PHILOSOPHY (An Embodied Spirit, Freedom and Accountability, Intersubjectivity, and Man and Death)

Intentionality Condition

A condition in moral accountability that he or she does the action "intentionally"; that is to say he or she has the intention of doing the action and he or she performs the action to carry out the intention.

Knowledge Condition

A condition in moral accountability that he or she knows or is capable of knowing that the action he or she is thinking of performing is right or wrong or even good or bad.

Degree of One's Involvement

A degree accountability that results from a collective action. Here the greater the degree of involvement the greater is the degree of accountability, or the lesser is the degree of involvement the lesser is the accountability. Example: the person who intentionally and knowingly assists the murderer in carrying out his criminal intention say by providing the murderer some information about whereabouts of the victim, is accountable to a lesser degree compared to the murderer himself.

Degree of one's knowledge of the wrongfulness of an action and relevant facts

A degree accountability that the more knowledgeable one is about the wrongfulness of an action and relevant facts, the more accountable one is; or the lesser knowledgeable one is about the wrongfulness of an action and relevant facts, the lesser accountable one is.

Degree of Difficulty or Pressure

A degree in accountability that forces one to perform actions that one believes to be wrong. In this case, the greater is the degree of difficulty or pressure, the lesser is the degree of accountability; or the lesser is the degree of difficulty or pressure, the greater is the degree of accountability. Example: A person who steals a loaf of bread to feed his starving family has a lesser degree of accountability compared to a person who steals fortunes just to amuse himself.

Intensity of the Injury

A degree in accountability that results from a wrongful action. In this case, the greater the degree of injury. the greater is the degree of accountability; or the lesser the degree of injury the lesser the degree of accountability. Example: Stealing 20 pesos from a beggar has a greater degree of accountability compared to stealing a thousand pesos from a billionaire. Or stealing a loaf of bread from a bakery has a lesser degree of accountability compared to stealing it from a kid who just bought it for his own starving family.

Subject-to-Object Relationship and Object-to-Subject Relationship

A different view from Sartre (1956) that it is impossible to have a "subject-to-subject" relationship. As a person asserts himself or herself as a subject, it is inevitable that he or she will see the person as an object.

Irresponsible Ignorance

A kind of ignorance where we can say to an ignorant person that he or she should have known better.

Real Ignorance

A kind of ignorance where we cannot say to an ignorant person that he or she should have known better.

Causal Mind-Body Problem

A kind of mind-body problem that investigates how mental and bodily events causally influence one another. The problem of the "mental causation" falls on this category.

Ontological Mind-Body Problem

A kind of mind-body problem that investigates how the mind or consciousness arises from the brain.

As a Subject or As an Object

A person can be seen as either ______________________ and ______________________________.

As a Means and As an End

A person can be treated in two types

As a subject

A person is seen as someone who is conscious and free and lacks a defined or fixed essence (for being free, the person's essence is still in the process of being defined)

As an Object

A person is seen as something that is unconscious and unfree, and has a defined or fixed essence..

As an End

A person is treated as a "NON-PERSON" and has no intention of satisfying others.

As a Means

A person is treated with the sole intention of satisfying his or her own interests and desires and is treated AS A "PERSON"

Hard Determinism

A philosophical position on the possibility of human freedom that accepts "determinism" and further believes that determinism and freedom are incompatible -that they cannot both be true. NO FREE WILL AND NO MORAL RESPONSIBILITY.

Compatibilism

A philosophical position on the possibility of human freedom that rejects "determinism" and "freedom" are INCOMPATIBLE. The actions of a human person ARE FREE not because they are not caused by PREVIOUS EVENTS or concitions along with natural laws, but because the HUMAN PERSON IS NOT FORCED, COMPELLED, or CONSTRAINED to do actions to satisfy his or her own desires or to carry out his or her INTENTIONS. It doesn't matter if our actions are "determined" in this position.

Libertarianism

A philosophical position on the possibility of human freedom that rejects "determinism". It accepts that while certain events in the world are not caused and thus are determined, there are also some events that are not -referring to "human choices". It accepts the premise of hard determinism that determinism and freedom are incompatible BUT REJECTS its premise that DETERMINISM IS CORRECT. It is only the self or the mind of the human person that produces free choices through the power of its will.

Principle of Alternate Possibilities for Freedom

A principle that states that actions done freely or choices made freely could have been otherwise. The idea is that there are alternative possibilities to the free choices that we make or the actions that we do

Treating persons as means only, Treating them as ends only, and Treating them as both means and ends at the same time

A qualification by Immanuel Kant in Intersubjectivity. It provides a justification by means of distinction between one's moral duty to oneself and one's moral duty to others.

