Philosophy pre u paper 3, ethics

arguments against aristotle's virtue ethics: role models

kant: "fatal to morality", goodness should be upheld for its own sake; sartre: inauthentic to abdicate freedom and be led by others' lifestyles

Utilitarianism definition

umbrella term, referring to various relativist (no fixed or objective moral rules), consequentialist (moral decisions based on consequences), teleological (concerned with ultimate end results), naturalistic (concept of goodness reduced to natural qualities found in the world) systems of ethics

Arguments against absolute pacifism: past does not predict future

impossible to extrapolate future consequences from past

arguments against aristotle's virtue ethics (2f diggis swager juvy)

impractical (doesn't tell us what to do in particular situations- louden) Composition fallacy (argues on the basis of the function argument. however, just because the parts each have a function does not necessitate that the whole has function- like arguing that because humans each have bodies society must have a body) genetic fallacy (assumes that causes work by transferring properties to effects- e.g. things that are red (paint) cause other things to be red (walls) but not always true- murderers can cause people to be dead without themselves being dead) science and efficient cause (modern science may be interpreted to indicate things are efficiently caused (by a prior thing) rather than directed towards a telos- e.g. darwinian evolution. finches adapt to encironment, not the other way around. counter: doesn't need foundation in telos; still successful- allows adaption to environment) lack of will (people lack strength of will to be virtuous. even people habitually virtuous can be manipulated by authoritarian structures. Zimbardo: main reason that dictatorships succeed is because people passively stand by. e.g. Stanford Prison experiment, Milgram shock experiment. Most people willing to cause harm due to pressure and persuasion) aspiration (MacIntyre: difficult to believe that anyone has managed to achieve the ideal of virtuousness. suggests not an achievable ethic. adams: so where do we look for examples of morality? no one perfect. counter: look for it in people who are succeeding in that aspect of their life) judgement without action (e.g. paedophile misanthropist who never acts- unfair) rand: selfish ("the achievement of his own happiness is man's highest moral purpose"; altruism becomes a vice. encourages corruption-e.g. friends and family more important than strangers. counter: the good of one is the good of all) virtues gendered (Freud: "for women, the level of what is ethically moral is different from that for men... women show less sense of justice... they are often more influenced... by feelings of affection or hostility." counter: even if true, virtue ethics is aspirational- reason and practice would allow women to show the same justice as men over time. Greeno: Gender virtues are influenced by traditional gender roles; these stereotypes have eroded over the last 20 years- ever increasing number less gender specific) elitist (aristotle claimed people have different rational abilities, so capable of higher degree of phronesis (thus more virtuous) than others - may lead to hierarchical conception, e.g. aristotle accepted slavery) Dull: Grayling ("suggests a rather limited individual prone to pomposity", "in shunning the extremes of passion, love, anguish and like states, cannot know the value of them as a source of insight and creativity" counter: Pojmann: nothing dull about people who stand up in the face of adversity to injustice and greed; good acts performed by virtuous people have a qualitative difference and lasting impact) guidance (lacks guidance for what qualifies as a virtue; phroenesis comes with experience, so young people are disadvantaged; lack the judgement that comes with experience. without guidelines may perform actions which are harmful. doesn't seem wise to withdraw protective deontological frameworks. what if i have no access to morality? counter: reductio ad absurdum. clash of virtues? e.g. whistleblowers between loyalty and honesty. counter: Hursthouse: doesn't tell us how to act, tells us how to think about a dilemma) underestimates youth (phronesis comes with experience- doesn't explain Malala Yousafzai or students behind "march for our lives" counter: it is not the quantity but quality of life experience) role models (kant: "fatal to morality", goodness should be upheld for its own sake; sartre: inauthentic to abdicate freedom and be led by others' lifestyles) god (foregoes the grace of god. erasmus: virtue ethics meant people could claim the authority to promote their own well being and reject god. contrary to original sin) unsuccessful (virtuous people do not always succeed. kant: God necessary postulate of practical reason; there are always contingencies which mean that there is no guarantee the virtuous will prosper- for universe to be rational, god must exist as moral guarantor. counter: imperfect, merely the best) incomplete (modern developments of virtue ethics- rachels, keenan, macintyre) vice (sometimes virtue operates as a vice- e.g. daring to commit murder. counter: foot: modern development, claims virtue not a virtue if operating as a vice)

