Philosophy Final

According to Sartre, what is the first principle of existentialism, a principle common to both theistic and atheistic existentialism? What does Sartre mean by subjectivity and why is it emphasized in his existentialist philosophy?

*1st Principle - Man is nothing else but what he makes of himself *Existentialism and Subjectivity - the essential meaning of existentialism - it is impossible for man to transcend human subjectivity - it is the inevitable starting point

Be able to explain the various classical arguments offered in support of the existence of God, as well as the criticisms of the arguments

*Cosmological/ first cause argument- Associated with Thomas Aquinas, "The Five Ways" - all five posit God as the prime mover, a designer who initiated the motion of things in the universe - The general idea - something must have kick started the process - If everything has a cause and we move backward in time, where does this stop? The answer is either an infinite regression of causes, a logical puzzle, or there is a first cause, aka God. Reply - Hume stated what caused the First Cause? Maybe the series has no starting point but rather goes on indefinitely backward in time *Teleological argument- W. Paley - an eye, like a watch, is best explained by appeal to an intelligent designer; the order and progress of the world indicate that the universe has intelligent purpose, which implies an intelligent creator; Reply - Natural Selection can be used to explain the apparent "purpose" of any natural thing; More problematic is criticism of the assumption that the world is orderly and systematic; Often human beings look past disorder and chaos to create a systematic and orderly worldview to deal with the problems and instabilities of human existence

Be able to explain in detail each of the three theories of personal identity (and any versions of them), as well as the challenges that each faces

*Physical continuity theory- The continued existence of the body grounds and maintains personal identity (value of theory is the body can be studied objectively since it can be seen/observed) a. molecular reconstitution/regeneration b. counter-intuition about objectification by identifying persons with bodies *Psychological continuity theory- A cluster of psychological properties grounds and maintains personal identity a. the stream of consciousness - breaks in the stream from sleep, etc. b. high-level psychological properites like personality, value system, dispositions/temperament, project/plans - these tend to change slowly over time c. memory - inability to verify which are genuine and which are not due to its memory's imperfection *Same soul theory- An immaterial spiritual substance (distinct in kind from matter) grounds and maintains personal identity - With no apparent outer (sensation) or inner (introspection) reference through experience, is the concept sheer nonsense? Positing the existence of an unverifiable metaphysical entity violates Occam's Razor (principle that states we should avoid multiplying metaphysical entities unnecessarily and that, given equal explanatory power, prefer simpler theories to those that are complex).

Explain in detail what Sartre means by the expression "existence precedes essence?" Also do not merely state, but explain any significant existentialist themes used by Sartre in connection with this idea.

- Existence Precedes Essence - the individual creates one's essences through choice - As Sartre states, "Man is nothing else but what he makes of himself." - Thus the individual as author is solely responsible for one's life, having no one or no thing to blame or praise other than her or himself - Deep implications for how an individual values one's life, since for Sartre value cannot be found in transcendent order, but must be grounded in the humanistic perspective

What interpretation(s) of the term "life" does Litch use/mean when addressing the question about the "meaning of life?"

1) My life 2) The life of my species 3) The life as all biological life 4) The meaning, purpose, or destiny of the universe as a whole

What are the four possible position(s) on meaning, considering the subjective/objective distinction and the atheism/theism distinction, discussed in class and in the text?

1) Objective Meaning - independent of what anyone or any group of people think a) Theism - God's perspective as creator of everything could ground objectivity b) Atheism - Objective meaning is impossible 2) Subjective Meaning - Dependent upon the perspective of an individual or individuals - Not necessarily atheistic; instead it is humanistic (is consistent with, but doesn't require theism) a) Subjective (humanistic) framework is sufficient as a basis for meaning b) Subjective (humanistic) framework is insufficient as a basis for meaning

What is the difference between objective meaning and subjective meaning?

1) Objective Meaning - independent of what anyone or any group of people think a) Theism - God's perspective as creator of everything could ground objectivity b) Atheism - Objective meaning is impossible 2) Subjective Meaning - Dependent upon the perspective of an individual or individuals - Not necessarily atheistic; instead it is humanistic (is consistent with, but doesn't require theism) a) Subjective (humanistic) framework is sufficient as a basis for meaning b) Subjective (humanistic) framework is insufficient as a basis for meaning

Two general explanations can be used to explain the emergence of religion in human existence. What are these two possible explanations that were covered in class? What are the responses to these two explanations?

