Philosophy Exam

3. Identify at least two common (formal or informal) fallacies (25-31). Construct your own example of each.

Argument from ignorance in an informal fallacy. EX: Aliens are real: not proven false, therefore true. Begging the question is another informal fallacy. EX: The beach is the best place to live, because it is better than the mountains.

Compatibilist believe that people have the ability to do what they want to do and that the action performed was what the person wanted to do.

I support the compatibilist view that a person can choose what they do using their free will.

How does Immanuel Kant's epistemological distinction between phenomena and noumena challenge traditional and contemporary metaphysics? How might one respond to Kant's challenge? (147-50)

Kant states that there are both two distinctives about the world; the world as it is and the world as it is experienced. Kant's distinction between the noumenal and the phenomenal is self-defeating in and of itself. If what he says is true, we cannot have knowledge of the spaceless and timeless and metaphysics is dead.

Provide both the libertarian and compatibilist definitions for 'free will'. Which definition do you support, and why? (226-40)

Libertarians believe that human beings have the ability to make a free choice to do some action, but could have done another action instead using their ability to do otherwise.

(a) What is a 'noseeum inference'? (b) How does it relate to the problem of evil? (c) Do you think it can be used persuasively to suggest God's non-existence? (d) Why or why not? (298-301)

Noseeum inference is the idea that if you cannot see something then it probably doesn't exist. The noseeum inference relates to evil by if we cannot see a reason for evil, then there is most likely not a reason. I do believe that this theory could be used to persuade someone that since you cannot see God, He probably doesn't exist. Sometimes that can be the hardest part about faith is believing something you cannot physically see.

One strength within this argument is that if the universe had no beginning then an infinite number of events would have to happen before now. However, it is impossible that an infinite number of events happened before now.

One weakness within this argument is that if one doesn't believe in the existence of God, one would not believe the third stage within the Kalam cosmological argument.

What is the difference between moral and legal rights? (379-80)

A moral right is something all people have no matter where and when they live. The right to life is an example of a moral right. A legal right is something you only have by virtue of the legal jurisdiction that you're under. The right to vote or to bear arms is an example of a legal right.

Outline subjectivism as a branch of ethical relativism, and point out one or two key weaknesses (330-32).

Another branch of ethical relativism is Subjectivism. Subjectivism states that moral values are relative to individuals, not groups. However, if this is true then there is no real accountability for ones actions. For example, One individual may believe that murder is okay and then kills someone. If morals were only based on individuals then no one could rightfully stop or persecute that individual because it was based solely on his own moral understanding.

8. In one or two (short) sentences, identify core components of (a) classical foundationalism, (b) modest foundationalism, (c) coherentism, and (d) contextualism. (82-96)

Classical foundationalism states that properly basic beliefs must be self evident, incorrigible, or evident to the senses. Modest foundationalism isn't limited to the three ideas from classical foundationalism. Coherentism states that every belief is justified with another justified belief. Contextualism is where justification is relative to a specific context.

12. Outline the circularity of David Hume's argument against the possibility of miracles based upon the inviolability of the laws of nature.

David Hume argues that the probability of a miracle has to be less than the chance of the reason to believe a miracle could happen. You should think of a natural causation for the cause and not immediately assume that it is in fact a miracle.

Provide at least one argument both in favor of and against anarchism (political theory). (384-86)

One argument in favor of anarchism is a voluntary anarchy. An example of this would be for all people to agree for no government system. Another argument against anarchism is a chaotic anarchy; this would mean Civil War.

1. Your text suggests that philosophy inevitably involves asking and seeking answers to 'the big questions of life'. (a) Identify at least two 'big questions'. (b) Suggest one or two reasons why some people might choose not to ask/seek answers to those two questions.

A. Two of life's big questions are "Where did we come from?" and "Are we responsible for how we live?" B. There is a lot of skepticism and multiple theories from our origin and the creation of the world. It can be hard to depict which is really true when there are so many uncertainties being thrown at you, creating more difficulty when trying to answer the big question of where we come from. People might also avoid the big question "Are we responsible for how we live?" because they don't want to own up to their actions and face the consequences.

LONG ANSWER 9. Reflect on the balance between aesthetic objectivism (the belief that there are objective standards something must adhere to in order to be considered 'art' or 'good art'), and aesthetic subjectivism (the belief that different works of art impact different people in different ways) (431-37).

