Philosophy Final

What is happiness for Aquinas? o Distinguish between perfect and imperfect happiness.

Perfect happiness (beatitudo) is not possible in this lifetime, but only in the afterlife for those who achieve a direct perception of God There can be an imperfect happiness (felicitas) attainable in this lifetime, in proportion to the exercise of Reason (contemplation of truth) and the exercise of virtue.

How/when can ignorance be voluntary?

"IN Ignorance"- conscious decision made to become incapacitated; drunkenness is not an excuse

What is Aristotle's definition of happiness and what does this mean?

"The function of man is to live a certain kind of life, and this activity implies a rational principle, and the function of a good man is the good and noble performance of these, and if any action is well performed it is performed in accord with the appropriate excellence: if this is the case, then happiness turns out to be an activity of the soul in accordance with virtue" This means that: happiness is a life encompassing goal to which cannot be a temporary feeling and it is reached by preforming actions in accordance w virtue thus contemplation is the most continuous and beneficial action to reach happiness.

Why are certain truths, such as God's existence, given to human beings as matters of faith if they can also be known by reason?

1. Few could know G-d, the time it takes to reason is too much for many, some not fit 2. It would take way too long to reason to G-d 3. Human reason is imperfect and one could not derive the right answer

Know each of the 5 ways. Be able to explain at least one of them in detail, staying as close to the way Aquinas would explain it as possible.

1. First, we observe that some things in the world are in motion. Whatever is in motion is put into motion by another object that is in motion. This other object, in turn, was put into motion by still another object preceding it, and so forth. This series cannot go on backward to infinity, though, since there would otherwise be no first mover and thus no subsequent movement. Therefore, we must conclude that there is a first unmoved mover, which we understand to be God. 2. Second, we observe that everything has an efficient cause and that nothing is or can be the cause of itself. It is impossible, though, that the series of causes should extend back to infinity because every cause is dependent on a prior cause and the ultimate cause is thus dependent on a previous cause. So if there is no first cause, there will be no intermediate causes and no final cause. But the absence of such causes clearly does not square with our observation, and so there must therefore be a first efficient cause, which everyone calls God. 3. The third way is taken from possibility and necessity, and runs thus. We find in nature things that are possible to be and not to be, since they are found to be generated, and to corrupt, and consequently, they are possible to be and not to be. But it is impossible for these always to exist, for that which is possible not to be at some time is not. Therefore, if everything is possible not to be, then at one time there could have been nothing in existence. Now if this were true, even now there would be nothing in existence, because that which does not exist only begins to exist by something already existing. Therefore, if at one time nothing was in existence, it would have been impossible for anything to have begun to exist; and thus even now nothing would be in existence — which is absurd. Therefore, not all beings are merely possible, but there must exist something the existence of which is necessary. But every necessary thing either has its necessity caused by another, or not. Now it is impossible to go on to infinity in necessary things which have their necessity caused by another, as has been already proved in regard to efficient causes. Therefore we cannot but postulate the existence of some being having of itself its own necessity, and not receiving it from another, but rather causing in others their necessity. This all men speak of as God. 4. Fourth, beings in the world have characteristics to varying degrees. Some are more or less good, true, noble, and so forth. Such gradations are all measured in relation to a maximum, however. Thus, there must be something best, truest, noblest, and so on. Now, as Aristotle teaches, things that are greatest in truth are also greatest in being. Therefore, there must be something that is the cause of being, goodness, and every other perfection that we find in beings in the world. We call this maximum cause God. 5. Finally, we observe in nature that inanimate and nonintelligent objects act toward the best possible purpose, even though these objects are not aware of doing so. It is clear that these objects do not achieve their purpose by sheer chance but rather according to a plan. Any inanimate or nonintelligent object that acts toward a purpose, though, must be guided by a being that possesses knowledge and intelligence, just as an arrow is directed by an archer. Therefore, there must be some intelligent being that directs all natural things toward their purpose. We call this being God.

What are the three different types of friendship Aristotle discusses and what are the characteristics of each?

1. Utility: short lived, friends for others' skill 2. Pleasure: short lived, friends for mutual benefit of fun or pleasure 3. Of the Good/Virtue: Long, drive each other to aim for the good (only between virtuous people). Mutual trust and exchange of benefit, good for you.

What does Aquinas have to establish before he goes into the proofs of God?

