain when we don't feel constrained or impeded by others person is less likely to comply if face is threatened

Product Placement

in movies, products will be strategically placed throughout the movie over and over ex. Night Crawler (Dodge Challenger) ex. 007 (basically a commercial)

Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

language and labels structure the way we perceive the world language can facilitate or inhibit certain types of thinking (consider public speaking vs. SMS) individual words are persuasive

Social Proof

laugh tracks (TV shows) If I am certain, I will take a cue from others "salting the plate" = tip jar is empty at first, I guess I should tip here people like being associated with popular things

Gain Framed Messages

looks at brighter side of situation works best on FUTURE-minded people potential gains "you could rich on this investment opportunity"

Door-in-the-face (DITF)

making large request first so its turned down, then following up with small second request OPPOSITE of FITD Perceptual contrast effect: -people are likely to comply with a second, smaller request because compared to the initial, larger request, the second request seems much smaller than it normally would have Self-presentation explanation: when person rejects first request they think they are going to be viewed negatively, so they comply to the second request in order to make themselves look better Reciprocal concessions: when someone does us a favor, we feel obligated to return the favor Social responsibility position: we comply because of internal standards When DITF works: 1.initial must be so large it is rejected 2.type of compliance sought 3. elapsed time between 1st and 2nd request (short duration between both, more effective 4. same person must make second request

Gender and Shopping

men: seating and food women more likely to be searching for authentic, emotional expression women typically need to feel comfortable before they buy, so be sure to give them enough room

Supraliminal

message that is consciously recognized and processed, but often not noticed Ex. product placement in TV shows some research that behavior can be informed by stimuli that are not consciously perceived

neurolinguistic programming

mix of linguistics, psychology, and hypnotism

Gruen Transfer

moment when person changes from a customer with a particular product in mind to an unpredicted impulse buyer

Warning:

no organization, company, or person is immune from a crisis communication and persuasion matter in a crisis

Machiavellianism

not interested in interpersonal relationships, manipulate others for selfish purposes, and has little sense of social morality "wool pullers"- when lying, appear more innocent than counterparts personal social skills influence how successful he or she is at deceiving others (high self-monitors) people skilled at communicating basic emotions are particularly good at convincing others to believe their deceptive messages

Wrong subjective cue hypothesis

observers tend to focus on wrong cues deceivers are not more likely to avoid eye contact or take longer to answer

Theme stores

overarching theme designed to excite and disorient sensory stimulus (smells , colors, and sounds to influence movement, focus and temperament) ex. Red Lobster, Disney Store, Olive Garden

Parallelism

parallel construction NOT same words, similar sentence structure Ex. "Shall not, Shall have"

Synecdoche and metonymy

parts that stand for a whole Ex. The Beltway -> Washington Ex. Grey Beard -> old people Another name for something, part of a whole

Veracity Effect

people are inaccurate at detecting deception and lies -peoples section accuracy is above 50% for truths and well believe 50% for lies

Consistency Theory

people desire consistency inconsistency causes psychological discomfort the magnitude of dissonance (degree of psychological discomfort depends on the centrality of the attitudes), greater attitude salience results in greater dissonance

Power of Labeling

peoples names influence impressions (job titles, construct identity, perceived friendliness) Labels reflect attitudes (male, guy, dude) (female, girl, chick, broad)

What is Crisis management?

percent or lessen the negative effects of a crisis serves to protect constituents, organizations, industries and the environment from harm

Visuals in persuasion

play an essential role TV has increased the importance of visual symbols because TV has a visual imperative traditional persuasion researched placed more emphasis on verbal messages than visual ones Picture superiority effect: pictures are more readily recognized and remembered than words (more persuasive)

Film

reach large numbers of people follow narrative form viewers don't expect to be persuaded by movies promote popular culture (fashion, slang, lifestyles etc.) model behavior (smoking, alcohol, unsafe sex) promote viewer identification foster and perpetuate stereotypes

Assonance

repeating similar vowel sounds think of rhyming Ex. "I Like Ike"

Alliteration

repetition of word beginning with the same songs (adjectives) Ex. Sally Sells Sea Shells by the Sea Shore

