Philosophy final exam

31. (A HINT: If in doubt, google it.) The Roman Catholic church officially asserted that * a) the theory of evolution is a well-supported scientific theory and it is compatible with the existence of God; b) the theory of evolution has no scientific support at all but it is compatible with the existence of God; c) the theory of evolution has no scientific support and it is incompatible with the existence of God; d) none of the above.

* a) the theory of evolution is a well-supported scientific theory and it is compatible with the existence of God;

32. (A HINT: If in doubt, read Hick's essay "Is Christianity the only true religion, or one among others?", posted on Hick's website! And, generally, read John Hick! Also, feel free to use web resources.) According to ______, non-Christians can reach salvation (because God is all good and merciful): a) John Hick; b) Roman Catholic Church; * c) both a) and b); d) none of the above.

* c) both a) and b);

3. To say that "God is omniscient" implies that a) God knows every truth (with the possible exception for future facts involving free agents exercising free will); b) God never does anything wrong and always chooses to do what is best; c) God is a necessary being; d) God has maximal powers (in particular, God can do things that are logically and conceptually possible and which are consistent with God's nature); e) all of the above.

a) God knows every truth (with the possible exception for future facts involving free agents exercising free will);

1) According to Descartes, the following are the first certainties (for me): a) I exist, whenever I think so; b) there are chairs, mountains, animals, and so on; c) God exists; d) all of the above; e) none of the above.

a) I exist, whenever I think so;

7. The following philosophers(s) believe(s) that God can do absolutely everything (including thigs that violating rules of logic); e.g., God can construe a valid argument which is such that its conclusion does not follow from the premises: a) Rene Descartes; b) the greatest Christian philosopher and theologian St. Thomas Aquinas; c) John Hick; d) Stefan; e) a) and b); f) a), b), and c); g) all of the above; e) none of the above.

a) Rene Descartes;

12) Consider such statements as "Stef drives a Mitsubishi" and "Usually, Stef eats bananas for breakfast". They are justified for most people in this class because a) Stef said so and there is no reason to think he lied about it; b) as a matter of fact, they describe reality correctly; it corresponds to facts); c) both a) and b); d) none of the above.

a) Stef said so and there is no reason to think he lied about it;

11) If some statement is justified for Susan, then a) Susan has epistemic reasons (evidence) supporting this statement; b) Susan's friends have evidence supporting this statement; c) this statement is in fact true; d) all of the above; e) none of the above.

a) Susan has epistemic reasons (evidence) supporting this statement;

1) The term "philosophy" has Greek origins. In ancient times it meant something like a) a love of wisdom; b) a love of knowledge; c) a love of having certain skills; d) all of the above; e) none of the above.

a) a love of wisdom;

8. According to the traditional theism, God is a) a necessary being (the being that has always existed and cannot cease to exist); b) a contingent being (God can cease to exist); c) an impossible being (there cannot be God); d) none of the above.

a) a necessary being (the being that has always existed and cannot cease to exist);

21. Consider the following valid argument: 1) Everything in the universe is a natural thing, a result of some natural process. 2) If (1) is true, then God does not exist. Therefore, 3) God does not exist. Suppose that someone replies to this argument as follows: I agree that (1) is true; after all I am a scientist and, in particular, an evolutionary biologist. But I also believe that (1) is true because God created the universe as consisting of natural things governed by natural processes. Still, God is not the same thing as the universe. So, (2) is false. So, this argument is unsound. In other words, I believe that God exists. Most likely, such a person is a) a traditional monotheist (or, perhaps, a deist); b) polytheist; c) pantheist; d) all of the above; e) none of the above

a) a traditional monotheist (or, perhaps, a deist);

12. According to the traditional (Western and Middle-Eastern) theism God is a) all-good, all-knowing, all-powerful, the creator of the world constantly active in it; b) God is identical with the world; c) there are many gods; d) all of the above; e) none of the above.

a) all-good, all-knowing, all-powerful, the creator of the world constantly active in it;

26. Pascal's Wager is a) an attempt to give a practical (prudential) reason to believe in God; b) an attempt to provide a proof or strong evidence that God exists; c) a betting system introduced in Las Vegas; d) a) and b) above; e) all of the above; f) none of the above.

a) an attempt to give a practical (prudential) reason to believe in God;

27) Empiricists emphasize that the following are main sources of justification a) experience given by senses, stored in memory, and transmitted by testimony; b) understanding and reasoning; c) both a) ad b); d) none of the above.

