PHILOSOPHY

STRAW MAN

A type of fallacy. It is the misrepresentation of a person's views so they can be more easily attacked or dismissed (a deflection technique) ex. "Why must we take the coward's way out? - it is a kind of distortion that proves nothing, although many fall for it daily - one of the most popular fallacies in politics

BEGGING THE QUESTION

A type of fallacy. It is trying to prove a conclusion by using that very same conclusion as support, basically arguing in a circle. ex. The Bible says that God exists. The Bible is true because God wrote it. Therefore, God exists. - few people fall for this fallacy in a simple form, but more subtle kinds can be tricky. Also called circular reasoning

The Fox and the Hedgehog

"The fox knoweth many things, The hedgehog one great thing" fox - aristotle hedgehog- Plato

Socrates and the Examined life

"an unexamined life is not worth living" - unexamined life is a tragedy (results in grievous harm to soul bc of lack of knowledge , ignorance in one's own self and the most important values of the good) -knowledge of these things results in excellence (arete) -unhealthy soul signs: wealth, social status, power - good soul= searching for what is true and real through wisdom to see what is vital in life (comes through self-examination and questioning everything especially false notions as in customs, traditions, etc.) -philosophy gadfly to Athens (annoying pest)

ARGUMENTUM AD HOMINEM

"argument against the person": to attempt to discredit a view by discrediting the person holding the view

LOGOS

( Heraclitus' central idea ) the principle, formula, or law of the world order --- structure for the cosmos --- to understand logos is to understand reality --- order that holds everything in place

APPEAL TO EMOTION

(Pathos) arguments that try to establish conclusions solely by attempting to arouse or play on the emotions of a listener or reader. Fear is the most powerful emotion to appeal to

ARISTOCRACY

(normal rule) rule by the very best (virtuous) in the common interests [ oligarchy is the preverted? rule (by the rich) ]

MONARCHY

(normal rule), kingship, rule of one person in the common interest, once there's self interest it turns into a tyranny (preverted rule)

DEMOCRACY

(perverted rule), the rule by many in their own interests, Aristotle described it as the rule by the mob, demagogues, people run for their own interests [ polity is the normal rule]

Ethos

(the ethical appeal) means to convince an audience of the author's credibility or character, greek word for character

Summary of Aristotle

- Aristotle believes that knowledge is possible and that we can grasp objective truths about reality, but unlike Plato he think knowing begins with sense experience. - With the invention of logic, Aristotle tries to clarify and systemize our acquisition of knowledge, and the heart of his deductive system is a precisely stated form of argument called the syllogism. - To Aristotle, scientific knowledge is not so much knowing something is true, but knowing why it is true- knowing the explanation for a phenomenon. He says the perfect vehicle for acquiring such knowledge is syllogism because its premises provide the explanation or reason for the state of affairs described in the conclusion. ?

ARISOTLE

- goes to Plato's school - is a jack of all trades (fox), is considered the epitome of a philosopher - first philosopher not from Athens - developed logic as a system - founded The Lyceum focused on rhetorics - first materialists, he was very critical of Plato - taught Alexander the Great - only lecture notes from his students survive -considered first scientific thinker - charges are brought on him for failing to honor the gods (like Socrates) so he flees to Chalcis and dies a year later of natural causes in Euboea - preferred reading because he believed it was fixed unlike speech - emassed first private library in Alexandria -focused on LEARNED BEHAVIOR -MIDDLE GROUND "THE GOLDEN MEAN" -DESCRIBES THE WORLD AS IS.. AND THEN WE ADJUST TO IT

PLATO

- his real name is Aristocles (nickaname is Plato) - he lays the foundation and Socrates is the spark of philosophy - created interrelated philosophy - had Aristocratic background (relatives involved in the takeover of Athens) - for Plato knowledge is justified true belief - we are able to acquire knowledge -student of Socrates and founded The Academy - believed there's no justice until philosopher's rule - believed you can't be a philosopher if you are not a mathematician - love and friendship -focused on how another world could be better, an alternate realm