Litany

reptitive recital 3 types: -ANAPHORA (repetition at BEGINING) (That I...., That I...) -EPISTROPHE (repetition at END) (...on you,....on you) -ClIMACTIC ORDER (litanies should build, bigger, and bigger)

Antimetabole

reputation of words in reverse grammatical structure Ex. "mankind must put an end to war, or war will put an end to mankind (1,2,3,4...4,3,2,1)

Disrupt them re-frame

rests on assumption that certain requests create conflict with persuadees (want to help but resistant to expense or effort required) "its a bargain" -reframing the request with pos. spin Disrupting and reframing is a diversionary tactic- use confusion to unfreeze requests in strange way, shifting environment Ex. salesman dropping papers, then asking about the sale

Appeals to myth

sacred narratives which explain how the world and mankind came tone in their present form Mythic figure are sacred individuals in myth Ex. Founding fathers Ex. For Republicans, Ronald Reagan is a mythic figure

Photographs

serve as iconic representations of events myth of photograph objectivity: photo's are not neutral, objective records of events CAMER ALWAYS LIES (images are easily manipulated) photojournalism: -make powerful statements -affect people's perceptions of events

Shelving guidelines

shoppers position themselves in the center of the aisle or location below eye-level, close to product that has greatest visual contrast Planograms

Guidelines for using confrontation (*TEST QUESTION)

should never be used when adaptive persuasion is an option only be used as LAST RESORT only be used on critical issues only works in open, democratic societies, where rights are protected with a free strong media nothing to lose

Heuristic-Systematic Model (HSM):

similar to ELM Motivation and ability are 2 primary determinants of the extent to which heuristic or systematic processing will be used Route 1: Systematic processing: thoughtful and deliberate (over long period of time) Route 2: Heuristic processing: relies on mental shortcuts Route 3: simultaneous/parallel processing: messages travel the heuristic and systematic routes concurrently. Receivers are more likely to process a persuasive message via the systematic route if they have the motivation and ability to do so.

Foot-in-the-door (FITD)

small request first, then larger request Self-perception theory: when you agree to comply with small request, you see yourself as an altruistic person who is likely to help, once you form that impression your motivated to behave in a manner consistent with that impression, therefor, you comply to the second, larger request When FITD works: 1. size of request is not so large its rejected, neither too small or large. 2. prosocialness of request 3. external incentives to comply 4.who makes the request 5.labeling 6. preference for consistency 7. self-concept clarity

Implicit Conclusions

soft-sell strategy, more subtle allowing persuaders to reach their own conclusions without being told what to do or believe -CENTRAL route of processing -more anticipatory -self-generated conclusions (lead person to decision) -less risk of psychological reactance

Roles of Symbols in Persuasion

something that stands for or representing something else arbitrary (come from culture) symbols include pictures have both denotative(dictionary definition) and connotative meanings (personal meaning, emotional associations surrounding a word) meaning is subjective (NOT OBJECTIVE)

Music

song lyrics persuade Mere exposure effect (familiarity over time with song exposure) pneumonic device (memory aid that facilitates recall) background music music videos (attitudes and behaviors of young people)

Depiction and description

speaker/writer creates a vivid picture Perot: "That Giants sucking sound"

Social movement history

started well before Declaration ex. women, civil rights, animal rights, LGBT etc. long worldwide history

Consider contextual clues

statements vs. known facts

Ingratiation

sucking up, brown nosing Def: flattery as motivational inducement Ex. Your the best, Dwight said your the best

Internal

sustain the social movements by creating the perception that change is possible legitimize the social movement (find common ground, defining dissimilarities) alter/define self-perceptions of protestors ex. protesting

Appeal to Guilt/Pity

tap into guilt or pity in audience common in nonprofits Pity is MOST effective when the sufferer is perceived as having no control over his/her situation (ex. Hurt animals, children) Ex. Keep America Beautiful PSA (Native American paddling through trash, city situation)

Rules of 3

things go bette in 3's

External

transform perceptions of reality (rename, redefine, alter perceptions of the past, present and future, working for common good prescribe and sell courses of action mobilize for action get new members