a) experience given by senses, stored in memory, and transmitted by testimony;

13. Persons from a biological point of view are a) human beings, members of Homos Sapiens, beings who share our DNA; b) beings who have sophisticated minds and rational/intellectual nature; c) beings who have full protection by moral rules; d) all of the above; e) none of the above.

a) human beings, members of Homos Sapiens, beings who share our DNA;

14) Different people or even one person at different times a) may have different evidence and thus different levels of justification; b) must have the same level of justification; c) must rationally agree on everything; d) all of the above; e) none of the above.

a) may have different evidence and thus different levels of justification;

7) The study of what kind of being would count as God (i.e., the definition of God) and whether or not God exists is part of a) metaphysics (more specifically, philosophy of religion); b) epistemology; c) logic; d) none of the above

a) metaphysics (more specifically, philosophy of religion);

18. Suppose that a volcano erupts destroying human lives and causing much suffering. It's an example of a) natural evil; b) moral evil (evil caused by agents); c) both a) and b); d) none of the above.

a) natural evil;

6. Typical cosmological arguments assume that a) no causal / explanatory chain can be infinitely long so every causal chain has the beginning; b) causal chains involving God are infinitely long so they have no beginning; c) we do not have rational abilities to say anything sensible about causation; d) none of the above.

a) no causal / explanatory chain can be infinitely long so every causal chain has the beginning;

4) Ludwig Feuerbach, Friedrich Nietzsche and other philosophers argue that a) people (individually and collectively) might have created the idea of God; b) God gives us the idea of God; c) a) and b) above; d) none of the above.

a) people (individually and collectively) might have created the idea of God;

8) On the view outlined in class, the following may be true or false: a) propositions (statements, believes, declarative sentences, assertions, premises of arguments); b) questions and imperatives; c) facts; d) all of the above; e) none of the above.

a) propositions (statements, believes, declarative sentences, assertions, premises of arguments);

25. If a person has an epistemic reason to believe something, then a) she has good evidence that this belief is true; b) holding this belief is brings about something good; c) both a) and b); d) none of the above.

a) she has good evidence that this belief is true;

13) It's plausible to maintain that a) some justified statements are false and some unjustified statements are true; b) every justified statement is true; c) every unjustified statement is false; d) none of the above.

a) some justified statements are false and some unjustified statements are true;

2) Descartes believes that a) the cause must be more perfect than its effect; b) the effect may be more perfect than its cause; c) it depends, it may be a) or b); d) none of the above.

a) the cause must be more perfect than its effect;

6) The study of how we act and whether or not we have free will (and act freely) is part of a) theory of action and philosophical anthropology which, in turn, are parts of metaphysics; b) epistemology; c) logic; d) none of the above.

a) theory of action and philosophical anthropology which, in turn, are parts of metaphysics;

13. If the universe and things within universe display a design (seem to be designed), then a) they show high level of complexity and organization so they can perform various functions (e.g., because its complexity and organization, an eye can see); b) they are made of artificial materials such as alloys and plastics; c) they are created ex nihilo (out of nothing); d) all of the above; e) none of the above.

a) they show high level of complexity and organization so they can perform various functions (e.g., because its complexity and organization, an eye can see);

22) Suppose that an argument is valid but it has a false conclusion. You can infer that a) this argument must have at least one false premise b) this argument must have all false premises c) this argument has some unjustified premises d) none of the above.

a) this argument must have at least one false premise

16) Consider the following argument: 1) If God exists, then bad things never happen to good people. 2) God exists. 3) So, bad things never happen to good people. This argument is a) valid; b) invalid. c) impossible to tell; d) none of the above

a) valid;

17) Consider the following argument: 1) If Mark knows that there are miracles, then Mark is certain that there are miracles. 2) No one (not even Mark) is certain that there are miracles. 3) Thus, Mark does not know that there are miracles. This argument is a) valid; b) invalid. c) impossible to tell; d) none of the above.

a) valid;

19) Definiendum is a term or expression that a) we are trying to define; b) we use to define some other term or expression; c) both a) and b); d) none of the above.

a) we are trying to define;

4) Nowadays the term "metaphysics" is sometimes used to refer to a study of something mysterious and spiritual that goes beyond the realm of physical (or natural). Stefan said in class that academic philosophers use this term to refer to the part of philosophy studying a) what ultimately exists, what kinds of beings are real, are those being physical, spiritual/mental, abstract, or what; b) what is knowledge and do we know anything; c) what things have value, what we ought to do; d) all of the above; e) none of the above.