2 articles: asking if G-d is self evident, and if his existence is demonstrable. Goes over all of the objections to G-d's existence.

Explain the Chiastic structure of the Confessions: o What is the sin that Augustine either falls into or rejects in each book? (That is books 2-4 and 6-8) What incidences or examples show this?

2. Lust of flesh (Corruption of Love) → has desire to love and be loved 3. Lust of the eyes (Corruption of Knowledge) → Curiositas, reads Cicero - leads him to seek truth and reason behind his endless sexual desire. 4. Superbia/Pride (Corruption of Being) → in Thagaste w/ career and friends. He had begun to transform into the "success" that his parents had hoped he would be, and he pursued public office as his rhetorical and oratorical education had prepared him to do. Teaches art of manipulation. 6. Gives up Pride → sees the beggar and gives up his secular ambition because he is unhappy 7. Properly ordered Knowledge → Reads Plato changing his views of G-d as material and evil as substance 8. Rightly ordered Love → seeks love in G-d and converts to Catholicism

Is the existence of God self-evident?

A thing can be self-evident in either of two ways: on the one hand, self-evident in itself, though not to us; on the other, self-evident in itself, and to us. A proposition is self-evident because the predicate is included in the essence of the subject, as "Man is an animal," for animal is contained in the essence of man. If, therefore the essence of the predicate and subject be known to all, the proposition will be self-evident to all;

Why are friends needed for happiness?

A virtuous friendship is one that is most enjoyable since it combines pleasure and virtue together, thus fulfilling our emotional and intellectual natures. Humans are social in nature and need people around them to flourish together just as friends of the good are for. A friend of virtue is essentially another self.

Why does Aquinas think it is reasonable to believe certain things which are beyond the powers of human reason, but are known through revelation?

Another benefit that comes from the revelation to men of truths that exceed the reason is the curbing of presumption, which is the mother of error. For there are some who have such a presumptuous opinion of their own ability that they deem themselves able to measure the nature of everything; I mean to say that, in their estimation, everything is true that seems to them so, and everything is false that does not. So that the human mind, therefore, might be freed from this presumption and come to a humble inquiry after truth, it was necessary that some things should be proposed to man by God that would completely surpass his intellect.

What is Aquinas' answer to the problem of evil?

As Augustine says (Enchiridion xi): "Since God is the highest good, He would not allow any evil to exist in His works, unless His omnipotence and goodness were such as to bring good even out of evil." This is part of the infinite goodness of God, that He should allow evil to exist, and out of it produce good.

Charles Mathewes writes that the Confessions can be read as an anti-autobiography. How is this seen in Book 1?

Augustine describes in book 1 that his life is all shaped by G-d as well as others in his life.

After reading Cicero, Augustine picks up the Bible. What was wrong with Augustine's disposition as he does this?

Augustine fails to see the bible other than its surface value, calling it not comparable to Cicero's work, he comes to the text close-minded.

After meeting Faustus, what kind of overall philosophical outlook does Augustine adopt and why?

Augustine thus seeks money and success, also In despair over the Manichaean religion's inability to grab hold of his spiritual imagination

What is beauty?

Beauty is becoming closer to their form→immaterial, study/ practice virtue The desire for beauty is to be closer to the one.

What are the characteristics of the ascents Augustine has in Books 7 & Book 9? How do they differ from each other (if at all)?

Book 7 → Ascent from love physical world to spiritual, No communal ascent, unsuccessful Book 9 → Ascent from love physical world to spiritual, with Monica, successful

What can and can't we deliberate about?

Can only deliberate things within our power, the end and the means to that end.

How does Aquinas take over the basic framework from Aristotle and change it? o How does Aquinas answer questions about the necessity of external good and friends for happiness? o Why can't happiness be attained in this life for Aquinas? o Nevertheless, what is the same about the way Aquinas and Aristotle think about happiness?

Causes: Formal>Material>Efficient>Final(for Aquinas this is G-d) -Aquinas says that friends are not necessary to become happy because happiness is only found in G-d, yet friends conduce to the well being of happiness. External goods are instruments to imperfect happiness. - Only in the afterlife for those who achieve a direct perception of G-d - Happiness is contemplation, for aquinas it is the contemplation of G-d

How is deliberation related to choice?

Deliberation proceeds choice

What good thing happens when Augustine reads Cicero?

Do not study one particular thing, seek wisdom wherever it may be found

What don't the 5 ways prove?