1)· Did religion arise from certain social and psychological needs of humanity, i.e. is it an expression of humanity's quest for meaning and significance in a world that often appears devoid of such meaning and significance? o Notice - the psychological need for God can be used as justification for God's existence as well ·2) Or does it result from humanity's awareness of something that transcends ordinary experience, some "More" that actually gives meaning and purpose to life? o Notice -an awareness of some Otherness, or a mystical experience of any kind can always be interpreted and given an explanation in physiological or psychological terms

Detail a Turing test and what it is supposed to show

A Turing test works by testing whether a computer can fool a human interlocutor into thinking it is a human. It is intended to confirm or disconfirm linguistic competence, the ability to understand language, through linguistic performance, communicating meaningfully with intelligent interlocutors

What are the various theories of personhood? What exactly is a theory of personhood?

A theory of personhood tells us the property (P*) that an individual must possess to qualify as a person. Sentience, rationality, self-awareness, linguistic competence, tool use, being born human... these are the major theories of personhood.

According to Camus, how does the absurd hero become tragic? How does Camus connect this idea with consciousness? Why does Camus state that consciousness is both the source of the tragic element in the absurd hero, as well as his crowning glory? How does Camus describe the absurd hero transcending his fate?

An absurd hero becomes tragic because he is conscious of the futility of his labors, , which will inevitably be undone - likened to the present-day worker, returning to the same job everyday to perform the same tasks over and over again *** (TRANSCENDING FATE?)

What is Artificial Intelligence?

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is the name of the research area of computer science whose aim is to design and create programmed computers that exhibit behavior thought to require intelligence, e.g., language use, tool use, etc.

Theism

Belief in a personal creator who participates in the processes of the world; God is immanent

Monotheism

Belief in one God

Atheism

Belief that no personal creator of the universe exists

What does Camus mean by "the absurd"? Explain the absurd hero as described by Camus. How is he likened to Sisyphus?

Camus defines the human condition as absurd, as the confrontation between man's desire for significance, meaning and clarity on the one hand - and the silent, cold universe on the other. Sisyphus continues to push the boulder up the hill despite its absurdity, meaningless of his life.

In what two different ways do Sartre and Camus interpret the human response to the freedom posited/claimed by the existentialists?

Camus- freedom is power (keep pushing the rock and chosing to be happy) Sartre- freedom is burden to undertake

What is a future world dystopia? What does this topic have to do with critiques of technology? How should we approach technology? Describe some of the issues surrounding this topic.

Future world dystopias are imagined scenarios suggesting that technology, typically assumed to be beneficial, may become dangerous. **** (APPROACH? ISSUES?)

Pantheism

God is all; "God" whether understood personally or impersonally is the name we give to all things taken in their totality, or all of existence

What is the mind-body problem?

How can two separate realms of existence (mental & physical) interact? ****

Sartre states, "In choosing myself I choose all men." What does he mean? Why does Sartre think that freedom imposes a tremendous responsibility all people? What does Sartre mean when he states, "Man is condemned to be free"?

Man, the lawmaker has a deep responsibility. Freedom imposes responsibility because it requires choice, and choice is a burden because "a man is nothing else than a serious... which make up these undertakings" We control our own fate and decide who we want to become.

Explain the criticisms and the arguments in support of the role of religion in ethics and the moral life.

Negative Marx - Religion creates a false sense of security, it stagnates social progress by steeping it in dogma and tradition, and it dulls awareness by directing thought toward the transcendent; Reply - Human rights movement in India and civil rights movement in America in the 60's were bolstered by religious convictions Nietzsche - Religion creates conformity through its use of dogma and stifles individual creativity and achievement thus fostering mediocrity, while the resulting lack of genuine individuality promotes weakness and ineffectuality; In many religions, esp. Christianity, the weak are championed. But Nietzsche argues that through this false morality, the weak impose a parasitic burden on the strong thus creating a limit to the potential greatness of the human species. o Upshot of Marx's and Nietzsche's criticism: Religion creates a false morality that betrays our human autonomy and our ultimate responsibility for the fate of our species. Other Criticism - Countless people have been killed in the name of God Affirmative - Religion can give life meaning in a world that would appear devoid of meaning without an ultimate divine plan or purpose - Some argue morality requires religion; According to this reasoning, religion provides an (or the only) absolute foundation for moral principles, judgments, & action. - Some of the most respected and influential leaders have used religion as a source of strength, conviction, and fortitude to achieve great humanitarian ends, e.g., Gandhi used religion to help lead India to independence, JFK had a strong faith in Catholicism that assisted him in his efforts to foster civil rights, as the Baptist faith of Martin Luther King Jr. did for him.