a) what ultimately exists, what kinds of beings are real, are those being physical, spiritual/mental, abstract, or what;

16. John Hick claims that, according to the traditional Western and Middle-Eastern mono theism God is a person (or personal). He means by this that a) God is a human; b) God has sophisticated mind of rational and intellectual nature, God has plans for the future, God has free will, God cares about us, and so on; c) both a) and b); d) none of the above.

b) God has sophisticated mind of rational and intellectual nature, God has plans for the future, God has free will, God cares about us, and so on;

9. According to pantheism a) God is all-good, all-knowing, all-powerful, the creator of the world constantly active in it; b) God is one with the world, the world is divine (all of the world is Sacred); c) there are many gods; d) all of the above; e) none of the above.

b) God is one with the world, the world is divine (all of the world is Sacred);

5. If God is omnibenevolent, then a) God knows every truth; b) God never does anything wrong and always chooses to do what is best; c) God is a necessary being; d) God has maximal powers; e) all of the above.

b) God never does anything wrong and always chooses to do what is best;

30. Stef argued in class that, if the theory of evolution is true then a) God does not exist; b) God still may exist and use evolution to bring about whatever he wants to bring about; c) it's impossible to assess whether or not God exists; d) none of the above.

b) God still may exist and use evolution to bring about whatever he wants to bring about;

21. According to traditional responses to the problem of evil (e.g., one offered by Aquinas): a) the all-powerful and malevolent being, and not God, is responsible for all the evil in the world; b) God uses evil to bring about some greater (or higher) good; c) both a) and b); d) none of the above.

b) God uses evil to bring about some greater (or higher) good;

14. According to Stef's criticisms of design arguments a) we do not know that anything in the universe shows high level of complexity and organization so things can perform various functions; b) at best they show that there is a designer but not that there is God; c) at best they show that there is God, but not that there is a designer; d) a) and b); e) all of the above; f) none of the above.

b) at best they show that there is a designer but not that there is God;

2. Stef said in class that the best context (place) to study revealed theology is a) in the philosophy class; b) at the religious seminary and/or a divinity school where someone study to become a theologian or a priest; c) at home; d) a) and b); e) all of the above; f) none of the above.

b) at the religious seminary and/or a divinity school where someone study to become a theologian or a priest;

14. Persons from a philosophical point of view are a) human beings, members of Homos Sapiens, beings who share our DNA; b) beings who have sophisticated minds and rational/intellectual nature; c) beings who have full protection by laws; d) all of the above; e) none of the above.

b) beings who have sophisticated minds and rational/intellectual nature;

19. In the most general (generic) sense, an atheist a) believes there is God (or a god or something divine and sacred, etc.); b) believes there is nothing divine; c) suspends a judgment about there being (or not being) something divine; d) none of the above.

b) believes there is nothing divine;

23. Ontological arguments (e.g., one proposed by Anselm) are version of a) causal or explanatory argument that start with the premises that there are some things and facts in the world that require an explanation and conclude that what ultimately explains them is God; b) conceptual or a priori argument that try to derive the existence of God from the very concept (or a definition) of God; c) both a) and b); d) none of the above.

b) conceptual or a priori argument that try to derive the existence of God from the very concept (or a definition) of God;

23. According to the virtue defense a) evil does not exist; it is merely privation of good; b) evils such as pain and disease make possible the existence of higher (or greater) goods, such as sympathy, benevolence, heroism, etc.; c) evil is a result of free human actions; d) the all-powerful and malevolent being, and not God, is responsible for all the evil in the world; e) none of the above.

b) evils such as pain and disease make possible the existence of higher (or greater) goods, such as sympathy, benevolence, heroism, etc.;

24. If a person has a practical (prudential) reason to believe something, then a) she has good evidence (or proof) that this belief is true; b) holding this belief is brings about something good; c) both a) and b); d) none of the above.

b) holding this belief is brings about something good;

15) Consider the following argument: 1) All men are good pack leaders. 2) Sue is not a man. 3) Therefore, Sue is not a good pack leader. This argument is a) valid; b) invalid. c) impossible to tell; d) none of the above

b) invalid.