Don't prove the attributes of G-d

What does Augustine view as problematic about his grief in book 4?

Gives up everything and lets grief take over, he was in love with the material being and could not give him up, he was restless because he did not see or love the G-d in his friend.

Aristotle talks about several pseudo-states of courage. Why aren't these instances of true courage? (Hint: Think about the question just above this one.)

Excess→Cowardice Deficiency→Rashness, Recklessness They are irrational states created by the vegetative irrational soul that is not made by choice

Why are external goods needed for happiness?

First, one must be completely virtuous. And second, one must be 'equipped with external goods'. The quotation implies that complete virtue depends on some level of stable material comfort. In other words, there are some objective conditions for someone to be happy. We might speculate that Aristotle thinks one would need stable shelter, food, and friendship.

What is Aquinas' answer to the thought that science can explain everything, making God unnecessary to posit?

Further questions on science can be asked leading eventually back to G-d.

Why ISN'T virtue happiness? (He makes a point about Olympic athletes)

Happiness is reached via action and not capacity, many have capacity to be virtuous yet need to exercise it in order to reach the good therefore virtue is a means.

After Book 7, what is still holding back Augustine from becoming a Christian?

He does not yet accept Jesus as the mediator between G-d and man, only a wise teacher. Lack of humility, weight of sin and sexual/worldly desire.

Why does Augustine realize it won't work to be a skeptic? What's his argument against skepticism?

He thought the Academics "shrewder than others," and their pervasive logical challenges to any belief at all had, in Augustine's mind, a particularly devastating effect on the somewhat goofy postulates of Manichee mythology. Augustine, although he feels doubt about Manichaeism, he also feels doubt about Catholicism. Nothing he has believed now seems secure or reliable.

Explain Augustine's argument for why evil isn't a substance and how evil "exists" if the world is created by a good God.

In this moment, Augustine also finally understood the nature of evil: namely that, "for [God] evil does not exist at all." All elements of the world are "good in themselves," but may appear evil when there is "a conflict of interest." Further, Augustine saw that human "wickedness" is not a substance "but a perversity of will twisted away from the highest substance, you O God, toward inferior things, rejecting its own inner life."(Corruptibility)

Aristotle invokes the image of the lyre player in the Ethics. Why does he invoke this image? How does this help show what the greatest good (happiness for human beings) is?

Invokes this argument to state argument of function. Good if functions well, function of man is to reason well, function of Lyre player is to play the lyre well.

What things are required for an action to be virtuous? (He lists 3 or 4 requirements)

Knowingly preform, do for the sake of virtue and come from firm unchangable character.

Why is contemplation a higher/more complete kind of happiness than the exercise of the practical virtues?

Life according to moral virtue is happy in a secondary way, since it is concerned with human affairs. The virtue of the intellect, however, is separate from the passions, and requires much fewer external resources than ethical virtue. Another argument which demonstrates that perfect happiness is contemplative activity is that the gods are most blessed and happy, and their action is contemplative. The human activity closest to the activity of the gods is the happiest, and thus contemplation is the most blessed human activity.

How can Aristotle say that a vicious state is chosen and yet lasting?

Man is a responsible agent and creates his own character, if he creates a careless character, it thus becomes habit and like virtue vice can take over, for a given activity produces a corresponding character. The ball is thrown and you can't cancel it, the power once in your possession was put into the ball exerted now you are unable to retract it.

What is the difference between intellectual and moral virtue? What part of the soul does each have to do with?

Moral Virtue: bore via practice. irrational soul Intellectual Virtue: bore via being taught. (Hexis) Rational soul

What characteristics does our candidate for happiness have to meet? Why?

Must be most final, and self-sufficient must be something sought over all else.

What motivates all human action for Aquinas?

One's will and desires satisfied

All the authors we read this semester seem to have this in common: Doing what's right (for example, being just) has an essential, and not an accidental relationship, to being happy. Explain briefly how this manifests itself in the thought of each author (Plato, Aristotle, Augustine, Aquinas, Bonus if you can connect Plotinus as well)