Existentialism is a humanism: quote: cogito

"Contrary to the philosophy of Descartes, or of Kant, when we say "I think," we each attain ourselves in the presence of the other, and we are just as certain of the other as we are of ourselves. Therefore, the man who becomes aware of himself directly in the cogito also perceives all others... He realizes that he cannot be anything (in the sense in which we say someone is spiritual, or cruel, or jealous) unless others acknowledge him as such."

Existentialism is a humanism: Sartre quote: god as paper knife craftsman

"God produces man following certain techniques and a conception, just as the craftsman, following a definition and a technique, produces a paper knife. Thus each individual man is the realization of a certain concept within this divine intelligence."

Sermon on the mount: Scholars: Tolstoy

"I accepted the fact that christ meant exactly what he said", "the least that can be required of those who judge another man's teachings is that they should take the teacher's words in the exact sense in which he uses them" (takes sermon on mount literally.) 5 new commandments (Offend no one, and do nothing to excite evil in others (Out of evil comes evil); be chaste in all things (e.g. do not quit or abandon the wife taken- this the cause of loose living in the world); never take an oath (we cannot promise anything, because we are in the hands of the father); not to resist evil and bear with offences, do more than demanded of us; not to judge others (all men are faulty; by seeking revenge men teach others to do the same); to make no distinction between our countrymen and foreigners (all men are children on earth)), Kingdom of heaven established on earth (if 5 commandments followed) but Jesus commandments are hard- Paul (indoctrinated by Paul and catechism of the church that "the doctrine of Christ is good but cannot be put into practice"- people believe that Jesus will establish kingdom on earth without our help)

Existentialism is a humanism: quote: Doestoevsky

"If God did not exist, everything would be permitted"

utilitarianism: Mill: quote: higher and lower pleasures

"It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied. And if the fool, or the pig, is of a different opinion, it is only because they only know their own side of the question."

Existentialism is a humanism: quote: freedom and responsibility

"Man is condemned to be free: condemned, because he did not create himself, yet nonetheless free, because once cast into the world, he is responsible for everything he does."

utilitarianism: Mill: quote: main causes of unhappiness

"Next to selfishness, the principal cause which makes life unsatisfactory, is want of mental cultivation"

quote singer: what is preference utilitarianism

"Preference utilitarianism judges actions, not by their tendency to maximise pleasure and minimise pain, but by the extent to which they accord with the preferences of any beings affected by the action or its consequences"

Sermon on the Mount: Schweitzer

"The historical Jesus sees the kingdom as a supra-ethical entity and therefore only proclaims interim ethics", "The ethics of Jesus... have nothing to do with the achievement of anything in the world" (Interim ethic- Kingdom of God coming very soon; teaching men the attitude required for preparation) Jesus vs Pharisees (Pharisees claimed that faithful observance of the law were "entrance requirements" into heaven; "Jesus, however, teaches that this righteousness is not enough... a high righteousness, consisting in keeping the spirit of the commandments, is required") eschatological sayings (what should we draw from the fact that Jesus predicted the imminent end of the world but it has not yet come?) Supra ethical (Kingdom of heaven supernatural therefore beyond ethics. current morality: triumph of good over evil in history. Jesus: beyond good and evil. brought about by cosmic catastrophe through which evil is overcome) morality (moral criteria abolished; kingdom of god supra-moral)

Definition of abortion

"The medical process of ending a pregnancy so it does not result in the birth of a baby"

Gill quote: war and peace

"War has presented the twentieth century with perhaps its most crucial moral problem"

Existentialism is a humanism: quote: what does sartre mean by existence precedes essence?