Mind-Brain Identity Theory

A theory which identifies the mind with the brain and mental states with brain states. There is only the physical-to-physical type of causation and thus there are no causal powers of the mind that can be exercised voluntarily to speak of.

Legal Accountability

A type of accountability that results from the application of legal standards. A person is given punishments or penalties by the state for performing an illegal action, he or she is given certain benefits or services by the states, such as police protection and free education, for not doing an illegal action.

Moral Accountability

A type of accountability that results from the application of moral standards in assessing the rightness and wrongness of our actions. A person is thought to deserve moral blame for performing an immoral act; while moral praise for performing a moral act.

Mental-to-Physical Type

A type of causal relation where a mental state causes a bodily state. An example of which is when a desire causes an action like when one's desire to sing causes one to sing.

Physical-to-Mental Type

A type of causal relation where a physical state causes a mental state. An example of which is when the burning of the skin causes pain.

Physical-to-Physical Type

A type of causal relation where a physical state causes another physical state. An example of which is when the cutting of the skin causes the skin to bleed.

Mental-to-Mental Type

A type of causal relation where one mental state causes another mental state. An example of which is when a belief causes a desire like when one's belief that it is raining causes one to the desire to bring an umbrella.

Existential Approach

A type of philosophical approach which focuses on the kind of life, or mode of existence that is unique to a human person. It also examines the essential features of the human way of life.

Metaphysical Approach

A type of philosophical approach which focuses on the kind of substance (material) and capacities that uniquely make up a human person

No-Freedom View

A view that accepts the reality and causal powers of mental states. In addition, it accepts all types of causal relation that can possibly exists between the mind and body. However, it rejects the thesis that the causal powers of mental states can be exercised voluntarily. This view believes that the mind's causal powers, like the causal powers of the mechanical systems are governed by "deterministic laws"

No-Causation View

A view that affirms the reality of mental states but rejects the causal powers of these states. This view has an "extreme version", which denies all from of causal relations between mind and body and a "moderate version" which denies only some of these causal relations.

Determinism

A view that all events that happen in the world are caused by previous events or conditions along with the laws of nature.

No-Mind View

A view that resolves the causal mind-body problem by dissolving or rejecting the problem -that there is, to begin with, no mind-body relation to speak of. This view is based on the hypothesis that what we call the "mind" or "mental states" either do not really exist or are not really something that are distinct from the body.

Person's being-alongside

According to Heidegger, it is a view when a person relates to the other person in the mode of "being" with this other person.

Being-alongside other entities

According to Heidegger, it is a view when a person relates with the other person in the mode of 'being-alongside" this other person.

I-You Relation

According to Martin Buber, this relation refers to the other person seen as a subject as a "YOU" (or Thou) It is an interpersonal relation. "You" also means to "to encounter"

I-It Relation

According to Martin Buber, this relation refers to the other person seen as an object as an "It" "It' also means "to experience"

Being-in-itself

According to Sartre, it is a view to see the other person as a non-person or as an object.

Being-for-itself

According to Sartre, it is a view to see the other person as a person or as a subject.

Mental Causation

According to the philosophy of the mind, it is the free will or the power of the mind to freely come up with mental states and processes and to freely CAUSE THE BODY TO PERFORM ACTIONS. A way of the "mind" influencing the "body"

Unspirited Body View

An ideology that a human person is essentially JUST HIS\HER BODY AND NOTHING MORE. This position naturally results from the belief that humans DO NOT HAVE A SPIRITUAL COMPONENT.

Disembodied Spirit View

An ideology that a human person is essentially JUST HIS\HER SPIRIT. This view results from the belief that while the body is dependent on the spirit, THE SPIRIT IS NOT DEPENDENT ON THE BODY. Meaning, the body WILL DIE if there is NO SPIRIT, but the SPIRIT WILL SURVIVE even if there is NO BODY.

Embodied Spirit View

An ideology that a human person is essentially THE UNITY OF THE BODY AND THE SPIRIT. This view results from the belief that the body and the spirit cannot exist INDEPENDENTLY OF ONE ANOTHER. That is, EACH WILL NOT SURVIVE in the ABSENCE of the OTHER. Also, this is the most acceptable reason because it maintains human freedom and it gives importance to the soul.

Behaviorism

Claims that what we call "mental states' can simply refer to one's inclinations or tendencies to show certain behaviors.