Key aspects of a crisis:

unpredictable: -can anticipate but not predict when a crisis will hit -crisis violates how constituents expect an organization to act (violates expectations creates angry constituents who will alter how they interact with an org.) -an org. is in a crisis if (*key constituents) perceive a crisis -

Contrast Principle

we not difference between things, NOT absolute measures when we make judgments (such as evaluate how good a product or person is) we don't make absolute judgements we judge anything is in comparison to something else (Ex. she/he is smart or talkative -> means they are smarter or more talkative than other people) we contrast (*anchor points) - your focus of expectation and your reference point

Social Judgment Theory (SJT)

when people hear a persuasive message, they compare it with their existing attitudes Pre-existing attitudes -> *Anchor (reference point, preferred position) Range of attitudes -Latitude of acceptance (people accept) -Latitude of non commitment (people feel neutral) -Latitude of rejection (people reject) Ego Involvement: There are a range of possible opinions that a person can hold (ex. Abortion, advertised product, favorite movie)

Things that Hurt:

Probing Effect: probing suspect for more info, causes 3rd parties to perceive the suspect as more honest, DOES NOT increase the accuracy with which you can detect a persons suspicion Othello Error: detector wrongly assumes the anxious behavior is indicative of deception (when suspected of deceit, a truthful communicator may become anxious, this in turn may causes a detector to commit this)

Information Manipulation Theory

when we are talking with others, we typically assume that they will be cooperative, providing us info. that is not only truthful but also informative, relevant and clear. -people violate our assumptions by manipulating the info. they communicate to us 1.might not provide the QUANTITY of info. that we assume they will (tell the truth, not whole truth) 2. might violate our assumptions about the QUALITY of info. provided (what they tell us is not all true) 3.might manipulate info through "MANNER violations" communicating messages that are vague and ambiguous 4. people can engage in "RELATIONSHIP violations" by presenting messages that are not relevant

Truth Bias and Lie Bias

Truth bias: perception that others are behaving honestly Lie bias: perception that others are being dishonest

Irony

words that mean the opposite of literal meaning Ex. Clear as Mud

1960 Debate Legend

Visually Kennedy won Radio Nixon Won separation from visual from verbal

Foot-in-the-mouth (FITM)

acknowledging that one is in a good mood predisposes a person to be more agreeable -if your in a bad mood but you respond in a positive way, you are then forced into being in that positive mood Telemarketers: "how are you today?" Food Servers: "What beautiful weather we're having?"

Persuasion Functions of Narrative

adds interest create identification narrative can make enthymematic, illustrative arguments creates emotional response transport audience to another place/time narrative link other strategies (ethos, logos, pathos) ex. Cheryl Burt (testimony to senate about CO2)

Theory of Reason Action (TRA):

"RATIONAL" model of persuasion -presumes people are rational decision makers -presumes people make use of available info. behavioral intentions are the best predictor of actual behavior 2 additional components about intentions: -persons attitude toward the behavior -subjective norm (persons perception of what others, especially referent individuals and groups, think about the behavior in question

Iconicity

"bearing a resemblance" icons represent/resemble the things they represent representation of people, events, things images (summarize ideas and concepts) can accentuate certain features while minimizing others

Syntatic indeterminacy

"don't look for logic in images" unlike words, pictures cannot convey precise relationships between things images lack logical operators pictures can be used to equate one thing to another via association images can never suggest precise nature of relationships advertisers use WORDS when the want to make a point explicitly, and PICTURES when they want to make a point implicitly

Legitimizing Paltry contributions

"every penny will help" induces guilt if target declines donors tend to give more than the minimum doesn't work well for requests that require time

Indexicality

"seeing is believing" ability of an image in particular photos or video to document that an event happened or that something took place often function as a form of sign reasoning or circumstantial evidence media events can be staged, presence of cameras and film crews can alter peoples behavior (photographs and videotapes can be digitally alters)

Aroma

"using their products will increase your sexual attractiveness" background fragrances have been shown to have a calming effect mild fragrances shown to have an effect on speed, accuracy and efficiency with task accomplishment pleasant fragrances can increase consumer satisfaction

Appeal to humor

-1 in 5 commercials use humor -tends to operate in roundabout manor Functions -captures attention and adds interest -increases liking (halo effect) -distraction ->discourages counter arguing -social proof (everyone is doing it, must be right) -humor fosters identification -"Im one of you" and " I know about you"

