Philosophy

By what name (s) does Nietzsche call the "new philosophers"?

"A new species of philosophers is coming up . . ." And they should be called 'Versucher'" (translated as "attempters" but ambiguously also meaning "tempters").

What must an ethical existentialist do every time they act?

"If I regard a certain course of action as good, it is only I who choose to say that it is good and not bad... nevertheless I also am obliged at every instant to perform actions which are examples."Like Kant, universalize an action before doing it. Think: what if everyone was about to do what I am doing?

What is the difference between a theory of the good and a theory of the right? How do both relate to utilitarianism?

"The good" is that which there is strongest reason to want or desire. ... A theory of the right makes a claim about what an actor in a particular situation -- it could be a judge having to decide a case -- ought to do, all things considered, in view of some controlling theory of the good

What are the true tests of friendship?

"True friendship isn't being inseparable; it's being separated and nothing changes."

How does Hobbes define a 'law'?

"a precept or general rule, found out by reason, by which a man is forbidden to do that which is destructive of his life, or taketh away the means of preserving the same; and to omit that, by which he thinketh it may be best preserved"

What does Sartre mean when he says that "man chooses himself"?

"we do mean that every one of us must choose himself; but by that we also mean that in choosing for himself he chooses for all men."What we choose is always better, nothing is better for us unless it is better for all.

According to Kant, what is the purpose of human reason?

("Pure Reason" is reason used to attain certainty, or what Kant called "scientific knowledge.") Since to have moral worth an action must be done on principle, and to see that a certain principle applies to a particular action requires the exercise of reason, only rational beings can be said to behave morally.

According to Mill, what some of the practical requirements of liberty?

. S. Mill concludes the Introduction by discussing what he claimed were the three basic liberties in order of importance: ... This includes the freedom to act on such thought, i.e. freedom of speech. The freedom to pursue tastes (provided they do no harm to others), even if they are deemed "immoral"

What does Kant's 'kingdom of ends' require of us?

A Kingdom of Ends is composed entirely of rational beings, whom Kant defines as those capable of moral deliberation (though his definition expands in other areas) who must choose to act by laws that imply an absolute necessity. ... Kant uses it to mean the "systematic union of different rational beings under common laws".

What are some of the problems with cultural relativism?

A dangerous, foolish path. Human are vast in spectrum, in culture and in practices — some are beautiful, artistic, meaningful while others are brutal, dangerous and even deadly. ... Cultural Relativist would argue that the practices must be viewed from within the culture, not of that of observer.

For Bentham, how does the principle of utility relate to the greatest happiness principle?

According to Bentham, pleasure and pain govern not only how human beings act but also how human beings ought to act. The principle of utility or the principle of utilitarianism : I ought do that act which will bring about the greatest happiness(pleasure) for the greatest number of persons (the community).

What does Sartre mean when he says that we're "condemned to be free"?

According to Sartre, man is free to make his own choices, but is "condemned" to be free, because we did not create ourselves. Even though people are put on Earth without their consent, we must choose and act freely from every situation we are in. Everything we do is a result of being free because we have choice.

What are Sumner's 'folkways'?

According to the American sociologist William Graham Sumner, who coined the term, folkways are social conventions that are not considered to be of moral significance by members of the group

Can you explain the difference between act and rule utilitarianism?

Act utilitarianism is the belief that an action becomes morally right when it produces the greatest good for the greatest number of people, while Rule utilitarianism is the belief that the moral correctness of an action depends on the correctness of the rules that allows it to achieve the greatest good.

What is an 'argument by elimination'?

An Argument by Elimination seeks to logically rule out various possibilities until only a single possibility remains. This argument neither articulates multiple options nor eliminates any specific option

What is the 'golden mean'?

Appearing in Greek thought at least as early as the Delphic Maxim nothing to excess and emphasized in later Aristotelian philosophy, the golden mean or golden middle way is the desirable middle between two extremes, one of excess and the other of deficiency.

What is an argument by analogy?

Argument from analogy is a special type of inductive argument, whereby perceived similarities are used as a basis to infer some further similarity that has yet to be observed.