20. Suppose that some evil spirit causes the eruption a volcano that, in turns, causes enormous harms; arguably of a) it's an example of natural evil; b) it seems to be an example of natural evil but, in fact, it's "moral evil" because it is caused by some evil agent; c) both a) and b); d) none of the above.

b) it seems to be an example of natural evil but, in fact, it's "moral evil" because it is caused by some evil agent;

19. Suppose that terrorists destroy human lives and causes enormous suffering. It's an example of a) natural evil; b) moral evil (evil caused by agents); c) both a) and b); d) none of the above.

b) moral evil (evil caused by agents);

5. Typical cosmological arguments (e.g., ones proposed by Aquinas) assume that a) except for God, nothing can self-cause itself; b) nothing can self-cause itself (because a cause must be prior to its effect); c) neither a) nor b); d) everything self-causes itself.

b) nothing can self-cause itself (because a cause must be prior to its effect);

17. Something is a natural evil if it is a bad state of affairs that is caused by a) the misuse of free will on the part of some moral agent (such as a human being or some malevolent spirit); b) the operation of natural processes such as hurricanes, earthquakes, illnesses, etc. c) both a) and b); d) none of the above

b) the operation of natural processes such as hurricanes, earthquakes, illnesses, etc.

1. The following is based on faith: a) the natural theology; b) the revealed theology; c) both a) and b);d) none of the above.

b) the revealed theology;

5) Stef explained in class that a) there is one kind of values and norms; namely, moral values and norms; b) there are many different kinds of values and norms (e.g., moral values, aesthetical values, artistic values, religious values, and so on); c) neither a) nor b).

b) there are many different kinds of values and norms (e.g., moral values, aesthetical values, artistic values, religious values, and so on);

11. According to henotheism a) there are many equally powerful, knowledgeable, and important gods; b) there are many gods but one of them is the most important and powerful; c) there is only one God; d) God is identical with the world; e) none of the above.

b) there are many gods but one of them is the most important and powerful;

17. To create something ex nihilo means that a) this thing is assembled from already existing components; b) this thing is created out of nothing; c) both a) and b): d) none of the above.

b) this thing is created out of nothing;

28) Rationalists emphasize that the following are main sources of justification a) experience given by senses, stored in memory, and transmitted by testimony; b) understanding and reasoning; c) both a) ad b); d) none of the above.

b) understanding and reasoning;

20) Definiens is a term or expression that a) we are trying to define b) we use to define some other term or expression; c) both a) and b); d) none of the above.

b) we use to define some other term or expression;

3) Epistemology studies a) what really exists, what kind of beings are real; b) what is knowledge and how much we know; c) what things have value, what we ought to do; d) all of the above; e) none of the above.

b) what is knowledge and how much we know;

27. According to Pascal, if a person believes in God and God exists, then this person a) neither gains nor loses anything b) will gain an eternal salvation c) will gain an eternal damnation; d) none of the above.

b) will gain an eternal salvation

29. The following seem to be good criticism(s) of Pascal's argument offered in class: a) if God is truly all-good, God would not punish non-believers for simply failing to believe something (such punishment would be cruel and unjust); b) if God is all good, God would not reward believers for simply believing something (such reward would be way to generous and unfair); c) a) and b); d) none of the above

c) a) and b)

6. Almost all philosophers working within the Western tradition maintain that some things and tasks are impossible for God to do, for example: a) God cannot do logically and conceptually impossible things, like a square that is a circle (squircle) or a colorless blue frog; b) God cannot do anything incompatible with God's nature (essence); e.g., God cannot do anything evil (because God is all good and necessarily so), God cannot do anything that would limit his powers (because God is all-powerful and necessarily so), and so on; c) a) and b): d) none of the above.

c) a) and b):

10) Consider the following true statement: "Stef drives a Mitsubishi". According to the objective theory of truth explained in class, this statement is true because a) Stef said so; b) we have solid evidence that it is true; c) as a matter of fact, Stef drives a Mitsubishi (this statement describes reality correctly; it corresponds to facts); d) all of the above; e) none of the above.

c) as a matter of fact, Stef drives a Mitsubishi (this statement describes reality correctly; it corresponds to facts);

18. Stef said in class that the Revealed Theology depends on revelation which, in turn, depends on faith, so a) it is part of Natural Philosophical Theology; b) it is easy to have a rational discussion of it; c) because faith transcends evidence and proof, it is hard to have a rational discussion of it (such a discussion does not really belong to a philosophy class); d) a) and b); e) none of the above.

c) because faith transcends evidence and proof, it is hard to have a rational discussion of it (such a discussion does not really belong to a philosophy class);

10. (HINT: If in doubt, read outlines and also read Heinlein's "All You Zombies"; linked on the black board.) At least some philosophers believe (and Stef argued in class) that a) there may be infinitely long causal chains; b) circular causation is possible; c) both a) and b); d) none of the above.