Interpersonal Deception Theory

-Burgoon - Liars communication consists of both intentional (strategic) attempts to appear honest and unintentional (non-strategic) behaviors that are beyond the liars control -to avoid being detected, liars strategically create messages with certain characteristics: -1. manipulate the info. in their messages in order to dissociate themselves from the message, convey uncertainty of vagueness or withhold info. (ex. liars might refer to themselves very little so they distance themselves from the responsibility of their statements) -2. strategically control their behavior to suppress deception cues (lairs might withdraw by gazing or nodding less than people telling the truth) -3. manage their image by smiling or nodding to make themselves appear more credible

Expectancy Violation Theory

-Judy Burgoon -violation of expectations are perceived positive or negative depending on: -status, reward power of communicator -not so extreme so that they are perceived as threatening -the perception/evaluation of interpreted act

Extended Parallel Processing Model (EPPM)

-Kim Witte -messages arouse fear in person, can respond in 3 ways: -Perceived vulnerability (threat determines if attention) -Danger control (reduce the threat- WANT to trigger this in audience) -Perceived efficacy (clear course of action to avoid the threat) Effective Fear Appeals trigger DANGER CONTROL rather than FEAR CONTROL Perceived efficacy: recommended action is perceived as both effective and feasible to avoid the danger Response efficacy: "It will work" Self efficacy: "I" "I can do this" ex. drunk driving, texting and driving

Persuasion ethics

-Persuasion is not inherently ethical or unethical -persuasive strategies are AMORAL (they are just tools), can be used for good or bad -motive of the persuader decides whether or not it is ethical or not

Compliance Gaining

-Sub-set of persuasion -gaining is intentional -focus is on OUTCOME (behavioral conformity) -studies concentrate on interpersonal influence (One on one) -studies emphasize strategy selection and use

3 deception strategies

-distortion (equivocation) -omissions (concealment) -falsification (outright falsehood)

Situation: "It depends" aspects of compliance gaining

-dominance (level of control/power) -intimacy (level of emotional attachment) -resistance (degree to which persuader thinks a strategy will be resisted) -personal beliefs (extent to which the self or the other is benefitted by compliance) -rights (extent to which persuader thinks request is warranted) -relational consequences (degree to which a strategy will have long-term or short-term effects) -apprehension (degree to which a persuader perceives nervousness in the situation)

Explicit Conclusions

-hard-sell strategy, any claim that is made in a message is directly stated by the person sending the message (you should buy our product, our product is simply the best) -PERIPHERAL route of processing -uninvolved listeners -audiences who aren't knowledgeable on the issue -complex issue

Indoctrination

-hazing,rituals -more difficult the indoctrination, more group conformity -increased group cohesion 4 stages: -1. softening up (befriending) -2. compliance stage (messing with sleep, diet, appearance) -3. internalization stage (new members incorporate cult doctrine) -4. consolidations tage (loyalty test, donations, recruitment)

Reciprocity Norm

-indebtedness -dont minimize good deeds -"I know you'd do the same for me" Impression Management explanation: -suggests repaying favors is desirable because it keeps you from looking like an ungrateful freeloader Internalized social norm explanation: -suggest that repaying favors is desirable because it makes people feel goo about themselves when they do the right thing

Rational Argument doesn't work when:

-issue is tied to basic values -audience has strongly held views -issue is highly complicated -audience doesn't care -no new data is presented

What is an attitude? What role do they play in persuasion?

-learned predispositions to respond -tend to correspond with behavior -directed toward something -are evaluative (pos or neg) -persuaders seek to establish connections among attitudes -goal is to link product, brand idea to favorable attitudes Def: a psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favor or disfavor

Thats-not-all!

-making deals -But wait theres more -adding on things, person feels obligated to accept/buy these things -often combined with scarcity principle "the first 20 callers will also receive..."

Store Layout

-more activity at entrances draws more traffic -revolving doors and escalators (feel grand, cool) -invariant right (people walk to the right when entering a store) -wider the isle -decompression zone (people don't feel overwhelmed) -humans tend to slow down -more expensive goods in middle of store -courtyard like settings to maximum exposure LayoutL grid (traditional grocery store), racetrack (Ikea), freeform (Clothing stores)

How do liars behave?