How does Aristotle identify virtue?

Aristotle defines moral virtue as a disposition to behave in the right manner and as a mean between extremes of deficiency and excess, which are vices. We learn moral virtue primarily through habit and practice rather than through reasoning and instruction.

Who was Aristotle's famous teacher, and where did Aristotle study philosophy?

Aristotle founded his own school, the Lyceum, in Athens, where he spent most of the rest of his life studying, teaching and writing. Some of his most notable works include Nichomachean Ethics, Politics, Metaphysics, Poetics and Prior Analytics.

What does eudaimonia/happiness/living well/the good life mean for Aristotle?

Aristotle says that eudaimonia means'doing and living well'. It is significant that synonyms for eudaimonia are living welland doing well. On the standard English translation, this would be to say that 'happiness is doing well and living well'.

commonsense morality

Common-sense morality is basically an intuitions pump for moral philosophers.

How should one deal with "fools and blockheads"?

Dealing with fools and blockheads, there is only one way of showing your intelligence, by having nothing to do with them.

Can you explain the difference between deductive, inductive, and abductive arguments?

Deduction is generally defined as "the deriving of a conclusion by reasoning." "inference of a generalized conclusion from particular instances." a syllogism in which the major premise is evident but the minor premise and therefore the conclusion only probable."

How does deontology differ from teleology? To which one would Mill belong? Kant?

Deontology is an approach to ethics which adheres to the theory that an end doesnot justify the means while teleology is an approach to ethics that adheres to the theory that the end always justifies the means. 2. Deontology is also known as duty-based ethics while teleology is also known as results-oriented ethics

How does Mill differ from Bentham when it comes to 'direct pleasures'? What kind of pleasures does Mill prefer?

For Mill, higher pleasures are more valuable than lower pleasures, because of their "intrinsic superiority". Though Mill's theory is more respecful of human nature, it makes pleasure even more difficult to calculate as we now have to consider unquantifiable quality of pleasure, as well as the quantity.

How does Hobbes define 'liberty'?

Hobbes considers the nature of liberty under sovereign power and says that libertymeans the ability to act according to one's will without being physically hindered from performing that act.

How does Hobbes describe the 'state of nature'? What is it?

Hobbes describes sovereignty as the soul of the Leviathan. State of Nature - The "natural condition of mankind" is what would exist if there were no government, no civilization, no laws, and no common power to restrain human nature. ... Life in the state of nature is "nasty, brutish and short

Why is everything that happens to me "mine"?

I walk in a room and I can see everything about everyone in the room. " ... If I can't write well for two days then something is wrong with my life.

Why is there no "human nature"?

If man as the existentialist sees him is not definable, it is because to begin with he is nothing. He will not be anything until later, and then he will be what he makes of himself. Thus, there is no human nature, because there is no God to have a conception of it. Man simply is. Man is nothing than what he makes of himself.

What does it mean to 'beg the question'? How is begging the question related to 'circular argument'? (There's more on this in Chapter 1, too.)

In classical rhetoric and logic, begging the question is an informal fallacy that occurs when an argument's premises assume the truth of the conclusion, instead of supporting it. It is a type of circular reasoning: an argument that requires that the desired conclusion be true.

Why does Kant believe that ethical action begins with good will?

In his combined works, Kant constructed the basis for an ethical law by the concept of duty. Kant began his ethical theory by arguing that the only virtue that can be unqualifiedly good is a good will. ... Kant regarded the good will as a single moral principle which freely chooses to use the other virtues for moral ends.

What does philosophic charity demand?

In philosophy and rhetoric, the principle of charity or charitable interpretation requires interpreting a speaker's statements in the most rational way possible and, in the case of any argument, considering its best, strongest possible interpretation. In its narrowest sense, the goal of this methodological principle is to avoid attributing irrationality, logical fallacies, or falsehoods to the others' statements, when a coherent, rational interpretation of the statements is available.

What is the greatest happiness principle?

In reality, utility is defined as pleasure itself, and the absence of pain.

What is the 'categorical imperative'? What does it require?