"We mean that man first of all exists, encounters himself, surges up in the world-and defines himself afterward"

Importance of intention in sermon on the mount

"You have heard that it was said, "you shall not commit adultery". But I tell you that any man who looks at a woman lustfully has already committed adultery with her in their heart"

Pro choice: warren

"abortion is morally permissible". spaceman analogy (culture of creatures on a distant planet. genetically different from us. But They feel pain, love their children, have a sense of right and wrong. They have a city set up above a seam of ultra-valuable minerals, which would improve the general health of everyone on earth. They refuse to move for humans to mine the minerals Is our killing them justified because they are not human beings?) human persons (two senses of word human: genetic: human being. moral: human person. we protect people because they are human persons, not beings. 5 criteria for personhood: consciousness, reasoning, self-motivated activity, capacity to communicate, Self-awareness. Therefore the argument would be: Deliberate killing of human persons is wrong; A foetus is a human person; Therefore killing human foetuses is wrong. but a foetus is not a human person: even at 7-8 months old) "I think a rational person must conclude that if the right to life of a fetus is to be based upon its resemblance to a person, then it cannot be said to have any more right to life than... a newborn guppy (which also seems capable of feeling pain) and that a right of that magnitude could never override a woman's right to obtain an abortion"

quote: kant: morality

"act only by that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it becomes a moral law"

utilitarianism: Mill: quote: definition of greatest happiness principle

"actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness. By happiness is intended pleasure, and the absence of pain; by unhappiness, pain, and the privation of pleasure"

Modern developments of virtue ethics: MacIntyre

"any virtues which sustain the households and communities in which men and women seek for good together". opposes modern individualism- we have "lost our comprehension" of morality. argues that human virtues were those which support the community. virtues develop through time and are relative to the society- e.g. homeric values of strength, courage and honour to aristotelean virtues of courage, justice and temperance, to christian virtues such as humility. internal goods (character) and external goods (wealth) are both part of the good life. practices- things done for their own sake and not for the good consequences, e.g. play music.

Existentialism is a humanism: Sartre quote: existence/essence and counters

"existence precedes essence" (seems to indicate belief in essence that sartre denies. Warburton: "although [Sartre] rejects the idea that human beings have any essence, he takes the essence of human beings to be that they are free when he declares, "man is free, man is freedom")

Existentialism is a humanism: quote: man creates through action

"in life man commits himself and draws his own portrait, outside of which there is nothing"

Existentialism is a humanism: quote: why will the freedom of others

"in thus willing freedom, we discover that it depends entirely upon the freedom of others and that the freedom of others depends upon our own"

Euthanasia: Aquinas

"it is completely unlawful to kill oneself" because it is against the "inclination of nature" (contrary to natural law and agape. "everything naturally loves itself" and tries to keep itself alive.) community ("every part belongs to the whole", thus injuring oneself injures the community) god (life is god's gift to man. "it belongs to god alone to pronounce sentence of death and life") doctrine of double effect (if primary intention is to relieve pain but a side effect is to hasten death, the action is morally permissible due to good intention- Catholic Catechism, 2278: (discontinuing medical treatment that is disproportionate to the outcome is acceptable) and 2279 (the use of painkillers to reduce pain even if a foreseeable side effect is death))

Bentham outline

"it is the greatest happiness of the greatest number that is the measure of right and wrong", "nature has placed mankind under two sovereign master, pain and pleasure. it is for them alone to point out what we ought to do". pannomion (aim to create a complete set of utilitarian code of laws) hedonism (psychological hedonist: believed we are motivated by pleasure and pain alone. acknowledged that some hedonic motivations fail to determine actions and some hedonically motivated actions fail to gain pleasure) egalitarian (believed everyone is equal and should be treated equally: "everyone to count for one, and no one to count for more than one") quality ("quantity of pleasure being the same, pushpin is as good as poetry"- no such thing as higher forms of pleasure) hedonic calculus (scientific method of determining the moral value for action, by determining how much pleasure and pain an action produces. value of pleasure and pain: intensity (0 to infinity according to bentham. counter: psychological studies indicate an upper limit to pleasure) duration, certainty (how often has pleasure resulted from similar actions under similar conditions in the past?) remoteness/propinquity (how long one must wait for pleasure to occur) amount of pleasure/pain: fecundity (probability it will lead to other pleasure/pain) purity ("of the value of each pain which appears to be produced by it after the first") impact on community: extent) rule of thumb (we should apply hedonic calculus to every new situation in which we find ourselves. impossible to do this in every situation- so we should use a previous hedonic calculus, the "rule of thumb")