Detail Searle's Chinese room thought experiment. What is it intended to show with respect to the possibility of machine intelligence? What does this have to do with language and the difference between syntax and semantics?

Searle's Chinese room experiment asks you to imagine you are the subject of a test involving linguistic competence. You are put into a room alone with some blank sheets of paper, some writing implements, two mail slots, one saying "in" and the other saying "out," on the wall, and a very thick book with instructions on the test/experiment. Slips of paper with squiggles on them come in through the in-slot. You are to find instructions in the book for what to place on one of the blank pieces of paper, based on the shape of the squiggles that appear on the in-slot piece of paper, and then place the piece of paper you have written on into the out-slot on the wall. The process continues with the directions indicating what to place on the blank pieces of paper headed for the out slot based on the shape of the squiggles you receive through the in-slot piece of paper and the last step you completed previously. You eventually memorize the book after many hours in the test room. You later find out the squiggles are Chinese characters and that you have been constructing elaborate replies in perfect Chinese on the pieces of paper you have been placing into the out slot. You insist that there is a huge difference between what you were doing in the room and your speaking English, namely, you understand English. In the room you claim you were just following the rules given in the book and that you still do not understand a word of Chinese. Searle believes this intuitive difference confirms that what computers are doing is very different from what minded beings do, namely the minded understand the symbols they manipulate when using language. Searle's point: linguistic proficiency is not linguistic competence; no linguistic competence, no genuine understanding. And Searle claims that genuine intelligence requires genuine understanding. If you do not understand Chinese in a room, then computers do not understand what they are doing and this, Searle believes, shows they are not and never can be genuinely intelligent. Searle claims programmed computers are purely syntax(the rules of proper language construction)-driven machines with no semantics (understanding of the meaning of the symbols of language, like letters and words). Genuine linguistic competence, and thus genuine intelligene, involves both syntax and semantics.

Detail the historical legend of the myth of Sisyphus as described by Homer and recounted by Camus.

Sisyphus is condemned by the gods to unending futile labor in the underworld - ceaselessly pushing a rock to the top of a mountain only to have it roll back down each time due to gravity -Sisyphus is the absurd hero - not only in his torture, but in his passion for life

What arguments have been presented against the existence of God? What are the replies to these arguments? Explain (go into detail) the problem of evil. What is a theodicy? What is Dostoevsky's response to the ultimate harmony defense as revealed in the excerpt from The Brothers Karamazov (located in the Litch text)?

The Problem of Evil - If God is all-good, all-knowing, and all-powerful, whence comes evil? What is its cause? Theodicy - Any attempt to reconcile the presence of evil and God's existence; Possible Definitions of Evil: 1) Evil is illusory as it is rooted in matter which has no final reality; only spiritual reality is ultimately real; Evil is an appearance only, resulting from human perceptions of material things and events; 2) Evil is the result of sin; Evil is God's punishment for human misdeeds - Notice the presence of this theme in Bergman's The Seventh Seal; 3) Evil is the result of conflict b/n God and Satan; evil is a signpost of Satanic victories 4) Evil is a label for natural occurrences, e.g., earthquakes, floods, etc. The process of the evolution and unfolding of the history of the universe as a whole is good; On this view, natural disasters are like growing pains, which seen from human evaluation are termed evil, but that nonetheless are part of an overall process that is essentially good; 5) "Evil" is a term used for immoral decisions and their consequences; It refers to acts resulting from bad choices as well as their effects and stems from human free will -Ivan says he accepts God simply. He apparently believes in a classical Euclidean creation: there is an underlying order and meaning to life with an eternal harmony with regularity and law. -Eternal harmony: Suffering and evil will vanish like a mirage at the end of the world.