PARAMENIDES

- most ground breaking and influential of the Pre- Socratics - claim to fame was through his systematic employment of deductive argument. He was the first thinker outside of the field of mathematics to reason deductively and consistently from basic premises to interesting conclusions - He made two distinctions that became the prime importance in philosophy. Reason and the sense and appearance and reality. - believed reality consists of the ONE, which is eternal, uniform, solid, perfect, and uncreated. -Motion is impossible because if being itself would change, then it would become something else. What's different from being is non-being, and non-being just plain isn't -says reality is an undifferentiated whole - change is an illusion, nothing can change - nonbeing does not exist

Hypatia

- one of the last pagan philosophers ( She never followed any religious practices) - and was a mathematician - she lived in Roman Egypt and taught at the the museum of alexandria (Romans controlled Egypt) - she invented the hygrometer used to determine the relative density and gravity of liquids) - she taught math,Aristotle, Plato, and Ptolemaic system of astronomy ( that the Earth was at the center ) - her body was destroyed along w her work -she was assassinated, by a mob of Christian monks who killed her ( they flayed her ) - after her death her body was burned publically

Stoicism summary

- the view that we can attain happiness and peace of mind if we focus on controlling only what is up to is ( attitudes, intentions, perceptions, and feelings) and ignoring what is not up to us ( body, reputation, property, and political office) thereby restraining our desires, cultivating virtue and conforming our lives with nature. - humans are happiest/ wisest when they live according to logos, which in turn harmonizes their life with the logos of nature - popular bc offers an antidote for the miseries of the world and was open to everyone , proposed idea that all men were brothers - for a Stoic the only real harm that can be done to a person is self-inflicted injury to the soul by a lack of virtue. (sought inner peace by moderation or elimination of desire) - the power to be happy is ours to use or not to use. We may not be in charge of the events, but we are in charge of our happiness. We may not be able to change the world, but we can change the way we think about it.

TRIAL OF SOCRATES

- there is 501 men in the jury, probably 1,000 in total - official charges: disrespecting the gods, acknowledging a new god, and corrupting the youth in the city - sentence: he chose death by poison (execution) - Chaerphon asked Delph (oracle/ Apollo) if there was anyone wiser than Socrates and he said no - Socrates was on a mission to find someone wiser and made enemies - Socrates neither knows or thinks he knows - second class of accusers are headed by Meletus. Meletus is mainly silent because he can't answer many of Socrates questions -Meletus says Socrates is doer of evil, corrupts the youth, and has other gods - He also states Socrates is an atheist - Socrates says he'll never stop teaching even if it means death - he is found guilty but he does not beg or weep because he does not believe death is a bad thing. Death is either eternal sleep or your soul gets taken to another world - he dies by drinking hemlock (painful death)

EUCLID

- we don't know much about his life, he is known as the "founder of geometry" , wrote the textbook

THALES

-first philosopher, -believed the universe originated from and is composed of WATER because "water is the source of all that exists" and that in some way everything consists of water - also called the first scientist , -greatest contribution is his METHOD ( he set out to look for natural not mythic explanations for natural phenomena and he insisted that his accounts be as simple as possible by accounting for everything by positing a single substance or element) ^ this is the preferred approach for modern science

ARCHIMEDES

-possibly the greatest mathematician of all time, develops the principle of the lever, worked with Pi - developed the principles of floating bodies (water displacement) ~~~the king had asked him to find out if his crown was made of gold or not, he had a eureka moment when he got into the tub and noticed the water went up. - we've used imaging technology to find his writings

ANAXIMANDER

-pupil and successor of Thales, - he is credited w drawing a map of the world, providing naturaListic accounts of the weather and devising a model of the universe with geometric principles -also like Thales, sought natural explanations for the origin aNd composition of the universe - assumed like many other Greeks that things exist in opposition to one another -, he believed everything came from a formless, imperishable substance called APEIRON ( the boundless or indefinite) It is the beginning of all that now exists but it has no beginning itself

THE FORMS

-reality comprises of 2 worlds- the physical world accessed through sense experience and the nonphysical, changeless world of genuine knowledge access only through reason - -Plato's theory that the physical worlds only a shadow of a true reality of the world of forms. -The forms are abstract, perfect, unchanging concepts or ideals that transcend time and space, they exist in the world of forms. (Plato's other world the alternate reality. - plato claims we are born with knowledge ( innate knowledge) -He believes it is impossible for us to be perfect unless at The Forms