Existentialism is a humanism: quote: value of action

"its only value lies in the fact that it was chosen"

Natural law: aquinas: synderesis rule

"no evil can ever be desirable". by nature humans do good and avoid evil. general, innate, god given. we choose good because we were designed to do so by god. (counter: people do not always do good. Aquinas: when they are not doing good they are pursuing apparent goods, which comes from a misunderstanding)

Existentialism is a humanism: quote: subjective/objective nature of experience

"objective, because they affect everyone and are evident everywhere; subjective because they are experienced and are meaningless if man does not experience them"

quote: scruton: kantian ethics

"one of the most beautiful creations the human mind has ever devised"

Arguments against shallow ecology: Singer's forest

"practical ethics". river runs through forest. area only accessible to reasonably fit due to rough terrain; favoured spit for bush walking, white water rafting. stands of rare Huron Pine (trees over 1000 years old), home to birds and animals, including endangered species of marsupial mouse seldom seen outside the valley. possibly other rare plants and animals, but not yet investigated by scientists. State hydroelectricity commission considers it untapped energy; building a dam would provide 3 years employment for 1000 people, longer term employment for 20-30. energy for entire state for next decade. encourage establishment of energy intensive industry, contribute to employment and economic growth. shallow ecology considers things only in as useful as they are to humans. singer's forest is of immediate known use to humans- providing energy and jobs, also of unknown future use. however, it is likely that by taking an anthropocentric view the immediate benefits outweigh the long-term benefits, thus singer's forest is not saved

quote: Kant: goodwill

"the goodwill shines forth like a precious jewel for its own sake as something which has full value in itself", "the only thing that is good without qualification is the good will"

aristotle, virtue ethics, quote goal of life

"the masses and the cultured classes agree in calling [the goal of life] happiness" Nichomachean ethics

utilitarianism: Mill: quote: desire and happiness

"there is in reality nothing desired except happiness. Whatever is desired otherwise than as a means to some end beyond itself, and ultimately to happiness, is desired as itself a part of happiness"

Singer: quote: what does utilitarianism?

"to be a utilitarian means that you try to do what will have the best consequences for all those effected"

Biblical support for fletcher

"you shall love the lord your god with all your heart... and your neighbour as yourself" (Luke 10:27), "love one another" (1 John 3:23), Rahab lied to save the israelite spies yet is commended in the NT (James 2:25), Jesus allowed disciples to eat because they were hungry even though it went against the rules of the sabbath (Matthew 12: 1-4) Jesus goes back to the core principles rather than elaborating on scripture like the pharisees (Matthew 15-17)

Camus on ethics

'a man without ethics is a wild beast loosed upon the world'

Camus on rules

'integrity has no need of rules', The Absurd Man

Camus on free will

'the only way to deal with an unfree world is to become so absolutely free that your very existence is an act of rebellion'

Sermon on the Mount: Freud

(reportedly) "impossible" to follow the sermon on the mount as a normative ethic. impractical (heavenly ideas that have no earthly good, exceed our ability to understand)

Modern development of natural law: Finnis: list of basic goods

1. Life (physical and mental health; freedom from pain and injury; procreation of children) 2. knowledge (pursuit of knowledge for its own sake; "an interest in or concern for truth and a desire to avoid ignorance or error) 3. play (actions or "performances" enjoyed for their own sake) 4. Aesthetic experience (beauty outside of oneself, internal appreciation of beauty) 5. sociability/friendship (acting for another's purpose) 6. practical reasonableness (ability to "bring one's own intelligence to bear effectively", ability to reason about what is best for yourself and act on those decisions; development of a "coherent life plan"), 7. religion (individual's connection with and participation in the orders that transcend humanity)