-shorter responses, less details, pressed lips, sound uncertain, higher pitch, more fidgeting, appear more nervous, admitted lack of memory

Paco Underhill: why we buy

-touch (material world) -mirrors -discovery -recognition -bargains -available info -in stock -informative, friendly service

Rhetorical situation and 3 elements

1. Exigence: imperfection marked by urgency (a defect, an obstacle, something waiting to be done, a thing which is other than it should be) 2. Audience: usually more than 1 audience, primary and secondary, direct and mediated 3. Constraints

Primary Dimensions of credibility

1. Expertise/competence: persuaders knowledge and experience on a topic 2. Trustworthiness/character: how truthful or honest we perceive the persuader to be 3. Goodwill/perceived caring: person takes a genuine interest in you

What is credibility?

1. Receiver based phenomenon (exists in eye of beholder (ex. Hilary Clinton may be credible to one person, while Sarah Palin may be credible to another) 2. Situational or contextual (may vary depending on situation, ex. President of NRA might be well received when speaking before an audience of hunting and fishing enthusiasts) 3. Dynamic (can be gained or lost over time, ex. President Bush, highest and lowest presidential approval ratings on record) 4. Multidimensional (not one thing, multiple factors, ex. defining Athleticism, difficult to single out only one thing that makes an athlete athletic)

Paul Messari's Images as persuasive functions

Inconicity, indexicality, syntactic indeterminacy

4 factors of lie detection (4 Factor Model)

1. arousal (increased anxiousness, nervousness) 2. attempted control (try to control signs of arousal, controlling facial leakage, controlling facial cues leads to leakage elsewhere, hands, legs, feet) 3. felt emotions (lying triggers negative emotions (guilt and fear)) 4. cognitive effort (lying usually requires more mental effort) Sending capacity hypothesis: when people tell lies, they try to control their behaviors, but in the process, pay more attention to some things than others People who are more aroused or anxious when telling lies than when telling the truth People don't want to get caught, they try and control their behavior, liars tend to limit their movement to keep from looking nervous affective factors influence our behaviors when telling lies lying requires you to think a lot harder than telling the truth does, requires extra cognitive effort

Beliefs about Communication

1. expressive design logic (believes that communication is a process by which people merely express what they think and feel) 2. conventional design logic (believes that communication is a game played cooperatively, according to social conventions and procedures) 3. rhetorical design logic (believes that communication purpose is to negotiate character, attitude, selves, and situations)

4 ingredients for social movements

1. grievance: perceived wrong, not addressed by politics as usual 2. Resources: things needed 3. frame: define the issue, identify an opportunity 4. initiating event: how do these groups communicate?

Seeking Compliance from strangers and intimates

1. noninterpersonal: short term (want care dealer to give you $1k for your car) 2.noninterpersonal: long term (new neighbors plan to cut down tree, want them to leave it) 3.interpersonal: long term (cancel date with close other to visit a friend passing through) 4.interpersonal: long term (close relationship with other, want to persuade them to move to another geographical location so you can take a better job)

Crisis Management

1. prep: improves speed and effectiveness of crisis response, should have CMP and refine CMP and crisis team, pre-draft messages you know you might need 2. communication channels: websites should be used, intranets useful for employees, mass notification systems, use multiple channels 3. spokesperson training: avoid "no comment", avoid speculation, you could be wrong, avoid jargon, full brief all spokespersons, avoid markers of deception (lack of eye contact or vocal fillers) 4. initial crisis: first set of messages in a crisis is critically important, be quick with your side of the story, be accurate with info., be consistent with your info., unless there is a surprising twist to the crisis 5. reputation: #1 priority, reputation repair is addressed after the instructing and adjusting info. is delivered

Confrontation strategies

1. shock or offend 2. attack 3. create guilt 4. threaten 5. terrorism or civil disobedience

Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM):