It is our duty to act in such a manner that we would want everyone else to act in a similar manner in similar circumstances towards all other people. Kant expressed this as the Categorical Imperative. Act according to the maxim that you would wish all other rational people to follow, as if it were a universal law.

How does Mill define liberty?

It is within the context of this form of government that Mill envisions the growth and development of liberty. Chapter I defines civil liberty as the limit that must be set on society's power over each individual. ... The second type is the liberty of tastes and pursuits, or the freedom to plan our own lives.

What does Kant mean by 'good will'?

Kant means that a good will is "good without qualification" as such an absolute good in-itself, universally good in every instance and never merely as good to some yet further end.

What is the 'categorical imperative'? How do you use it?

Kant's improvement on the golden rule, the Categorical Imperative: Act as you would want all other people to act towards all other people. Act according to the maxim that you would wish all other rational people to follow, as if it were a universal law. The difference is this.

What are Kant's thoughts on suicide? Euthanasia?

Kant, in forbidding suicide and euthanasia, is conflating respect for persons and respect for people, and assuming that, in killing a person (either oneself or another), we are thereby undermining personhood. But an argument along these lines is faulty according to Kant's own standards.

Who are we responsible for?

Man is responsible for what he is. This is the first effect of existentialism and it puts the weight of the world on every man's shoulders. Man is responsible for all men.

What is a 'theory of the good'? What is Mill's?

Mill defines utilitarianism as a theory based on the principle that "actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness." Mill defines happiness as pleasure and the absence of pain.

What does 'individual subjectivism' mean? How does it compare to moral objectivism?

Moral Relativism and Objectivism. Moral Relativism: The view that what is morallyright or wrong depends on what someone thinks. (a) Subjectivism: What is morallyright or wrong for you depends on what you think is morally right or wrong, i.e., right or wrong is relative to the individual.

moral intuition

Moral intuitions are strong, stable, immediate moral beliefs.

What is moral objectivism?

Moral objectivism is the position that moral truths exist independantly from opinion. There are several versions of moral objectivism, of varying levels of strentgth. They area, from weakest to strongest: Moraluniversalism. ... Moral absolutism.

What is moral relativism?

Moral relativism may be any of several philosophical positions concerned with the differences in moral judgments across different people and cultures.

What is the deal with Bentham's 'auto-icon'?

On his death in 1832, Bentham left instructions for his body to be first dissected, and then to be permanently preserved as an "auto-icon" (or self-image), which would be his memorial. This was done, and the auto-icon is now on public display at University College London (UCL).

What is the basic idea of the 'social contract'?

Social contract theory says that people live together in society in accordance with an agreement that establishes moral and political rules of behavior. Some people believe that if we live according to a social contract, we can live morally by our own choice and not because a divine being requires it.

How does Mill define sovereignty?

That principle is, that the sole end for which mankind are warranted, individually or collectively, in interfering with the liberty of action of any of their number, is self-protection. ... Over himself, over his own body and mind, the individual is sovereign.

What was Bentham's 'panopticon', and what was its purpose?

The Panopticon ("all-seeing") was a prison. It was designed to allow round-the-clock surveillance of the inmates by their superintendent. Bentham's intention was humanitarian; but penitentiaries are not the best advertisement for a utilitarian ethic.

What are the primary differences between 'master' and 'slave' morality?

The main difference between master and slave morality is that the master morality emphasizes and values power and pride whereas the slave morality emphasizes and values qualities such as empathy, kindness, and sympathy.

What is a 'maxim of action' for Kant?

The maxim of an action is often referred to as the agent's intention. In Kantianethics, the categorical imperative provides a test on maxims for determining whether the actions they refer to are right, wrong, or permissible. ... I have, for example, made it my maxim to increase my wealth by any safe means.

What does Nietzsche mean when he speaks of a 'revaluation of all values'?

The revaluation of all values or "transvaluation" is a concept from the philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche. Elaborating the concept in The Antichrist, Nietzsche asserts that Christianity, not merely as a religion but also as the predominant moral system of the Western world, inverts nature, and is "hostile to life".