Plato: Justice of the soul: each part of the soul does its job. Seek what is just and you will ascend into a higher understanding and true happiness. Socrates is so tied to philosophy that he is willing to die for it. Aristotle: Just actions lead to virtue and virtuous character, thus the soul is in order. Just actions are chosen by practical wisdom (choosing the right means) just actions therefore are of a good man who exercises virtue. Exercising virtue is the way to happiness. Augustine: G-d made the world good, evil is created by the misdirection and corruption of man. Man must seek G-d, the highest truth to truly be at peace. Man must stray away from worldly desires and focus on what is just and noble in order to seek true happiness. Aquinas: Since G-d is the highest good, He would not allow any evil to exist in His works. Though evil does exist it is there by man and is there so that G-d may bring out even more good. G-d is infinite goodness and thus when seeking what is good, exercising virtue, and preforming good deeds one is seeking G-d himself. The only way to imperfect happiness is contemplation of G-d yet perfect happiness is to be in his divine presence. Out of the good comes happiness. Plotinus: Virtue frees the soul, helps for ascension to the one, the soul is ugly when constrained to matter→ get closer to the form, becoming closer to the one via practice of virtue.

What kind of philosophy is responsible for Augustine's "intellectual conversion?" o How does this help him clear up the intellectual errors of seeing God as material and Evil as a substance?

Platonism → reads about the immaterial world, sees G-d with his mind instead of his mind's eye. Realizes that evil is created by the free will of man in the absence of good.

In Ethics 6.13, Aristotle discusses phronesis or practical wisdom. What is the relationship between practical wisdom and the ethical virtues?

Practical wisdom helps one chose the right means. You can't get the good w/ out it, you cant have this and not have moral virtues, if you have this you have the key to the good (unity of virtue).

Explain: "You have made us for thyself and our hearts are restless until they rest in Thee." Conf. 1.1

Referred back to in 4.9 when Augustine's friend dies and he is lost in misery and grief, the heart is not at rest when it loves material things only when it is in love with G-d, Augustine's mother dies in book 9 the grief is not so hard because he loves G-d. Man can not love anything, yet can love the G-d in something.

For each of the virtues Aristotle discusses in Books 3 & 4, what is each virtue about (what is it a mean concerning)? What are the corresponding vices of both excess and deficiency?

SPHERE OF ACTION OF FEELING: EXCESS,MEAN,DEFICIENCY Fear and Confidence: Rashness,Courage,Cowardice Pleasure and Pain: Licentiousness,Temperance,Insensibility Getting and Spending (minor): Prodigality,Liberality.Illiberality Getting and Spending (major): Vulgarity,Magnificence,Pettiness Honor and Dishonor (minor): Ambition,Proper Ambition, Unambitiousness Honor and Dishonor (major): Vanity,Magnanimity,Pusillanimity Anger: Irascibility,Patience,Lack of Spirit Self-expression: Boastfulness,Truthfulness,Understatement Conversation: Buffoonery,Wittiness,Boorishness Social Conduct: Obsequiousness or Flattery,Friendliness,Cantankerousness Shame: Shyness,Modesty,Shamelessness Indignation: Envy,Righteous indignation,Malicious enjoyment

How are the ascents in Confessions like the ascents in the Symposium and Republic?

The ascent in the confessions is from the love of the physical to the eventual love of the spiritual. Similar to this is the ascent in the cave from the material to the immaterial, as well as in the symposium when the lover of bodies (physical) becomes the lover of wisdom and knowledge (intangible). • Many steps, gets from seeing physical, moves to more spiritual then eventually reaches the immaterial and intangible. (Love from physical→spiritual) • Symposium→love beauty itself rather than images, Republic→see the forms rather than shadows of them, Confessions→love G-d rather than images of him(man→friend dies, mother dies)

What does the incident with the pear tree teach about what is at the heart of all sin? In what way is sin irrational? Explain.

The heart of all sin is pride and the want to become like G-d, man makes rhetorical reflections of G-d attributes. The pears were not the best and they were not hungry, so they stole just for the sake of mischief itself.

What difficulty with Manichaeism does Augustine hope Faustus will clear up?

The idea of heavenly battles being blocked by eclipses because they don't line up with actual science or calculations

What is the relationship between faith and reason, esp. when it comes to what we can say about God?

The truths that we confess concerning God fall under two modes. Some things true of God are beyond all the competence of human reason, as that God is Three and One. (faith) Other things there are to which even human reason can attain, as the existence and unity of God, which philosophers have proved to a demonstration under the guidance of the light of natural reason.(reason). What we know through reason is only a faint likeness of what is known through faith. Reason can only supply a cause for a given effect, but generally the cause is less known than is the effect. In the case of God, the distance is great enough that reason is incapable of grasping much of what is given through faith.