2 routes of persuasion: -Peripheral Route: "heuristic cues (aka. Peripheral cues), cues not related directly to the message (mental shortcuts), LOW INVOLVEMENT person will use this processing, NO cognitive effort -Central Route: "cognitive elaboration" -thinking about content, reflecting on ideas and info contained in it, requires more mental effort (MOTIVATION, HIGH INVOLVEMENT issue) -Persuasion takes place via CENTRAL ROUTE tends to be more lasting -Persuasion processed via PERIPHERAL route tends to be more transitory, only salient as long as cue remains salient (important). Whether person emphasizes the central or peripheral route is based on 2 factors: Motivation and involvement, and ability to process information

Various Impacts of audience factors on Persuasion

Age: children are easy marks (lack ability to understand the nature and intent of persuasive attempts, ex. junk food, alcohol and tobacco, sexualization). Elderly are more vulnerable because of politeness, cognitive impairment (ex. Dementia, Alzheimers) Gender: gender stereotypes affect persuasion more than actual gender differences (*cross-sex effect- in general, women are more easily persuaded by males, vice versa) Audience Attitudes and needs: -VERY IMPORTANT -most audience are self-interested -audience attitudes towards speaker, subject, occasion and alternatives Audience culture: -common knowledge and experience -common myths (heroes, villains, stories) -cultural facts -individualistic vs. collectivistic

Appeals to values

American Values: progress, family, freedom, peace, justice, opportunity value structure of society subgroups have their own values -ex. JMU is nice to everyone...

Appeals to Self interest

Americans are self-interested Audience WANTS to know how its going to impact THEMSELVES they ask "what does it mean to me?" Ex. Hennessey "flaunt"- appeal to aspirational luxury, common in ads of luxury goods

Anti-Ads and Shock Ads

Anti Ads: Steven Colbert, ads that make fun of ads -ex. Ikea (book book) -ex. Optux (cell phone company) Shock Ads: demand attention, -Bennetton (leading user of shock ads) -stay away from humor -push boundaries

Nonverbals

Eye contact: -common expressions (shifty, lying, wild, kind) -usually enhances persuasion -conveys (interest, liking, warmth) Smiling: -increases persuasiveness (food servers who smile more receive more tips) -conveys warmth, attraction, liking -excessive smiling may backfire Mirroring: -matching another's eye contact, posture, gestures, stance etc. -conveys similarity and empathy -increase persuasion Gestures: -emblems increase recall (memory) -adaptors decrease persuasiveness -self touching behaviors often signal negative feelings Touch (haptic): -convey pos. or neg. effect -provide reassurance and empathy -enhance perceived power -touch generally increases persuasiveness -CONTEXT is key (cultural considerations, gender differences, setting Handshakes: -firm -eye contact -don't look down Proxemics: -geographical closeness increases liking, attraction -based on perceived similarity -personal space: standing closer tends to facilitate compliance gaining

Primary and Secondary Goals

Goals-plans-action theory: argues that people perceive different types of goals when they are trying to influence someone Secondary Goals: -identify goals: concerned with maintaining one's moral standards and principles for living -interaction: concerned with creating a good impression and behaving in appropriate ways -resource goals: concerned with maintaining levels of arousal within an acceptable range

Group Persuasion

Group Polarization Phenomenon: -groups tend to make riskier or safer decisions than individuals (ex. Jury's) -groups enhance members pre-existing tendencies toward risk-taking or risk-aversion *GROUPS MAKE EXTREME DECISIONS Group norms: -norms may be EXPLICIT or formal (not cheating on a test, not texting while driving) -norms may be IMPLICIT or informal (not picking your nose during class, not taking clothes off during class) norms may not be apparent until they are violated (is it ok to wake someone up and ask him/her for a favor?) Deindividuation and Bystander Effect: -occurs when people lose their sense of self (pluralistic ignorance) -Common explanation for riots, group assaults etc. -ex. Take Candy Study (1 piece- 7.5% took when alone, 21% took more when it groups) Would you rather have a crisis in front of a group or individual (individual) Bystander effect: identifying individuals can overcome the bystander effect, ask singular persons for help