Aesthetic objectivism is the belief that in order for something to be considered art, it must align with certain standards. Aesthetic subjectivism is the belief that art is relatively different for every individual. Certain art is seen and affected in different ways by different people. In some ways, Aesthetic subjectivism can look a lot like moral subjectivism. Moral subjectivism suggests that right and wrong are determined individually. Just like in moral subjectivism, aesthetic subjectivism suggests that beauty and art are determined individually. Within Aesthetic objectivism and subjectivism, there is an obvious correlation that can become negative and/or positive. In one way, they might seem to contradict each other. Cowan and Spiegel touch on individual aesthetic judgements. They state that, "The fact that people's aesthetic judgements sometimes conflict does not imply that there is no objective aesthetic truth..." For example, two people see a painting ( i.e. The Rape of Europa) and both agree that it is in fact art that includes an artistic process with moral implications. One person says that it is not a good piece of art because the ethical implication behind it is not morally right. However, the other person disagrees and sees the piece as a good work of art based on its aesthetic pleasure. Just because their own personal aesthetic judgements disagree, does not mean that this painting is not objectively a work of art with moral implications.

Of the three historical theistic proofs (Anselm's ontological, Aquinas's cosmological, Paley's teleological), outline one such proof, and highlight one strength and one weakness of that argument. (259-63)

Anselm's ontology is one of the three historical theistic proofs. Anselm argued that the mere idea of God proves the existence of God. God is considered the greatest conceivable being and Anselm believed that everyone has or is at least able to have an idea of the GCB. He was convinced that as soon as we understand the idea of the GCB, we know that he exists because it is greater for something to exist in reality than simply as an idea in our minds. So the GCB, or God, must exist in reality instead of just our minds.

Cowan & Spiegel outline several definitions of 'art'. Identify two suggested definitions, and indicate at least one strength and at least one weakness of each definition. (420-23)

Cowan and Spiegel define art as a product of the artistic process. This definition can be considered a good definition because it sets a good standard for the 'art' that is made through a long and sometimes difficult artistic process and those things that don't require any kind of artistic process. However, there is no specific definition or standard of the artistic process. Therefore, one can't actually know if something should be art considering the process it took to create it isn't really defined. Cowan and Spiegel also define art as whatever brings aesthetic pleasure to whoever experiences the object in question. However, one problem within this definition is that something can provide that same pleasure that wouldn't align with any other definition of art, like working on a car for example. This definition is a good standard for undeniable excellent works of art that undoubtedly provide some kind of pleasure, such as Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel ceiling painting. Therefore making it easy to define great works as art.

LONG ANSWER 7. Of the five naturalistic theories (ethical egoism, utilitarianism, rule utilitarianism, Kantian ethics, virtue ethics) of moral objectivism (337-57), choose two: (a) identify a philosophical proponent (supporter) of the moral theory; (b) outline the key points within the theory; and (c) identify one or two weaknesses in the position.

Ethical egoism is a naturalist theory that states a person should only act according to their own personal benefit. A prominent supporter for this theory is Ayn Rand. Rand claims that human life is the sole standard for value. He suggests that the standard for all ethics should be based on whatever humans can do to survive in this world. He also believes that nothing improves the human race more than individual competition. One strength within this theory is that it is relatively simple and easy to understand. Working for one's own self interest and survival is considerably natural for most human kind. Some believers of this theory believe that people always pursue what benefits themselves. One weakness within this theory is that self interests can oppose others. What one person may see as individually beneficial could be the exact opposite for someone else. Utilitarianism is another naturalistic theory. This theory is affirmed by Jeremy Bentham. Utilitarianism suggests that principle which approves or disapproves of every action whatsoever, according to the tendency which has to diminish the happiness of the party whose interest is in question.This theory of ethics and morality is based on pleasure and pain; the more pleasure, the better it is morally. Intensity, duration, certainty, purity, extent, and a few other things are what are used to measure pain and pleasure. One weakness within Utilitarianism is that it does not provide an appropriate account of the justice system.

Outline cultural relativism (conventionalism) as a branch of ethical relativism, and point out one or two key weaknesses (325-29).