c) both a) and b);

18) A correct analytic definition a) must be informative (specifically, non-circular) b) must state a necessary equivalence between the definiendum and definiens; c) both a) and b); d) none of the above.

c) both a) and b);

21) Correct stipulative definitions a) state a necessary equivalence between the definiendum and definiens (this is the case, because the definiendum, means nothing before its meaning is stipulated); b) are informative when and because they use the definiens that has clear meaning; c) both a) and b); d) none of the above.

c) both a) and b);

22. The following higher and/or greater goods are most frequently used to explain why bad things happen (why there is evil): a) bad things allow us to build up our character and generally grow up, which is necessary to reach the eternal salvation; b) morally significant free will which we have leads to us doing bad things; c) both a) and b); d) none of the above.

c) both a) and b);

25. Hick's favorite response to the problem of evil assumes that a) there is an "epistemic distance" between us and God; b) we do not have certainty that God exists; c) both a) nor b); d) none of the above.

c) both a) nor b);

27. Hick argues that a) God chooses to act "from the hiding" and thus cannot perform too many miracles and constantly interfere with human affairs b) if God interfered with our affairs too much we would stop doing right actions freely; rather we would be coerced to do them; c) both b) and c); d) none of the above.

c) both b) and c);

29) Blackburn maintains that the best philosophers a) are empiricists; b) are rationalists; c) combine the most plausible elements of empiricism and rationalism; d) none of the above.

c) combine the most plausible elements of empiricism and rationalism;

24) If an argument is unsound, then a) this argument must have at least one false premise; b) this argument must be invalid; c) either this argument is invalid or it has at least one false premise or both; d) none of the above.

c) either this argument is invalid or it has at least one false premise or both;

24. According to the free will defense a) evil is a privation of good. b) evils such as pain and disease make possible the existence of higher (or greater) goods, such as sympathy, benevolence, heroism, etc.; c) evil is a result of free actions performed by humans and other agents; d) the all-powerful and malevolent being, and not God, is responsible for all the evil in the world; e) none of the above.

c) evil is a result of free actions performed by humans and other agents;

26) Fallibilism is a view that a) justification guarantees the truth (so, justified beliefs are never false); b) luck of justification guarantees falsehood (so, unjustified beliefs are never true); c) justification does not guarantee the truth (so, justified beliefs can be false); d) none of the above.

c) justification does not guarantee the truth (so, justified beliefs can be false);

3) Descartes believes that a) he himself could have created the idea of God; b) a society or a culture could have created the idea of god; c) only God could have given him the idea of God; d) a) and/or b) above; e) none of the above.

c) only God could have given him the idea of God;

22. Consider the following valid argument: 1) Everything in the universe is a natural thing, a result of some natural process. 2) If (1) is true, then God does not exist. Therefore, 3) God does not exist. Suppose that someone replies to this argument as follows: Premise (1) is true. But, because God is identical with the world, it is just as true that the universe is divine. So, (2) is false. So, this argument is unsound. In other words, I believe that God exists. Most likely, such a person is a) a traditional monotheist (or, maybe, a deist). b) polytheist; c) pantheist; d) all of the above; e) none of the above.

c) pantheist;

15. Stefan argued in class that a) every human being is a person philosophically speaking; b) every person (philosophically speaking) is a human being; c) some human beings are not persons, philosophically speaking and some persons (philosophically speaking) are not human beings; d) both a) and b); e) all of the above; f) none of the above.

c) some human beings are not persons, philosophically speaking and some persons (philosophically speaking) are not human beings;

20. In the most general (generic) sense, an agnostic a) believes there is something divine; b) believes there is nothing divine; c) suspends a judgment about there being (or not being) something divine; d) none of the above.

c) suspends a judgment about there being (or not being) something divine;

10. According to polytheism a) God is all-good, all-knowing, all-powerful, the creator of the world, constantly active in the world; b) God is identical with the world (e.g., we can find God in nature); c) there are many gods; d) all of the above; e) none of the above.

c) there are many gods;

28. According to Pascal, if a person does not believe in God and God exists, then this person a) neither gains nor loses anything; b) will gain an eternal salvation; c) will gain an eternal damnation; d) none of the above.

c) will gain an eternal damnation;

4. If God is omnipotent, then a) God knows every truth (with the possible exception of truths about future facts concerning free will) b) God never does anything wrong and always chooses to do what is best; c) God is a necessary being; d) God has maximal powers (in particular, God can do things that are logically and conceptually possible and which are consistent with God's nature) e) all of the above.