What is the general problem of identity over time? Explain by reference to the story of the Ship of Theseus

Theseus' ship changes parts over time, leaving us to question if by the end it is still the same ship as many years ago. This pertains to life: if we are constantly changing as we grow physically, intellectually, and morally, are we still the same person as when we were born?

What does the Latin expression, "silentium est aureum," mean? Why does Camus emphasize the theme of silence in part of the latter half of the writing? Connect this idea with the broader existentialist notion of "embracing meaninglessness."

This translates to "silence is golden". Ultimately, humans are condemned to and we live in a blank, indifferent, silent universe. We must embrace this meaningless and focus on presence together as a bonding unit.

Transcendent

Though not contradictory with immanence, it may be distinguished from it: Transcendence means operating above or apart from the world and its processes; The idea of transcendence, or being transcendent is fundamental to the natural/supernatural distinction

The discussion of personhood is central to some contemporary social and political issues. What are they? Be able to explain how they relate to debates over personhood.

Two contemporary social and political issues that involve personhood are abortion and animal rights. - Abortion is a debate that revolves around whether or not a fetus is a person. If it is, then abortion is immoral. If not, then abortion may be morally permissible. Animal rights defenders often claim that sentience gives animals a degree of personhood, and thus some rights.

Deism

Watch-maker view of God" - God winds up the universe and constructs it according to a set of natural laws and then steps back and avoids interfering with its processes; God is transcendent; Thomas Jefferson was a deist

Where does Camus leave Sisyphus and why, in spite of this, does he go on to conclude the piece by stating "one must imagine Sisyphus happy"? (the reply to this question is open to interpretation)

We must imagine him happy because that is the only way to reconcile with the absurdity and the inherent meaningless of his actions.

Why does Camus employ the myth of Sisyphus in the context of his philosophy? How does the myth function as an allegory?

What interests Camus is the measured return to the plain, the hour of conscious recognition of the futility of his efforts - his fate is this futility, but in choosing (freedom) to return to begin again, "he is superior to his fate. He is stronger than the rock." Also, he is tragic, tragic b/c he is conscious of the futility of his labors, which will inevitably be undone - likened to the present-day worker, returning to the same job everyday to perform the same tasks over and over again - Sisyphus, in the consciousness that is essential to his torture/his punishment, transcends his fate for his fate is meant to crush him, but it doesn't

What are the three partial definitions of the self that were discussed in the text and in class?

a. Self as center of personal identity b. Self is transcendent c. Self is private

Polytheism

belief in more than one god (ex. Hinduism)

Why for Camus are sorrow and joy, as well as happiness and the absurd, two sides of the same coin?

both are inevitable parts of human existance

Be able to explain the different theories of mind (substance dualism, behaviorism, the identity theory, eliminative materialism, and functionalism) that were covered in class and in the text.

dualism is the theory that the mental and the physical—or mind and body or mind and brain—are, in some sense, radically different kinds of thing. behaviorism is that the study of behavior should be a natural science, such as chemistry or physics, without any reference to hypothetical inner states of organisms as causes for their behavior identity theory of mind holds that states and processes of the mind are identical to states and processes of the brain. Eliminative materialism is the radical claim that our ordinary, common-sense understanding of the mind is deeply wrong and that some or all of the mental states posited by common-sense do not actually exist and have no role to play in a mature science of the mind Functionalism in the philosophy of mind is the doctrine that what makes something a mental state of a particular type does not depend on its internal constitution, but rather on the way it functions, or the role it plays, in the system of which it is a part

Explain Hume's bundle theory of the self. What led Hume to this view? What did he discover, or not discover, when he "looked" inside his own consciousness?

the mind is merely a bundle of perceptions without deeper unity or cohesion, related only by resemblance, succession, and causation. -What led him to this view is his empiricism, his belief that knowledge is formed primarily through experience. Your reply not only answers the first question. It also represents the answer to the question in red. His bundle theory is a result of what he discovered through his introspection.

Agnosticism

the suspension of judgment about God's existence; no way of knowing

Immanence

· God is operative within the structure of the universe; prayer, e.g., is thus effective