Ethical relativism is the idea there are no true universal moral values. Within that is cultural relativism which states that the morals and values reflect the attitudes dominant within each specific society. One weakness within this branch of ethical relativism is that what could be considered good or morally right within one society could be condemned or frowned upon in another society. For example, some cultures practice polygamy and see having more than one wife at a time as okay or even as a representation of high status. However, not every society or culture agrees with that action.

Cowan & Spiegel outline several variations of physicalist accounts of human beings (205-12). Choose either functionalism or eliminative materialism: (a) identify a philosophical proponent (supporter) of the position; (b) give one or two arguments in favor of the position; (c) identify one or two arguments against the position; and (d) briefly deliver your verdict on the position.

Functionalism states that mental states are reducible to the functional operations of the brain and the casual roles these play in the larger human system. Relating that thoughts all lead back to the physical body. This theory gives a strong basis that the brain is essentially like a computer program. Physicalists hope that this will one day lead to finding personal immortality. However, a problem with this theory is that it does not sufficiently account for the qualitative facts of mental life. For example, qualia like colors and smells. I agree with this argument against functionalism and that it does not fully encompass the important aspects of the mind.

How does Hobbes' conception of social contract differ from Locke's conception of social contract? Which perspective (Hobbes or Locke) is reflected in the US Constitution and form of government? (390-94)

Hobbes concept of a social contract is an absolutism theory. Hobbes wanted to avoid a state of nature; laying down natural rights for security while affirming the sovereignty of the throne and will of the people. Hobbes argued that a social contract is necessary. Locke's concept of a social contract is modern liberalism. Locke appeals for curbing power of government using individual rights. He also starts with a state of nature that everyone has access to. Locke also implements majority rule even if the majority is to dissolve the government. The US Constitution and form of government is a reflection of Hobbes concept of a social contract.

This theistic proof comes with a weakness that comes from a monk Gaunilo. He stated that if this argument is true then it could prove the existence of anything at all.

However, Anselm's argument seems to be 'airtight'. Anselm argued that to deny the existence of the GCB is contradictory. To think of the greatest conceivable being only in the mind contradicts God being the greatest conceivable being. So therefore, he must exist to be the GCB.

Outline the contours and points of Cowan & Spiegel's 'Complete Ethical Theory' (368-70).

In order for Cowna and Spiegel to create a 'COmplete Ethical Theory'. They must include pieces from multiple things such as moral objectivism, natural law theory, and divine command theory. Some of these include acknowledging universally right or wrong things, criticizing other cultures when their own morals don't match up with your own universal morals, and the fact that our moral judgments have truth and value. Cowan and Spiegel also acknowledge actions and rightful consequences, moral obligations, and the fact that human character is crucial to morality. It is also just as important to acknowledge the part theistic metaphysics takes place within a Complete Ethical theory. This includes seeing the communication between Gods and his creations through nature and the rest of His creation, the importance God has placed on human life, and the morality he has instilled into the world.

LONG ANSWER 1. Reflect on the nature of truth (C&S, 33-35). Is truth inevitably objective (absolute)? Or can truth be relative (subjective)? Give arguments to support your position.

In today's society, truth can be found in all areas of life. Nowadays, if you are seeking truth, you can find it in society, religion, or even one's own personal beliefs. There is an ongoing debate on what is really true. Some believe it to be absolute, or others believe it is relative. I believe that there is not one simple answer to the question of what truth really is. The Bible provides us with a God-sent biblical foundation of truth. Although the Bible does not mention everything for current times, one must use the foundation it gives to navigate their life. However, if someone does not believe that the bible is true, then the standard that it gives is false to that person. I believe that there are some truths that are absolute. However, some might try to bend those to their own belief. For example, the Bible states that murder is wrong in Exodus and also explains that God is the one to execute judgment on all things. Nonetheless, some Christians still believe that sentencing someone to death and allowing that to happen at the hands of a human, is okay and right. In doing this, they are trying to bend what they believe to be an absolute truth (that is from the Bible). Some truths can also be situational and can change. Something can be true one day, but not the next. For example, one day it is true that red is my favorite color. However, the next day I wake up and see a blue that becomes my favorite color. Therefore, it is not true that red is my favorite color. What one believes to be true is subjective to their own worldview. I believe that God is real and what the Bible says is true. However, there are people in this world who do not believe it is true. This is where faith comes into play. No one will ever really know what is really true until they die and meet their maker, or whatever has created them. However, I have faith that what I believe is true. ****look at graded notes from prof****

10. Of the two versions of scientific realism (inductivism, falsificationism), choose one to outline, describe, and evaluate. (107-17)

Inductivism is one version of scientific realism that begins by observing and gathering data from the world. You can form a hypothesis from the generalizations that you make based on the information that you gather. then you would use experiments to test your hypothesis and continue collecting data. This is a good way to test if your theory is accurate by conducting many experiments.