How is the social contract enforced?

The theory of an implicit social contract holds that by remaining in the territory controlled by some society, which usually has a government, people give consent to join that society and be governed by its government, if any. This consent is what gives legitimacy to such a government.

Who qualities do the "levellers" have? What are they lacking?

These wrongly named "free spirits"-- as glib-tongued and scribe-fingered slaves of the democratic taste, and its "modern ideas" all of them men without solitude, without personal solitude, blunt honest fellows to whom neither courage nor honourable conduct ought to be denied.

According to Hobbes, why do people quarrel/fight?

This equality, Hobbes says, naturally leads to conflict among individuals for three reasons: competition, distrust, and glory. In the first case, if two individuals desire a scarce commodity, they willcompete for the commodity and necessarily become enemies.

What is the basic argument for cultural relativism?

This is the main argument for cultural relativism. Its premises are (1) different cultures have different moral beliefs and (2) these differences show that there are no universally correct moral standards.

In Aristotle's opinion, can virtue be learned? Taught?

This latter quality is called "moral virtue" by Aristotle, and it is primarily a matter of conditioning—what Aristotle calls "habit" or "disposition" (éthos). Moral virtue is learned by repetition; intellec- tual virtue can be taught and is the appropriate concern of the schools.

What is a 'theory of the right'? What is Mill's?

To enact a forbidden action is morally wrong. As noted, Mill's theory allows for the possibility that an action is objectively right, but morally wrong (prohibited). An action can be wrong (bearing unhappiness), but its enactment would be no less morally right

What does "leveling down" consist of?

To remove layers from the surface of something in order to make it level or smooth.

What is hedonism, and how does it relate to utilitarianism?

Utilitarianism defines what is morally right as that which maximizes the good (happiness) and minimizes the bad (suffering) for a population. Most forms of utilitarianism are a form of hedonism, in that they hold pleasure as a positive value and pain as a negative one.

What does logical validity mean? How does it relate to soundness?

Validity and Soundness. A deductive argument is said to be valid if and only if it takes a form that makes it impossible for the premises to be true and the conclusion nevertheless to be false. ... A deductive argument is sound if and only if it is both valid, and all of its premises are actually true.

What are the 3 basic parts of an ethical judgment?

Virtue Ethics - The doctrine that a virtuos character is required in order to lead a life worth living. Applied Ethics - The attempt to use philosophical tools to find solutions to specific moral problems. Descriptive Ethics - The scientific study of moral beliefs and practices

What is virtue ethics?

Virtue ethics are normative ethical theories which emphasize virtues of mind, character and sense of honesty

Why is man "in anguish"?

When a man commits himself and fully realizes he must not only legislate for himself but for all men, he can not escape this responsibility.

Can you explain the difference between ethics and morality?

While they are sometimes used interchangeably, they are different: ethics refer to rules provided by an external source, codes of conducting workplaces or principles in religions. Morals refer to an individual's own principles regarding right and wrong.

What does Sartre mean when he says there are "no non-human situation[s]", and "no accidents" in life?

You are free to make every choice yourself. Thus, there are no accidents in life. The choice you made caused that "accident," and it could have been avoided if you didn't do that action.

If you find yourself in the middle of a war, why do you "deserve it"?

You choose to stay in the war. You can always desert it or commit suicide, but by staying at war, you are choosing to do so.

what is the difference between perfect and imperfect duties? Can you name some of each?

You have the basic definition in hand: a perfect duty is one which one must always do and an imperfect duty is a duty which one must not ignore but admits of multiple means of fulfillment. Kant specifies two imperfect duties: the duty of self-improvement and the duty to aid others.

Can you explain the statement "existence precedes essence" to others, and give examples?

a chair exists, but we determine its essence. we give the chair meaning. before we can determine the chair's essence, it must have existence.

What is the dangerous "perhaps"?

a famous philosophical tragedy

Can you explain what a 'thought-experiment' is?

an experiment carried out only in the imagination.