Ethical Guidelines

Honesty and Truth: don't lie, admit mistakes and correct them promptly, keep promises, don't over simplify Responsibility: you own your own words, responsible for short and long term consequences Authorship and ownership: you don' take someone else's words, "copy" and "paste" = plagiarism = not acceptable Reason: audience should be given balance facts, reasons and rationales, don't overwhelm the audience with emotion and narrative, RATIONAL ARGUMENT is considered the most ethical strategy Completeness: be open to your audiences about everything, purposes, affiliation Openness/transparency: discloses conflicts of interest and sponsors, all audiences are entitled to balance

Inoculation and Forewarning

INOCULATION THEORY: -William McGuire -when communicator exposes their audience to a "weak dose" of an opponents argument and then REFUTES it. -very effective -make audience resistant to persuasion (like vaccine makes people resistant to virus) -refutational arguments are more persuasive than one-sided arguments (persuader must directly refute) FOREWARNING: -can be an effective way of making the audience resistant to that message -only makes people AWARE of a possible attitudinal attack, DOES NOT REFUTE 2 types: - simply warn people that they will hear a message intended to persuade them - can warn people by telling them about the topic and position taken in the persuasive message

Hurt and Rescue/Fear and Relief

Idea: drowning person will grab at anything so metaphorically push them into the water and throw them a life line "what would you do if you lost your job?" well what If I told you there was a training manual that could prevent you from losing your job?

Marwell and Schmidt Taxonomy (*TEST QUESTION)

Promise and Reward: if you study, I'll buy you ice cream Threat of Punishment: If you don't study, I'm grounding you Expertise (pos.): if you study now, you'll get into college Expertise (neg.): if you don't study, you won't get into college Liking: Very likely, put your arm around them Pregiving: I'm going to double your allowance, now study now Aversive stimulation: once you do this..then you can do this Debt: point out all you've done, eat your food, I worked hard for it Moral appeal: jesus said its the right thing to do Pos. Self Feeling: if you eat your veggies, you'll feel good Neg. Self Feeling: think how bad you'll feel if you don't eat your veggies Neg. Altercasting: Only a baby wouldn't eat their veggies Altruism: I care about you, if you eat your peas, you'll be happy Pos. esteem: your family would be so proud Neg. esteem: you'll be an embarassment

Ethics and our model of Persuasion

Pure persuasion: intentional, conscious awareness, free choice/free will, language and symbolic action

Rhetorical Question

Question that doesn't require an answer *HYPOTHERA- allows speaker to answer question

Lesley's Parable

Reagan administration (staged photography) "people believe what they see" stage craft, ended up working in favor or Reagan

Ultimate terms

Richard weaver God Terms: have greatest blessing (ex. hard work, freedom, opportunity) Devil Terms: disgusting/horrible (ex. Racist, hate crime, un-american) Charismatic terms: abstract/mysterious (don't have contrite meaning, ex. freedom, democracy, natural)

Important thinkers in Rhetorical Tradition and Contributions to Persuasion:

Study of Rhetorical Effects: -Pre-Socratic Emedocles (studied power of language, first to study how language achieves rhetorical effects) -Corax and Tisias (founders/originators of legal rhetoric which permitted ordinary men to go to court The Sophists (Paid teachers, taught wealthy young men) -Protagoras (first and most influential of Sophists, encouraged study of precise meaning of words) (*DISSOI LOGOI - exploring probable truth via opposing arguments) -Gorgias (Father of sophistry) (*KAIROS- idea that elements of situation, culture and political contexts will produce both the best solutions to the problems and the best verbal means of presenting them persuasively) -Isocrates (The ethical sophist), set up elite school, first to train men for ethical and effective political leadership/solving practical problems, rejected sophist ideas and thought men could seek truth The Anti-Sophist: Plato -Phaedrus (true purpose of rhetoric: seek truth, rhetoric is collaborative, requiring the informed participation of all parties) -Gorgias (attacks the false, false = work of sophists, rhetoric that relies on kairos (situation) is false, sophists don't use rhetoric to seek absolute truth) Aristotle and his classical appeals -speech composition -invention through common topics or (*TOPOI) -3 categories: -deliberative (political) recommends future course of action -epideictic (ceremonial) intended to praise or blame -forensic (legal) judgement for past action 3 classical appeals -logos (logic and truth) -ethos (est. speakers character) -pathos (emotion)