11. Of the three versions of scientific non-realism (instrumentalism, Kuhnian paradigms, anarchism), choose one to outline, describe, and evaluate. (117-24)

Instrumentalism is a justifying belief in the truth of scientific theories and focusing on practicality. Scientific theories are used by predicting and explaining phenomena in order to solve problems.

LONG ANSWER 3. List the necessary presuppositions of science (105-06). Unpack two of them - describe the presupposition, show why it is necessary to presume it in order to practice science, and demonstrate why it cannot be established by science itself.

Laws of thought, the general liability of sense-perception, the law of casualty, the uniformity of nature and values are all necessary presuppositions of science. The three laws of thought are: the law of identity, the law of the excluded middle, and the law of noncontradiction. However, these laws cannot be scientifically proven. All thinking and acting presupposes these laws. These laws cannot be proven because if they were true every argument would have to use them. Science states that one cannot have an opinion on things. Instead, they must tell it how it is with no representation of what you personally believe. In-place giving an accurate explanation of what science states. This is considered to be a rule of science; however some scientists still stick to their own values. Some of these values can be social, political, aesthetic, and moral values of science. Social values can contain specific topics that have relevance in society. This can also be political values. Aesthetic value is based on personal preference. Values like complete honesty would be under morality. These presuppositions are actually all philosophical in nature: therefore, science is reliant on philosophy.

2LONG ANSWER 8. When it comes to distributive justice, do you prefer libertarianism, socialism, or welfare liberalism? What distinguishes the three approaches? Why do you favor the approach that you do? (396-403)

Libertarianism is the view that the government should not intrude on the personal lives of citizens. It creates a space for free will as long as it does not interfere or harm with another person. Cowan and Spiegel explain it as "the right to swing my arms stops at the end of your nose." Within the sections of libertarianism one is free to act however they want whenever they want. It seems as though libertarianism creates a free society where individual choice matters and is upheld. However, libertarianism could result in extreme disparities between the wealthy and the poor. Socialism states that there should be no private property in that all resources in such a society should be held in common, almost the complete opposite of libertarianism. Socialism promotes Equality, while libertarianism promotes freedom. Welfare liberalism is The middle ground there's a range of positions that may qualify for the justice of wealth distribution in society. It would limit human freedom. Isidewith welfare liberalism because there should be a good balance between freedom and equality

Evaluate logical positivism as both a philosophical system and a potential challenge to metaphysical thought (150-52).

Logical positivism holds that only propositions that could be empirically verified would count as meaningful. However, in metaphysics some propositions do not follow that principle and the verification principle is self-defeating and false.

14. What is methodological naturalism? Is it a suitable governing paradigm for science (132-36)?

Methodological naturalism states that science should be practiced without any reference to the supernatural realm that does exist. It is a suitable governing paradigm

2. Identify at least two common forms of valid deductive argument (21-25). For one valid deductive argument form, construct two examples of the argument form, one of which is sound, the other of which is unsound. Explain why one is sound and the other unsound.

Modus ponens & modus tollens are both common forms of a valid deductive argument. An example of Modus Ponens is: If sunlight is food for plants, then the sun helps them grow. Sunlight is food for plants.Therefore, the sun helps plants grow. This example is sound because all premises are true. Sunlight is photosynthesized into food for a plant. A plant needs food for growth. Another example is: If the stunt falls, then the cheer team loses the game. The stunt falls. Therefore, the team loses the game. This example is unsound. A cheer team can still win even if one stunt falls. The other team may have had more than one stunt fall, causing them to lose even more points. Therefore, allowing the first team to still win.