What does Nietzsche think about the "common good"?

anything that is common has minimal value, therefore not a "good" (open response)

What does logical strength mean? How does it relate to cogency?

cogent argument is by definition non-deductive, which means that the premises are intended to establish probable (but not conclusive) support for the conclusion. Furthermore, a cogent argument is strong, so the premises, if they were true, wouldsucceed in providing probable support for the conclusion.

Why does Aristotle call politics the 'master art'?

determines which of the sciences should be in the communities, and which kind of individuals are to learn, and what degree of proficiency is to be required."

What is Rachels final argument against cultural relativism?

different cultures have different moral codes

What is phronesis, and what is the difference between 'knowing what' and 'knowing how'?

episteme is the "know why" and techne is the "know how," whereas Aristotle's thinking is that phronesis involves both. Morally informed action involves deliberating, deciding and doing what is best for human flourishing (Aristotle, trans.

In Aristotle's opinion, what is the best kind of lifestyle? The worst?

happiness, sadness

Do you understand the fallacy of equivocation? Can you give examples of it?

he fallacy of equivocation occurs when a key term or phrase in an argument is used in an ambiguous way, with one meaning in one portion of the argument andthen another meaning in another portion of the argument. Examples: I have the right to watch "The Real World." Therefore it's right for me to watch the show.

What is the principle of utility?

he principle of utility states that actions or behaviors are right in so far as they promote happiness or pleasure, wrong as they tend to produce unhappiness or pain. Hence, utility is a teleological principle. ... Many utilitarians believe that pleasure and pain are objective states and can be, more or less, quantified.

individual subjectivism

in ethics is the theory that emphasizes individuals' personal feelings, beliefs or opinions as the basis for morality.

What is eudaimonia?

in greek terms, happiness

Can you define moral nihilism?

is the meta-ethical view that nothing is morally right or wrong. Moral nihilism is distinct from moralrelativism, which allows for actions wrong relative to a particular culture or individual.

What qualities do the new philosophers have? What are they not?

one direction mindset

How does Hobbes define a 'right'?

power to act. And a right is therefore an unimpeded freedom to do or to not. dosomething. A right, then, according to Hobbes, is a species of liberty. We can see from the definitions above that any right will be a liberty, so.

What draws people together?

psychology of attraction

Why do politicians need to be virtuous?

represent opinions of people understanding of Philosophy

What is asceticism, and how does it relate to utilitarianism?

severe self-discipline and avoidance of all forms of indulgence, typically for religious reasons.

Why is the "responsibility of the for-itself" "overwhelming"?

since it is thanks to the for-itself that it happens that there is a world'

Why is it "senseless to think of complaining" about life?

since nothing foreign has decided what we feel, what we live, or what we are.'

What school of moral thought does Mill's utilitarian philosophy align with?

stanford

What are the two kinds of existentialists, according to Sartre? What do they have in common?

the Christians and the existential atheists-"What they have in common is simply the fact that they believe that 'existence' comes before 'essence' - or, if you will, that we must begin from the subjective."

Do you understand what abduction is?

the action or an instance of forcibly taking someone away against their will.

What condition of life does Nietzsche want recognized? What does this mean?

the basic life

What is egalitarianism, and how does it relate to utilitarianism?

the doctrine that all people are equal and deserve equal rights and opportunities.

How does Hobbes define a 'contract'?

the mutual transferring of right."

What does it mean to reason?

the power of the mind to think, understand, and form judgments by a process of logic.

- Can you explain what philosophy is, and what differentiates it from the other academic disciplines?

the study of the fundamental nature of knowledge, reality, and existence, especially when considered as an academic discipline

What can an enemy offer you that a friend can't?

truth

Why is being human different than being a "book or a paper-knife"?

we know the exact formula and definition of book and paper knife - but since God makes man, we have more of a divine essence than a book or a paper knife.

Why is it ridiculous to say "I did not ask to be born"?

you are using the body and mind given to you at birth to think about how you wish you weren't born and choose to continue living - and living in anguish at that. you have full responsibility over your life and can end it at anytime if you truly wanted.

What influences the conscious thinking of a philosopher? What does this mean?

your awareness of who you are as a person and how you think