Mind-Brain Identity Theory

Claims that what we call the "mind" is nothing but the brain, and what we call "mental states" simply are nothing but the neural states of the brain.

Transcendental Phenomenological Method

Edmund Husserl's idea, it suggests that to get at the essence of something we need to bracket or suspend our judgement or assumptions about it. Also called the "bracketing of presuppositions"

Freedom

Enables us to choose the kind of action that we would like to perform, or to intentionally perform an action.

Intelligence

Enables us to distinguish between the right and wrong actions or between actions that we ought and ought not to do.

Incriminating Condition

Encomprises the two conditions namely the Intentionality Condition and the Knowledge Condition.

Self-Determinism

Freedom is sometimes referred to as ____________________. Free choices, in this sense, are in a way also determined, but not by the things or conditions outsides of the self, but by the self through the power of its will alone.

Martin Heidegger

He described the metaphysical approach as dealing with the "what" of a human person while the existential approach as dealing with the "who" of a human person.

Plato

He developed this two arguments in the disembodied spirit view. 1. Claims that the soul must be immortal otherwise we can never explain the nature of knowledge as 'recollection' (to learn is to remember). 2. Claims that souls are immaterial (non-physical) that they are not composed of parts and if they are not composed of parts, then they cannot decompose and thus cannot die.

Person's being-alongside and Being-alongside other entities

Heidegger's Distinction in Intersubjectivity

Mind

In a human person, it emphasizes its consciousness.

Soul

In a human person, it emphasizes its life-giving function.

Spirit

In a human person, it emphasizes its non-bodily, non-biological, or non-physical nature. In general, a non-bodily component.

Descartes

In the disembodied spirit view, he viewed reality as two different types of substances namely, mind (the non-physical kind) and the matter (the physical kind). Mind is conscious but not extended in space (meaning, not observable or quantifiable), while matter is extended in space but not conscious. He also coined the phrase "I think, therefore I am"

St. Thomas of Aquinas

In the embodied spirit view, he added that the rational soul of the humans has a dual nature. There is a part of it that is dependent on the body, but there is also a part of it that is not dependent on the body. He also believed that while the vegetative and sensitive souls are mortal, the rational souls are immortal. That the soul that survives after the death of the human body is no longer a human person. He also called the human soul as "subsistent" rather than a "substance" to indicate that the human soul, though immortal, is incomplete by nature.

Aristotle

In the embodied spirit view, he regarded the soul as the principle (or cause) of life. Meaning, the soul is what gives life to something. Moreover, the body is the person's matter aspect or "matter" while the soul is his or her formal aspect or "form. Form = Natural capacity, ability and function of something Matter = Kind of material that it is made of He then distinguished, Plants = Vegetative or Nutritive Soul, enables to perform activities necessary for nourishment, growth and reproduction. Animals = Sensitive Soul, enables to perform that of vegetative plus sensation and locomotion Man = Rational Soul, enables abilities that of animals plus rational thinking. He does not believe in immortality.

Dualism

In the philosophy of the mind, this view believes that the spirit (called "soul" by Plato but "mind" by Descartes) and the body are two different kinds of entities or substances in that the body is physical while the spirit (soul or mind) is non-physical.

Aggravating

Increases the degree of accountability

Parallelism

It represents the "extreme version" in the No-Causation view by Leibniz, which gives up the very idea that there is a causal relationship between mental events and physical events in the body. According to this view, mental events and the physical events of the body are parallel events that have no point of contact; and their seeming causal interaction is simple a result of the "pre-established harmony" that governs the universe and which was established by God in his design of the world.

Epiphenomenalism

It represents the "moderate version" in the No-Causation view which claims that mental states are mere by-products (or indirect effects) of the physical states or processes of the body, which do not have any causal powers. This also means that mental states arise from, not directly caused by, the physical processes of the body; and mental states do not, directly or indirectly, causally influence the physical states of the body. It affirms the physical-to-physical and physical-to-mental types of causation but rejects mental-to-physical and mental-to-mental causation.

Computational Theory of the Mind or Computationalism

It represents the No-freedom view which states that the mind as a kind of computer program or software that the hardware of the brain implements.

Mitigating

Lessens the degree of accountability

I-You and I-It Relation

Martin Buber's (1958) Theory

Two approaches to the philosophical study of the human person.

Metaphysical Approach and Existential Approach

Inter-subjective Relations

Occurs in the various forms of human relations such as those between friends, parents, and children, teachers and students, colleagues in a workplace, siblings, employers and employees, members of an academic institution.