How do Near-Death Experiences (NDEs) purportedly provide evidence for both body-soul dualism and life after death? (244-48)

NDEs in out-of-body experiences and brain death experiences both provide evidence for body-soul dualism and life after death. It supports the idea that consciousness does still happen when the brain is physically dead. Therefore, the mind is not fully reliant on the physicality of the brain.

For either natural law ethics (359-61) or divine command theory (361-65), (a) outline the non-naturalistic ethical theory, and (b) suggest a primary strength of the theory as well as (c) a potential weakness of the theory.

Natural law ethics states that an action that has both good and evil consequences may be performed only if the evil consequence is not directly intended. The evil consequence is not the means of producing the good effect. One weakness within this theory is that you would not be able to lie even if it was for a greater good, like saving someone's life. One strength within this theory is that it sets a good foundation for moral understanding for good and evil.

What is the difference between negative and positive rights? (379-80)

Negative rights is something no one gives you, people just can't interfere with it. Free speech is a negative right. A positive right is something that another person must provide. The right to education is a positive right.

LONG ANSWER 5.Outline at least two arguments in favor of body-soul dualism. Evaluate the potential strength and persuasiveness of those arguments. (201-05)

One argument for body-soul dualism is the argument from subjectivity. This argument explains that no one can truly understand what it is like to be in someone's shoes and go through their life and experiences. If the body and brain were purely physical, this would not be true. The mind must be something other than physical. Another argument is the argument from qualia. Phenomenal qualities that are based on the senses are labeled qualia. Including tastes, smells, colors, and feelings. These experiences cannot be accounted for with the physicalist view. The brain cannot have a full understanding of what it is like to have a perceptual experience of qualia. The argument of subjectivity is a strong and persuasive argument. The argument of qualia is still strong, just not as strong. The argument of subjectivity is easy to understand and to personally experience.

Choose one of God's attributes (omnipotence, atemporality, omniscience, emotion). Outline at least three different positions philosophers and theologians take in addressing that attribute. (279-94)

One of God's divine attributes is Omniscience, which means that God is all knowing. Libertarians believe in an open theist solution. Open theists suggest that God does not have foreknowledge of future human actions. God cannot have foreknowledge of a creature with free will; however, he could make reasonable predictions.William of Ockham created an approach to God's omniscience called Ockhamism. This approach suggests that God sees and knows the future even of free will creatures. Therefore, He acquires true beliefs about those actions and events and does not interfere with human's free will. Another popular theory within Libertarians' view of God's omniscience is the Molinist solution, or Molinism. Molinists believe that God has a middle knowledge. This means that God knows the truth values of counterfactuals of freedom, conditional statements concerning what someone with free will would do in a hypothetical situation.

Nicholas Wolterstorff identifies five purposes of artistic world projection that Christian artists should embrace and focus upon. Identify (at least) two of Wolterstorff's purposes, and suggest why they matter. (428-29)

One of Wolterstorff's purposes of artistic world projection that Christian artists should embrace and focus upon is that worlds in artworks serve a confirmatory function. This means that it can provide a representation of truths about the world. It is an important aspect of art that can be used to show the world for how it is and can be used as a platform for showing how the world is under a Christian worldview. Another purpose Wolsterstoff identifies is that art can illuminate the world. Artists can use their art as a platform to show new perspectives and insights into the world that others may not know about or see. It is important to look beyond your own bubble and worldview in order to see the world and spread the truth and work to understand how other people see the world.

5. Of the three major theories of truth (correspondence, coherentism, and pragmatism), which one do you embrace? Briefly outline that perspective of truth, and explain why you prefer it to the others (36-43).

Out of the three major theories of truth, I prefer correspondence. The theory of correspondence states that if a proposition is true if and only if it corresponds to the way things actually are. The other two theories align mostly with relativism and truth as a social and individual construct only. In my opinion, correspondence is the most reliable and plausible theory of truth.

Which of the three traditional perspectives on the relationship between art and ethics (aestheticism, moralism, ethicism) do you embrace? Why? (437-40)

Out of the three traditional perspectives on the relationship between art and ethics, I embrace ethicism. Ethicism is the middle ground between the two extremes of aestheticism and moralism. I embrace ethicism because I believe there is a connection between aesthetics and morals. I don't believe that you have to have one or the other, or that you have to have both in order to have a successful or pleasing work of art. Berys Gaut said "positive moral qualities are neither necessary nor sufficient conditions for aesthetic excellence." Art can be excellent without the presence of morals, like many great pieces of abstract art like Jackson Pollocks 'Blue Poles'. Even without considering abstract pieces, I believe some pieces of art don't have ethical implications. Art can be excellent with the presence of morals, like Leonardo's 'The Last Supper'. It is not an either/or, black and white kind of relationship.