SOCRATES

-was not afraid of speaking, charismatic - had a voice in his head that told him what not to do ( what was voice called-----? - short, stocky, old "extraordinarily ugly" -his central concern of philosophy is psyche ( true test of soul) - taught for free which made him differ from the Sophists - nothing is more important than the care of the soul - he called himself a "midwife" because he pulled the knowledge out of people - happiness lies in exercising all the soul's powers! -arete of the soul is consequence of knowledge (episteme) and wisdom (sophia) -better to suffer wickedness than commit it, evil arises from ignorance ( a good man cannot be harmed in either life or death) ... why he stuck to his moral principles during execution - for him knowledge refers to both knowing what virtue is and how to apply that understanding to life - people will pursue good if they know it, those who don't pursue good don't out of ignorance hence why an unexamined life is not worth living - considered it his duty to help people attain the necessary moral understanding -Socrates argue to live the good life is through exercising your soul's powers.

THE REPUBLIC

-written by Plato, has 10 books (parts), most widely taught of Plato's writings - concerns the meaning of justice (what is justice?) - no justice until philosophers rule -reflects Plato's perception of politics -PLATOS' THOUGHT EXPERIMENT - strongly opposes democracy as this is why Socrates was put to death sees it as mob rule - shows his theory of the soul along with his epistemology and ethics - maintains that the soul is made up of three components- appetite, spirit , and reason - society consists of 3 types of people { those moved by appetites- producers.. as in laborers,carpenters / those moved by spirit - auxiliaries .. soldiers, warriors / those moved by reason - guardians.. leaders, rulers, philosophy kings) - the just state is harmonious community governed by reason -citizens are assigned to one of the three functions based on their performance/aptitude and must remain in that class.. this corresponds with his ideal of ethics because he says to be virtuous and happy one must act according to their talents and strive for excellence (arete) - for plato not all men are treated equal - aristocracy of the intellect

APOLOGY

-written by Plato, it's the most accurate account of Socrates was like. It describes Socrates trial through the eyes of Plato - immortal soul? Plato sets forth arguments

Eudaimonia

Aristotle's idea of happiness; doing good things provides the good life - he believed the ultimate end is happiness

NICOMACHEAN ETHICS

Aristotle's lecture notes on how to live the good life virtue (arete) is learned behavior, requires education and practice, happiness is the goal, virtuous actions depend on context (learned behavior) (mugging video?) (-) <------------------------*-------------------------> (+) cowardice courage recklessness (the golden mean) - Aristotle believes that courage shifts and we need to find the mean according to context - Plato believed courage is in the World of the Forms, and is always the same - ARISTOTLE IS MORE HUMAN BASED -intellectual virtues correspond to the rational part of the soul - moral virtues correspond to the irrational parts of the soul - instrumental goods- means to other ends - intrinsic goods- ends in themselves - teleology- the existence of purpose or ends inherent in persons or things. The development of living things is directed towards a natural goal or objective (telos) toward the realization of the form inherent in them - the good life is one lived according to the light of reason and is therefore marked by true happiness ( to live rationally and do so excellently) - to live this way is to possess moral/ intellectual virtue... excellences learned through practice

ATOMISTS (LEUCIPPUS & DEMOCRITUS)

Democritus was Leucippus' student, believed that reality consists of an infinite number of minute, indivisible bits called atoms, moving randomly in an infinite void or empty space (closest to modern science)

hedone

Epicurus's concept of pleasure, he believed there were two kinds of pleasure static and kinetic he believed pleasure was the absence of fear

PRE-SOCRATICS

First philosophers because most of them came before socrates. -Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes, Pythagoras, Heraclitus, Parmenides, Empedocles, Anaxagoras, Atomists (Leucippus & Democritus) - Their way of seeking answers to the world - want to focus on Logos - take out the supernatural , use reason and nature - curious about change.. how do we explain it? Is there motion? Is it an illusion? -exploring about math