Physical Causation

One physical event causing another physical event.

Free Will

Refers to our mental ability to make choices and do actions to carry out these choices

Responsibility as accountability

Refers to someone is responsible for some event, then he or she is worthy of blame or praise for that event.

Responsibility as agency

Refers to the sense of "responsibility" in which being responsible means being the cause of something or being the one that brings out something. Causes can either be human or non-humans. As we can say that the criminal was responsible for (or the cause of) the death of the innocent bystander; we can also say that the strong wind was responsible for (or the cause of) the broken glass window.

Responsibility as duty

Refers to the sense of responsibility in which being responsible means holding certain duties or obligations. Example of this is the relationship of parents to their children. It can be related to "Responsibility as Accountability" because performing and failing to perform one's duties are themselves actions for which one can deserve blame or praise.

Being-in-itself and Being-for-itself

Sartre's View in Intersubjectivity

Subsistent

St, Thomas of Aquinas called the human soul as _____________________ rather than a "substance"

Excusing Condition

The absence of the two incriminating conditions which are the knowledge condition and the intentionality condition. The absence of the intentionality condition means that the action under consideration is not done intentionally. while the absence of knowledge condition means that the action is done out of ignorance.

Interactionism

The common-sense view on the causal mind-body relation. It is also regarded as the DEFAULT POSITION on this problem. This view affirms the four types of causal relation at work between the mind and the body. Causal Powers of the Body being governed by natural laws are deterministic Causal Powers of the Mind not being governed by natural laws are voluntary or free. Therefore: Physical-to-Mental and Physical-to-Physical Type (Where body exercises its causal powers) are deterministic Mental-to Mental and Mental-to-Physical Type (Where mind exercises its causal powers) are not deterministic

Accountability

The deservingness of blame or praise (punishment or reward) for the actions that we do.

Degree of Difficulty or Pressure, Intensity of the Injury, Degree of One's Involvement and Degree of one's knowledge of the wrongfulness of an action and relevant facts

The four degrees in Accountability

Mental-to-Mental Type, Mental-to-Physical Type, Physical-to-Mental Type and Physical-to-Physical Type

The four types of causal relation at work between the mind and the body.

Mind-Body Problem

The issue of explaining the possibility of mental causation, of how it is possible for the mind to causally influence the body in a way not governed by natural laws.

1. Mental states are real in that they have an identity distinct from bodily states 2. Mental states and bodily states causally influence one another 3. The causal powers of the mind are voluntary or non-deterministic

The three fundamental theses that constitutes the position of interactionism.

Hard Determinism, Libertarianism, and Compatibilism or Soft Determinism

The three main philosophical positions on the possibility of human freedom.

No-Mind View, No-Causation View and No-Freedom View

The three solutions or views that deviate from interactionism in varying degrees.

Intentionality Condition and the Knowledge Condition

The two conditions in the attribution of moral accountability to a person for an action. Usually inferred to as the two types of "INCRIMINATING CONDITIONS"

Moral Recipients

They are entities that are targets of the moral duties and holds moral rights. Both humans and non-humans are included in this category because they are not "rational and free" examples of these are animals and humans whose capacity for rationality and freedom has severely and irreversibly damaged.

Moral Agents

They are entities who hold certain moral duties. Also bearers of Moral rights. Humans are an example of this because they are "rational and free".

Unspirited Body View, Disembodied Body View and Embodied Spirit View

Three possible answers or ideologies about the possibilities that humans have a spiritual component or what essentially makes up a human person, or which component, the body or the spirit, essentially defines a person.

Responsibility as accountability, Responsibility as agency, and Responsibility as duty

Three types of responsibility

Informed Consent and Voluntary Consent

Two kinds of consent that when it is given freely and it is informed when it is also given with the knowledge of relevant facts

Irresponsible Ignorance and Real Ignorance

Two kinds of ignorance

Ontological Mind-Body Problem and Causal Mind-Body Problem

Two kinds of mind-body problem

Aristotle and St. Thomas Aquinas

Two strong believers of the Embodied Spirit View.

Plato and Renee Descartes

Two strong supporters of the Disembodied Spirit View and believes in the immortality of the spirit.

Legal and Moral Accountability

Two types of Accountability

Person as ends

When a person is treated towards our happiness. It is because we satisfy our moral duty to ourselves -the perfection of our rational nature -which makes us deserving or worthy of happiness.

Person as means

When a person is treated towards their happiness,

Agents

When we speak of human causes of certain actions according to philosophers