3. Briefly outline your personal statement of what philosophy is, and why philosophy matters.

Philosophy is the study of how the world works. It studies and shapes how one views the world and the way the world is within other people's perspective (including theology, science, religion, truth, etc). It is important to have a firm foundation for any and every area of life. Philosophy helps cu

6. Briefly explain the primary distinctions between rationalism and empiricism concerning knowledge (52-59). Identify at least two philosophers belonging to each school.

Rationalism is the view that all knowledge ultimately comes through reason. Empiricism on the other hand views that all knowledge stems from experiences. René Descartes and Plato are known philosophers that align with rationalism. John Locke was a modern empiricist, along with David Hume.

What is prescriptive religious pluralism? Identify at least one argument in favor of religious pluralism, and outline at least one argument against religious pluralism. (304-07)

Religious pluralism is the idea that multiple religions are adequate to bring salvation to their followers. Like the statement "All religions lead to the same place." One argument in favor of religious pluralism is the argument from religious diversity. There are so many followers for many different major religions. If only one religion is exclusively true, many people will be excluded from that religion's divine paradise, like Heaven for example. One argument against religious pluralism comes from the unity of teaching argument. Some religious pluralists believe that all major religions teach essentially the same things; to love others and be a good person and work to gain God's favor. However, some religions contradict other religions and don't actually teach the same things. For example, the path to salvation varies between religions such as Christianity and Buddhism.

9. Provide a tentative definition of science (your own or one of the textbook's). Highlight (at least) one strength and weakness of the definition. (103-05)

Science is the study of inquiry, experiments, and study of the physical and natural world. A weakness of this definition is that science is more than just physical palpable things. It can also be about something that we may not know to be real, like time travel. A strength of this definition is that inquiry and experiments are a big and important part of science.

Outline the 'Logical' version of the problem of evil, and demonstrate why it is not a significant challenge to theistic belief. (295-98)

Some philosophers argue that the existence of any evil rules out the existence of God. The two statements "God exists" and "evil exists" contradict each other. The logical problem of evil considers God's character, such as omnipotence, omniscience, and omnibenevolence. God's character overall would suggest preventing any evil. Thus concluding that if God exists then evil would not. However, an argument against this logic is that God is morally justified in allowing some evil to happen because of a greater outcome he knows and plans for.

4. Outline the difference between objectivism, subjectivism and conventionalism regarding truth (33-34).

Subjectivism states that truth is whatever a person prefers it to be. Conventionalism is where truth is determined by culture and not the individual. Objectivism is where truth is true whether you believe it is or not. Subjectivism makes truth an individual construct, conventionalism makes truth a social construct, and objectivism is the opposite and makes truth to be what it is, true.

Outline the two major views on the relationship between law and morality (381-84). Which one do you think is more defensible?

The Natural Law Theory suggests that some moral laws are universally binding and serve as a foundation for legal standards. Legal positivism states that there is nothing Universal about law.

Outline the nominalist perspective on the existence of universals. Identify at least one pro and con of nominalism. (176-82)

The Nominalist perspective holds that there are no universals. One con of the nominalist perspective is that it only accepts the existence of particulars. A pro with this belief is that the nominalist can face phenomena without assuming universals to be a true thing. It also focuses on simplicity with its beliefs.

Outline the Platonist perspective on the existence of universals. Identify at least one pro and con of Platonism. (173-76)

The Platonist perspective states that universals are eternal, abstract entities that can be held by more than one thing at a time. One pro of Platonism is that it provides a direct answer to the 'one and the many' problem. A con with Platonism is that universals do not necessarily have an end or beginning and exist in every possible world we have.

Highlight the primary distinction(s) between bundle theory and the substance view with regard to particular things. (186-95)

The bundle theory states that particulars are collections of properties, only the sum of properties and nothing more. The substance view states that particulars are defined by reducing them to their constituent parts and only taking them as fundamental entities.