Existentialism is a humanism: essence precedes existence argument

1. in order to make X we must know what X will be. 2. in order to know what X will be we must know what X will do. 3. thus an understanding and essence of X precedes existence of X

Euthanasia: catholic church on euthanasia

1990. active or passive. "nothing and no one can in anyway permit the killing of an innocent human being", "it is a question of a violation of the divine law, an offence against the dignity of the human person, a crime against life, and an attack on humanity"- alternative: "what a sick person needs, besides medical care, is love"

Sermon on the Mount: What does Tolstoy think it establishes and details

5 new commandments: 1. offend no one, and excite no evil in others (from evil comes evil), 2. be chaste in all things (do not abandon the taken wife- that is the cause of all loose living in the world), 3. never take an oath (oaths are evil; we cannot promise anything because we are in the hands of the father), 4. not to resist evil and to bear with offences, not to judge others, do more than is demanded of us (all men are faulty- by seeking revenge from others we excite in them the will to do the same), 5. to make no distinction between our countrymen and foreigners (all children are children of christ)

Pope Pius XI: crits of situation ethics

Acta Apostolicae Sedis 44, 1956. Existentialist: "it is not difficult to recognise how the new new moral system derives from existentialism, which either prescinds from god, or simply denies him", and "man is intelligible only in terms of his relation to God". counter: existentialist christian ethic of Kierkegaard. Subjective: against the moral doctrines of the catholic church- based on Aquinas's natural law. immoral: bishop o hara: "substitution of emotion for the rational process" whereas natural law focuses on reason as the deciding factor for action. natural law works from the way things are, and is founded in the ontological truth of things. unchristian: "the christian moral law is in the law of the creator engraved in the heart of each one and in revelation". churchteaches that there are certain acts which are "gravely forbidden by the divine law maker... no matter what the situation of the individual... there is no other course open to him but to obey" counter: if it is indeed "engraved on the heart of each one" surely then situation ethics works- because it is defined by the fact it is upon the individual to respond

Fletcher's situational ethic: outline (AGAPE)

Altruistic (social, interested in others), God (based in scripture), Attitudinal (not emotion- or rule- based) Philanthropic (non-preferential, all human beings are equal) Egoism (rejected, non-reciprocal)

Embryo research and genetic engineering: stem cell research against

Anglican Bishop: Research combining human and animal material is of 'Frankenstein proportion'; Touches on 'sacredness of human life, its meaning and purpose'; Plays 'Games with... humanity' (quoted by Blakemore in Times article 2009)

Arguments against just war theory

Augustine: Subjective (Biblical interpretation subjective. not objective but rather searching to justify his cause) Tertullian (argues jesus revoked the old testament. counter: Matthew 5, "do not think that i come to abolish the law"), John 18 (Jesus telling Peter to "put down" his sword has led some to consider a condemnation of violence. counter: viewed in context, seems more like a condemnation of resisting the lord's plan: "shall i not drink the cup the father has given me?") Aquinas: Authority (even if legitimate, not necessarily moral; many struggles around the world are against cruel and unjust but legal regimes- wars of liberation more fundamental in justice) not universally applicable (Doesn't explain to wars in middle east; non-sovereign people (Palestinians) engaged in armed struggle since foundation of Israel and their territorial displacement in 1949 into refugee camps. deems struggle illegitimate: not sovereign, not pursuing it by means condoned by just war strategists, e.g. suicide bombing) incomplete (Not sufficient to explain subtleties and complexities of morals and war. more complete list compiled since: last resort, legitimate methods, proportional force-Suarez, Vitoria), Reductive (More complicated; no single 'just cause') outcomes unpredictable (WW2: "over by christmas") Fighters not moral (unrealistic to expect fighters to think morally) innocent civilian (is there such a thing as an innocent civilian? sometimes it is difficult to work out who is innocent and who is not- e.g. Vietnam or Boer guerilla warfare)