d) God has maximal powers (in particular, God can do things that are logically and conceptually possible and which are consistent with God's nature)

4. Cosmological arguments for the existence of God assume that a) there are various things around us and that their existence requires an explanation; b) what explains these things is that God exists and ultimately causes them; c) evil exists; d) a) and b) above; e) all of the above.

d) a) and b) above;

12. Proponents of the arguments from design (e.g., Paley and Cleanthes) assume that a) the universe (or, at least, some parts of the universe) displays a high level of complexity and organization (for short, displays and intelligent design); b) if the universe (or some parts of it) displays an intelligent design, then it is designed; c) if the universe is designed, then there is a designer; d) all of the above; e) none of the above.

d) all of the above;

11. Stef argued in class that a) if there is the First Cause, then there is God; b) there may be the First Cause but it lacks all the attributes of God (e.g., is not all-benevolent, is not all-knowing, is not all-powerful, and so on); c) even if there is the First Cause, it's not clear that there is God (as God is defined in the traditional mono-theism); d) b) and c); e) none of the above.

d) b) and c);

16. According to the Argument from Evil, God does not exist because a) Satan (i.e. evil incarnated) exists; b) various bad things happen, there is evil in the world; c) it's impossible that various bad things happen and that someone all good, all knowing and all powerful would allow for it; d) b) and c); e) none of the above.

d) b) and c);

9) According to the objective theory of truth A) truth varies from person to person; so, some statements are really true for someone, and really false for someone else; b) truth is determined by reality (facts) and not by people's beliefs, thoughts, evidence, etc.); c) no statement is true for one person but false for someone else; d) b) and c); e) none of the above

d) b) and c);

9. Aquinas and other proponents of cosmological arguments assume that a) we need to explain all events including the event of God's coming into being and what explains it is that another God created God; b) we need to explain all events that actually take place and their ultimate explanation is that God exists and causes them; c) we do not need to explain God's coming into being because there is no such event (God never came into being because God is necessary and eternal); d) b) and c); e) all of the above.

d) b) and c);

26. According to virtue defense, to build our characters and develop virtues a) we have to simply do good thing and perform right actions, no matter what our motives are (if we do those things out of fear, that's good enough); b) we have to freely choose to do good thing and to perform right actions; c) to choose freely to do good things we cannot be coerced to do them; d) both b) and c); d) none of the above.

d) both b) and c);

8. According to deism a) God is all-good, all-knowing, all-powerful, the creator of the world constantly active in it; b) God is identical with the world; c) there are many gods; d) there is one god but, having created the world, this god is not active in it but rather left world alone; e) none of the above.

d) there is one god but, having created the world, this god is not active in it but rather left world alone;

15. According to Stef's criticisms of design arguments, to show that the designer is God (as God is understood within the traditional western monotheism) it is not enough to show that the universe was designed. In addition, we would have to show the following: a) the universe was designed by exactly one person; b) the universe was created ex nihilo; c) the universe was created by the being who designed it; d) the creator of the universe is an omnipotent, omniscient, perfectly good, and immaterial being; e) all of the above.

e) all of the above.

23) If an argument sound; then a) it must have at least one true premise b) it must have all true premises c) its conclusion must follow from the premises d) its conclusion must be true e) all of the above.

e) all of the above.

7. The following are contingent things: a) tables, chairs, minerals, plants, humans; b) the earth, the sun, the universe; c) angels, ghosts and spirits (assuming beings like these exist); d) a) and b); e) all of the above; f) none of the above

e) all of the above;

25) Suppose that a certain argument has all true premises and a true conclusion. This is all you know about this argument. (A hint, here is one example of such an argument: 1) All men are mortal. 2) Stef is a man. 3) Stef is a vegetarian.) We can infer that a) the conclusion follows from the premises; b) this argument must be valid; c) this argument must be sound; d) this argument proves its conclusion; e) none of the above.

e) none of the above.

2) One way to understand philosophy is to treat it as an academic discipline defined by fields and subfields (that are characterized, in turn, by topics studied within a given field) and philosophical methodology. According to the conception proposed by the American Philosophical Association and elucidated in class, the following are main fields of philosophy: a) metaphysics/ontology; b) epistemology; c) value theory (including ethics); d) logic (philosophical methodology); e) they are all main fields of philosophy.

e) they are all main fields of philosophy.