Plotinus

Great philosopher of Neoplatonism found reality in unity and permanence of the One. Reality eminates from the sun; matter is the final emanation and stands on the edge of non-being - he started neoplatonism - his version of Plato was the one available to the medieval Christian world - he argued that "good" was actually god and Plato was the one showing the way to God. - the world of forms is heaven according to him - neoplatonism is an early form of monotheism -reality eminates from the one, everything is a reflection of it Neoplationism is the mystical form of Platonism

EPICURUS

He believed we should live life according to pleasure, pleasure is the absence of pain and fear. He believed there are 2 types of desires, 2 kinds of pleasure 1) Natural Desire - necessary (food/sleep) - unnecessary (sex) 2) Vain Desire (clothing, gourmet food) He also believed false beliefs are the source of most pain 1) Belief about the Gods - we have a fear they will crush us - he says there is no reason to fear them (to interfere with Earths to risk their immortality) 2) Belief about Death - we fear being punished or feeling pain after death - he says there is no pain Believed friendship was the key to the highest blessings that life holds - friendship is at the soul level, free of transactions? - it is what makes life worth living - believed that a true life of pleasure consists in an attitude of imperturbable emotional calm that needs only simple pleasures, a sensible diet, a prudent moral life, and good friends. - pleasure is primarily the absence of pain ( a good life is free of trouble.. tranquility) - worst pains are mental (fear of gods/ death)

SOPHISTS

Itinerant professors who, for a fee, would teach a range of subjects that could be of practical or intellectual benefit. They taught RHETORIC (art of verbal persuasion) ( does not matter if ur argument is right or wrong matters if true) (Socrates opposed this) - mixed reviews on their teachings - usually taught the "best men" the aristocrats and their children - The demand for the blessings of higher education that the Sophists promised was high and their emphasis on practical applications and self-improvement made their lectures attractive - Sophists were mostly naturalists like the pre-socratics, meaning that they preferred natural explanations for phenomena and downplayed conventional accounts that attributed causes to the gods. - moral beliefs and legal codes were not determined by the gods or nature. Morality and the law were human interventions, varying from society to society depending on local circumstances. - basically taught for money, the appearance of knowledge, and to win arguments

ANAXAGORAS

Introduced philosophy to Athens, introduced metaphysical distinction between matter and mind, formation of the world resulted from rotary motion induced in mass by mind MIND=LOGOS=REASONING

THE GOOD

Plato writes that the Form of the Good is the ultimate object of knowledge. Humans's are compelled to pursue the good, but no one can hope to do this successfully without philosophical reasoning -

DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENT

intended to give logically conclusive support to their conclusions so that if the premises are true, the conclusion absolutely example: 1) All dogs are mammals 2) Rex is a dog 3) Therefore, Rex is a mammal - invented by Aristotle?

EPICURIUS 4 REMEDIES & TYPES OF PLEASURE

Tetraphormakos- the 4 remedies of healing the soul 1) God is nothing to fear 2) Death is nothing to worry about 3) Good things in life are easy to acquire ( elements) 4) Terrible things in life are easy to endure 2 Types of Pleasure 1) Kinetic 2) Static

Epicureanism

The hedonistic theory that life's highest aim is happiness attained through moderate pleasures and the avoidance of mental disturbance. Hedonism- is the doctrine that pleasure is the supreme good

EPISTEMOLOGY

The philosophical study of KNOWLEDGE - questions of how to best create and expand knowledge questions of interest-What is truth? Is knowledge possible? Does knowledge require certainty?

METAPHYSICS

The study of reality, an inquiry into the fundamental nature of the universe and the things in it. -study of reality in the broadest sense - takes into account the findings of science BUT focus mainly on the basic questions science does not answer alone ex. Is there a spiritual ideal realm that exists beyond the material world? Does god exist? Aristotle's Metaphysics- What basic existing thing do all other things depend on for existence? Answer is substance??

Library of Alexandria

When Alex the Great died, one of his generals inherited the kingdom of Egypt, the general entrusted Demetrius of Phaleon to build a library and fill it with info - Julius ceaser destroyed the library of Alexandria - it was created by Demetrius of Phaleon ( athenian politician) , King Ptolemy I Soter assigned him the task - was part of the Alexandria museum

ARGUMENT

a group of statements in which one of them is supported by the others

AESTHETICS

a set of principles concerned with the nature and appreciation of beauty, especially in art.