existentialism is a humanism: criticisms: and supports: all

Baldwin: "seized the imagination of a generation". criticisms: Heidegger: metaphysical (reversion of metaphysical statement "existence precedes essence" remains metaphysical. it is thus inappropriate as it distracts from true being (dasein)) Anderson: individual to general (sartre makes a leap in logic from saying that if a person seeks freedom from false external authorities then they must seek freedom for all people from those authorities- not clear that what is "better for one is better for all"- diversity of interests), God (fails to give atheistic proof- relies on assertion) kierkegaard (even if existence does precede essence doesn't negate belief in god) aristotle (possible to have belief that essence precedes existence without belief in god) Rose: unfreedom (man not really free- "political sloganeering" rather than actual freedom. man's freedom limited by the fact he is a biological creature- cashmore, nature neurosci) sartre rejection (sartre later rejected the work) aim (doesn't seem to convincingly achieve his aim- that if god is dead everything is permitted) hitler (all that an existentialist need do is believe that what is "Better for one is better for all" so is hitler defended under existential ethic?- although sartre did say that an existentialist can never "not will the freedom of others" and hitler did not do this) warburton (seems to indicate a belief in the essence that he clearly tries to argue against in other parts of the thoery by saying "existence precedes essence" thus indicating essence occurs, and "man is freedom")

Sermon on the mount: Matthew 5: 3-12

Beatitudes. "Blessed are those..." poor in spirit, mourn, meek, yearn for righteousness, merciful, pure in heart, peacemakers, persecuted for righteousness

Euthanasia: slippery slope

Begins with terminally ill patients, but this is a slippery slope to it becoming more widely accepted e.g. in those who are old or depressed. e.g. Netherlands (Legalised euthanasia 2001. Not only terminally ill patients; unbearable suffering of either physical or mental nature key criterion for euthanasia. Borst, Dutch Minister of Justice: "I am not against [assisted suicide] if it can be carefully controlled so that only those people of advanced age who are tired of life can use it")

Embryo research and genetic engineering: stem cell research supporters

Blakemore. "need to maintain openness and strict control". potential problems: sensitivities (Raises sensitivities) abuse potential (Could be abused without proper rules and restrictions). combination of human and animal material (Bill has strict restrictions on what can be made; No fully formed half-human, half-animal monsters) Cytoplasmic hybrids (Already permitted under existing law; Insertion of nucleus of single human cell into empty egg of an animal. genetic material almost entirely human; cannot be maintained for more than 14 days and cannot be implanted) research (Study of stem cells allows for the research and testing of treatments for terrible diseases)) Association of Medical Research Charities and Genetic Interest Group (Represent more than 220 medical charities and patient groups) transgenic mice (Carry human genes- fragment of human DNA; Produce conditions e.g. Huntington's, Down's; Play a vital role in research; NOT offensive monsters) criticism: adult stem cells (could replace embryonic. Counter: unlikely; although gained knowledge from stem-cell research might increase potential for therapeutic use of adult stem cells) adult stem cells like embryonic (recent research has developed methods to transform adult cells into cells with characteristics of embryonic stem cells. Counter: Techniquies involve infection and genetic modification. May not be useful. Research on embryonic stem cells will help us do more with adult cells) cluster of cells (embryo not human; cluster of cells) act utilitarianism (difficult to do hedonic calculus, because there are many unknowns; however, potential happiness created greater than potential unhappiness) rule utilitarianism (potential problem: depends whether the embryo is considered human, if so they have sovereign rights over their body; However, if not; greatest utility) Preference utilitarianism (Embryos aren't human (younger than 4 week old newborn) and cannot feel pain, Therefore only the preferences of moral agents should be considered. IVF embryos are destroyed anyway- greatest utility) SItuation ethics (most loving thing likely to go through with research; this will save a great many number of people's lives, may come down to situation however)

'a man without ethics is a wild beast loosed upon the world'

Camus on ethics

'the only way to deal with an unfree world is to become so absolutely free that your very existence is an act of rebellion'

Camus on freewill

'integrity has no need of rules'