Why won't faith and reason conflict?

There is no opposition between faith and reason, as can be shown in several ways. 1 We are endowed to believe what reason shows to be true, and we are moved by faith insofar as it is the work of God. Both are true, so they cannot be in conflict. 2 What we know by nature through reason is given to us by God, who also gives us faith. The teaching of the same teacher will not be in conflict. 3 God would not paralyze our thinking by opposing reason and faith. The bottom line is that any arguments brought against the doctrine of faith can be countered, since they cannot show that faith is in conflict with reason.

Why might it seem like pleasant amusements are happiness? Why aren't they?

These pleasant amusements are complete in a moment. Entirety in an instant, described as seeing rather than building. Pleasure is only sought via activity not chosen in itself therefore pleasure is a product. Happiness the chief good is chosen for its own sake and is an end in itself, with pleasure you will always want to seek more. Incomplete process of replenishment.

What motivates Augustine's original acceptance of Manichaeism?

They preached a sort of truth never heard by Augustine

What do the 5 ways have in common?

They prove that G-d exists

Why does a good man love himself more than he loves others?

To give love, one must have love for himself first. One has to take care of himself, seek what is noble, and love good things for you are good and you will love yourself. In exercising virtue to friends you're helping yourself become virtuous, bring honor to yourself yet the intent must be good.

Using reason, what should a Christian try to show other people who don't believe in the articles of faith?

To make the first kind of divine truth known(Reason), we must proceed through demonstrative arguments, by which our adversary may become convinced. However, since such arguments are not available for the second kind of divine truth, our intention should not be to convince our adversary by arguments: it should be to answer his arguments against the truth; for, as we have shown, the natural reason cannot be contrary to the truth of faith. The sole way to overcome an adversary of divine truth is from the authority of Scripture—an authority divinely confirmed by miracles. For that which is above the human reason we believe only because God has revealed it.

Why can't two vicious people have a friendship of the good with one another?

Vicious people don't aim for the good, only want/have friends of utility. These friends will not trust one another and will not benefit one another.

How does virtue help us return to the One?

Virtue frees the soul, helps for ascension to the one, the soul is ugly when constrained to matter→ get closer to the form

How does one acquire the virtues?

Virtue is voluntary, in the sense that a man of high moral standards preforms the actions that lead up to the end voluntarily, HABIT. Knowingly preform, do for the sake of virtue and come from firm unchangable character.

What is Aristotle's definition of virtue? Explain each part of his definition.

Virtue: "Virtue, then, is a habit or trained faculty of choice, the characteristic of which lies in moderation or observance of the mean relatively to the persons concerned, as determined by reason, i.e. by the reason by which the prudent man would determine it"

What is the difference between voluntary, involuntary, and non-voluntary?

Voluntary: Agent acts by own choice, motion is within the agent, freely chosen ALSO "in ignorance"→ Drunk Involuntary: Forced actions, coercion, ALSO "by reason of ignorance"→(ignorance of particulars) + regret Non-voluntary: Not really forced, by reason of ignorance with no sense of regret

What is the difference between something that is voluntary and something that is chosen?

We need to distinguish what is voluntary from what we choose. Everything we choose to do is voluntary, but not everything voluntary is chosen. For instance, spontaneous actions and the actions of young children and animals are voluntary, but not chosen in the sense intended here.

Aquinas and Aristotle both consider a number of things which seem like common candidates for happiness. For each candidate, explain: o Why the thing in question can't be happiness? o Why the thing in question is related to happiness?

Wealth: - wealth is a means to attain something, happiness is sought for own sake - all things obey money, natural wealth is necessary Honors: - has to be given by someone else to you, can't seek alone - G-d has high honor, is a product of virtue like happiness Fame/Glory: - the good is with in the action yet being famous is not the good itself (dependent on others) - happiness is being glorified by the one with most glory (G-d) Power: - power can be used for good and bad, imperfect good you need virtue with it - G-d is power, seeking G-d is seeking power yet you need virtue Bodily Goods (Health): - health is a means not an end, higher purpose - man seeks the health of his body above all, yet this disregards soul which is driving force to the good Pleasure: - pleasure is only a share of happiness and happiness is the true goal - animals seek pleasure above all else Soul: - the body not the answer, this is - man seeks happiness via soul Created Goods: - G-d is the end and G-d is the unmoved mover, the creator - man is made happy by fulfillment of natural desire