PHILOSOPHER KINGS

according to Plato, a philosophical king is someone who possesses both a love of wisdom, as well as intelligence , reliability, and willingness to live a simple life ( the ones who should rule)

COUNTER ARGUMENT

an opposing argument to the one a writer is putting forward

MYTHOS

appeals to cultural beliefs and values (gods/stories) (stories used to explain nature)

REDUCTIO AD ABSURDUM

argument form where a set of statements is assumed, and absurd, or false statements are derived from the set, showing that at least one of the original statements must be rejected - Socrates uses this method in Plato's The Republic when talking to Thrasymachus' definition of justice - the basic idea behind it is if you assume a set of statements, and you can derive absurd or fake statements from it, then you know at least one of the original statements must be rejected.

Zeno of Citium

began stoicism in Athens, spoke/ taught from a porch (stoa)

HERACLITUS

believed that every part of the universe is in flux. But behind the changing appearances, there is an unchanging pattern. Underlying the flux of things, there is a sameness. ( something that unifies the changes) (ex. enables us to identify a river as a river despite its ever changing composition) - Logos is that something that unifies ( it is the harmony of opposites) -"you cannot step into the same river twice" ( For Heraclitus, everything flows, every part of the universe is in flux -At it's core, logos is the harmony of opposites, the essential feature of reality is FIRE - - central ides is LOGOS ( the principle, formula, or law of the world order) To understand logos is to understand reality, to grasp the divine, eternal pattern underlying all of nature and all of humankind -- riddling philosopher - tension between two opposing forces

PYTHAGORAS

believed the base of all reality was NUMBERS, things are things because they can be counted, perfect is 10. There is an intimacy between things and numbers, with things participating the universe of order and harmony. Leading proponent of subjective reality (truth depends on what a person believes) -- geometry -- math connected to music (beats are #'s) "symbiotic"

ANAXIMENES

believed the basic substance was AIR

CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS

breaking down or analyzing concepts into their constituent parts in order to gain knowledge or a better understanding of a particular philosophical issue

PRIME MOVER

change can only occur if the thing that moves it is not moving itself (prime mover), it's the fixed point that begins possibility, it's outside the process (Actuality chart)

POLIS

city state in ancient Greece

THOUGHT EXPERIMENT

devices of the imagination used to investigate the nature of things (plato in the republic)

STORAGE

familial love, between parents and children

INDUCTIVE ARGUMENT

gives probable support to their conclusions. They can establish only that, if their premises are true, their conclusions are probably true example: 1) 85% of students @ this university are Republicans 2)Sonia is a student at this university 3) Therefore, Sonia is probably a republican

EMPEDOCLES

he recognized change but believed that objects were made of changeless basic particles: earth, air, fire, water E= ELEMENTS

AGAPE

love at the soul level (like love for a God) - love for the truth, above personality

PHILIA

love for a friend

SWITCHING THE BURDEN OF TRUTH

making a claim that needs justification, then demanding that the opponent justifies the opposite of the claim. example: Jack: I have an invisible unicorn Nick: How do you figure? Jack: Can you prove that I don't Nick: No Jack: Then I do

THE SOCRATIC METHOD

philosophical method of questioning to gain truth - Socrates kept questioning every answer given - question answer dialogue - socrates would ask people in Athens about their views on virtue, religion, justice, or the good and challenge them to think critically about their assumptions - main point of this exercise for Socrates was not to win arguments but rather get closer to the truth. -false answers are eliminated , opinions are improved, and the truth is a little closer than before.