Camus, The Absurd Man, on rules

Arguments for Just War theory CRRPLD

Commonly accepted (allows war to defend, protect, or prevent humanitarian disaster. popular concept. Historical precedent- e.g. WW2) Realistic (Recognises need for force; tries to regulate it and make it fair) Limits war (Provides checks on use of force; outlaws war except in defence of others or upholding important values) Anscombe: Importance of rulers ("World is less of a jungle because of rulers and laws", "Rulers need to command violence to the point of fighting to the death those that would oppose it") Christian pacifism misdirected ("god retains the evil will of the devil within limits by violence") objective right ("there is such a thing as being in the right"), doctrine of double effect (morally permissible to kill someone if a side effect of intention- e.g. self defence)

arguments against aristotle's virtue ethics: fallacies

Composition fallacy (argues on the basis of the function argument. however, just because the parts each have a function does not necessitate that the whole has function- like arguing that because humans each have bodies society must have a body) genetic fallacy (assumes that causes work by transferring properties to effects- e.g. things that are red (paint) cause other things to be red (walls) but not always true- murderers can cause people to be dead without themselves being dead)

War and peace: Absolute pacifism (teleological)

Consequential. reject violence on the basis that violence begets violence. Believe consequences of using violence to counter violence are worse than if violence never used; wars led to worse situations than prevent

Kantian ethics: criticisms KROPEM

Constant: enquiring murderer (telling truth universal moral duty. thus if a murderer asked, one must tell him the location of his prey. counter, Kant: "on a supposed right to tell lies from benevolent motives"- argued it is one's right to be truthful to a murderer. but, do not tell the direct truth- e.g. "not on the moon", "no comment". Counter: not instinctual- very few would feel it their duty to tell the truth to a murderer; not a categorical maxim to not tell the direct truth; moreover the example can be restated in a way that the only way to save the victim is to lie- e.g. "is she here?"- demonstrates limitations of kant's theory) Ross: oath breaking (world in which everyone could be depended on to break their word would be as reliable as one in which people always kept their promises- thus universal promise breaking could become universal. counter: changes the meaning of the words- "i do not promise" becomes "i promise"- the act of promising itself is unchanged) White-Beck: prudential maxims (Kant fails to distinguish between prudential and moral maxims: e.g. every new owner of a book should write their name on the flyleaf- becomes a moral duty) Kant's ethic vs kantian ethics, (homosexuals as below beasts, any woman about to be raped would better kill herself than allow herself to be defiled- failed to follow his own ethic, making it seem likely impractical) impractical (situations which require a rapid decision, unable to be used. counter, Kant: innate) rigidity and contradictions (nothing gets past it- and some things that do get past it, e.g. sharpening pencils, don't seem moral or immoral- rather amoral. contradictions of duties- what if the murderer asks for our friend? we have responsibility to our friend and to tell the truth- kant fails to tell us what to do) emotion (rejects emotion. Hume: "reason is the slave of the passions". when we are describing something good we are not describing any intrinsic value, but rather the way the thing makes us feel- which explains subjectivity, and why some people like broccoli and some people don't; copelston: Natural law drives a wedge between reason and emotion that modern psychiatry warns us against; reason and emotion should be integrated; cashmore: studies have indicated that the conscious follows the subconscious indicating that our conscious is just a matter of rationalising our subconscious)

Ecoholism: critics

Crude storytelling (Gould. criticised as metaphorical description of earth processes. wanted to know actual mechanisms of self-regulating homeostasis. Counter: lovelock: no one mechanism; connections between known mechanisms may never be known; accepted in other fields of biology and ecology; specific hostility held to his theory for political reasons) teleological (Dawkins. Lovelock implies Gaia acts for a purpose, that the planet acts to defend itself from environmental damage. "the extended phenotype"- 'no way for evolution by natural selection to lead to altruism on a Global scale'. response: Lovelock accepted criticism. later versions of theory remove teleological elements)

Arguments against shallow ecology: ecofeminism

Cuomo, "ecological feminism". doesn't consider the roots of the problem. women and the environment are victims of androcentric society; men use women and environment as possessions, only understand relationships based on domination. womanist approach: shared understanding of intrinsically connected nature of the world

Word for remembering arguments for natural law

D(double effect) I(intention) P(Positivism)P(shared purpose- all equal) I (Improvement)N (shared nature) D F(flexible, vardy)R(responsibility)A(absolutism)S(Simplicity)