Cowan and Spiegel identify four 'aesthetic virtues' that Christian artists should emulate. List the four virtues, and briefly explain one of them. (435-36)

The four virtues that Christian artists should emulate are marks of excellence, veracity, boldness, and excellent perception. Boldness is a willingness to take risks, challenge conventional ways, and explore new ground. It is important for an artist to exhibit boldness while also having a good sense of direction and boundaries.

Of the two contemporary theistic arguments (fine-tuning, kalam cosmological), outline one such proof, and highlight one strength and one weakness of that argument. (264-73)

The kalam cosmological argument is one of the two theistic arguments. This argument has three stages. The universe had a beginning, the beginning of the universe was caused, God caused the beginning of the universe.

1. List the three fundamental laws of thought (18-19). Unpack one of them - describe what it means, why it is important, and why it is unavoidable in human thought.

The law of noncontradiction, the law of the excluded middle, and the law of identity are the three fundamental laws of thought. The law of the excluded middle states that every proposition must be either true or false. This law is important and helpful when trying to differentiate between what is true or false. It clears up the question that there might be a third option or a middle ground between true and false. It is unavoidable because it is part of the foundation for all other logical principles.

13. What is the problem of induction? How do Cowan & Spiegel suggest it can best be solved? Why? (130-32)

The problem of induction is " how do you support the reasoning?" To solve this problem, we must realize that God is always in control. The regularities created in nature are evidence to the existence of a higher power.

LONG ANSWER 2. Identify and evaluate the three-step skeptical argument (51); particularly assess the skeptic's insistence upon certainty in knowledge (60-63)

The skeptical argument has three steps. They are: if there is a skeptical hypothesis for some belief (P) of mine, then I do not know P. Next, there is a skeptical hypothesis for P. Therefore, I do not know P. These steps explain that if there is anything we do not know, then it is false. Skepticism is the belief that we do not have knowledge and that what we do know is limited. A skeptic insists on being fully certain of what is true and what is not true. They also believe that full certainty is not really possible. So no one can really claim they have true knowledge. However, if you do not have to have certainty for knowledge, a skeptic could align with that because there is always a chance it's right.

LONG ANSWER 4. Of the three major metaphysical theories (dualism, materialism, idealism) concerning the 'nature of the world' (152-71), which do you think is the most accurate. Why? Be sure to outline each of the three theories in your response before defending one of them.

There are three major metaphysical theories concerning the 'nature of the world'. Materialism holds the view that the world is only physical and there is no possible reality that is not on the physical, natural plane. Idealism is the view that reality is actually just a construct within our minds and not really physical. Dualism is the combination of those two theories and holds the world is made up of both physical and spiritual realms. I believe Dualism is the most accurate. It supports the existence of two very important things I believe in, a physical nature that is surrounded by a spiritual realm both created by a spiritual higher being. In the Bible, it states that God created the earth and all its properties, attributes, and creatures. It also affirms the spiritual realm by recognizing the angels, after life, and even the Holy Spirit (⅓ of the Holy trinity). Dualism does not directly deny any major foundations of the natural world. It also supports a lot of evidence for both realms, that is seen throughout the world.

7. Outline the components of the traditional (JTB) account of knowledge (65-72). How do Gettier-type counter-examples challenge the JTB account? Do you think such challenges are successful or not? Why or why not?

Traditional knowledge is justified true belief. Gettier's knowledge states that you can have a justified true belief and still not have knowledge. If Gettier-type counter-examples are true then knowledge cannot be justified true belief; therefore, debunking the JTB account. I do not think these are successful because a justified true belief is a good and solid standard for knowledge.

2. Cowan and Spiegel highlight eight important aspects of philosophical method, five of which are evidenced in the life of Socrates, three of which are drawn from elsewhere. (2-7) Identify at least two of those aspects, and suggest why they are indeed important for the philosopher to practice.

Two very important aspects of philosophical methods are to define terms and to have teachability. Defining terms is important because there are a lot of big words and it is important to know and understand the dialogue and lingo that one is studying and using. It is important to understand so that you can use terms the right and most effective way. It is always important to be humble with your own knowledge and recognize that you always have more to learn. Which is why teachability is an important aspect of philosophy. A philosopher should be teachable and humble. No one knows everything; therefore, you can always learn something.