CATHAISIS

purging of the emotions of pity and fear that are aroused in the viewer of tragedy - emotional release from a climatic moment in a story "this boat is going to sink" -Aristotle says this is important to a good story

Plato's Tripartite Soul

reason, spirit, appetite - appetite which desires satisfaction of bodily cravings for food, drink,sex,sleep, and other useful pleasurable things ( person in harmony acts confidently and satisfies basic needs) -spirit "competitive part" which wants to preserve a sense of self and serve ambition ( and is thus motivated to maximize honor, self- esteem, recognition, success and winning) ( person in harmony has spirit push him to achieve success, honor, and recognition) - reason ( the philosophical or intellectual part) which should pursue truth ( both practical and theoretical) regulate the other two parts and rule the soul as a whole ( a person in harmony has reason rule over the other 2 and ensure balance among all 3) a man is moral and behaves morally when the three parts of the soul act in harmony and fulfill their purpose- meaning rat each part preforms its function well.To achieve this state of harmony is to be a just person and a just person acts justly. - the result of having this harmonious and just soul is happiness- a byproduct of the good life

STOICISM

school of Hellenistic philosophy. founded by Zeno of Crtium?, it was open to everyone, concerned with the good life and happiness. - outside events can't make you unhappy, it's your judgement and attitudes about them that make you unhappy. What happens to us is out of our control but we can control our attitude! - our desires make us unhappy! - stoics have emotions but they control them, Logos (reason) should be your personal guide - to be free if suffering through APATHEIA (peace of mind) ( without passion), peace of mind was understood as having "clear judgement" - philosophy of stoics is a combo of practice and self-reminder - friendship important

EROS

sexual, passionate, dangerous, madness

PREMISE

statements supporting conclusion

ZENO

student of Parmenides, he's Zeno of Elea, he tried to defend Parmenides' argument that motion is impossible by developing Zeno's paradox of motion.It's a paradox because our common sense says we can reach a destination but logic says you never will. example: 1) you intend to walk to your class 2) before you go there you must go 1/2 the distance, before you get 1/2 the distance, you must go 1/2 the distance to that. 3) you will never get to your next class

LOGIC

study of correct reasoning Question of interest: What are the rules for drawing correct inferences? What is the nature and structure of deductive arguments? invented by aristotle ?

ETHICS

study of moral values - involves the inquiry into the nature of moral judgements, virtues, values, obligations, and theories. Questions of interest- What makes an action right/wrong? What gives life meaning? What moral principles should guide our lives?

Teleology

teleology- the existence of purpose or ends inherent in persons or things. The development of living things is directed towards a natural goal or objective (telos) toward the realization of the form inherent in them - the heart of Aristotle' s physics and metaphysics and ethics - whatever we do we aim at some end or object and this gaol is sum good or else we would not strive for it - instrumental goods: means to other goods - intrinsic goods: good in themselves,k for their own sake

Pathos

the emotional appeal, means to persuade an audience by appealing to their emotions.

ONTOLOGY

the study of being - question about existence and the nature of being

AXIOLOGY (ethics)

the study of value, including both aesthetic and moral value (moral value is known as ethics)

PLATO'S DIALOGUES

there are 25 complete ones that exists, They are divided into 3 time periods 1) EARLY- portrays Socrates as brilliant 2) MIDDLE- encompasses Plato's best known ideas of epistemology and metaphysics 3) LATE- documents Plato's evolving views on the Republic - Socrates is always the main character (teacher) - Both teaching and conversation - Don't always reach a clear conclusion - Plato defines FRIENDSHIP as important to the good life, soul connection (PHILIA)

SYLLOGISM

three statement argument: 2 premises, 1 conclusion - In aristotle's system the syllogism is a proof

THE POLITICS

written by Aristotle. He tries to figure out the perfect form of government, he ends up deciding that the best form of government is a mixed constitution, it's basically all the notes from his students put together

MEDITATIONS

written by Marcus Aurelius, he defines several practices of stoic philosophy, source of his own guidance and self- improvement

ALLEGORY OF THE CAVE

written by Plato, an allegory is a story that can be interpreted to have a hidden meaning -tells the story of the cave people - shows plato's theories of knowledge and metaphysics - also seen as a search for ultimate wisdom - the most obvious interpretation centers on the individual's struggle to acquire the highest form of knowledge, The Forms , and on the opposition by the unenlightened to this wisdom

PHAEDRUS

written by Plato, dialogue between Socrates and Phaedus (friendship dialogue) PHILIA, EROS, AGAPE, STORAGE

MARCUS AURELLIUS

wrote "Meditations", stoic, the last of the five good emperors of Rome (self help books basically on how to live the good life and follow stoicsm)