Ecoholism: critics: teleological

Dawkins. Lovelock implies Gaia acts for a purpose, that the planet acts to defend itself from environmental damage. "the extended phenotype"- 'no way for evolution by natural selection to lead to altruism on a Global scale'. response: Lovelock accepted criticism. later versions of theory remove teleological elements

Existentialism is a humanism: what does sartre mean by Nausea

Described in Sartre's novel, "nausea". main character: Ronquentin. Describes the feeling created by the realisation that because "God is dead and we have killed him" (Neitzche), nothing can have necessary existence- rather everything is contingent and meaningless

Euthanasia: case study

Dianne Pretty. motor neurone disease. faced a painful death she wanted to avoid. "i want a quick death without suffering, at home surrounded by my family". final moments extremely painful and surrounded by family.

Arguments against absolute pacifism

Difficult (prohibits intervention even when people are being attacked or murdered- e.g. genocide in WW2. Hennesy: "being a pacifist between wars is as easy as being a vegetarian between meals"), spurious history (view of history is spurious. isn't necessarily true that consequences of violence are worse than not using it; e.g. WW2: created the peaceful Europe that appeasement failed to. counter: 20 million deaths or 60 years peace for hundreds of millions?) past does not predict future (impossible to extrapolate future consequences from past) cowardly: Mill ("war is an ugly thing, but not the ugliest of things: the decayed and degraded state of moral and patriotic feeling which thinks nothing worth a war is worse") Anscombe (christian opponent. "Pacifism teaches people to make no distinction between the shedding of innocent blood and the shedding of any human blood"- war justified if did not aim to kill non-combatants, doctrine of double effect) Luban (defends war on the basis of human rights: "such rights are worth fighting for... Not only by those to whom they are denied, but... by the rest of us as well") clean hands (refuses to take brutal measures necessary for personal and national defence to retain inner moral purity- thus pacifists are free riders, and can gather the benefits of citizenship without sharing the burdens. Counter: Many pacifists have paid a high price for their moral stance- unfair to call it cowardly) rewards aggression (no disincentive for aggressive behaviour; doesn't protect those unable to defend themselves- e.g. World War 2 appeasement. Counter: other disincentives- economic or cultural sanctions, eg.. Ghandi in India- civil disobedience or indirect coercion work more effectively than war) alternatives unworkable (what about a remorseless aggressor who doesn't respond to such sanctions- e.g. Nazi Germany. Walzer. Under such conditions, pacifism is a "disguised form of surrender") Niebhur (began pacifist, began to realise there were times when there was a moral imperative to go to war. insists human nature inherently sinful. limitations of the peacemaking abilities of morality and rationality. contrast between egotism of individuals and groups. special moral rules apply to groups that do not apply to individuals: countries have moral responsibilities to go to war that do not apply to individuals. Religion: reduces selfishness through contrition and spirit of love- but this cannot prevent conflict. Jesus shows god's pure love but cannot be realised in present human existence. will be realised when god changes world to the perfect harmony of god's kingdom. pacifists fail to recognise that god works through law courts and wars- needs human cooperation to realise his will)

genetic engineering: outline

Direct manipulation of organism's genome using biotechnology (Molecular cloning isolates and copies genetic material of interest. DNA sequence is generated. This is inserted into the host organism. Enzyme may remove genes) E.g. Human insulin (Insulin: naturally occurring substance, used by diabetics to control blood sugar. Both cows and pigs insulin have been used in the past. However, the rising number of people with diabetes means that cow/pig blood production is insufficient. Genetic modification to produce insulin: Restriction enzyme cuts out gene for making insulin. Enzyme cuts bacterial DNA and inserts insulin gene. Bacterium reproduces insulin gene) GM crops (DNA modified using genetic engineering. Introduce a new trait to the plant which does not occur naturally, E.g. resistance to pests, diseases, or environmental conditions; reduction of spoilage; resistance to chemical treatments; improving nutrient profile of the crop. E.g Soybeans Important crop in USA and Asia. Monsanto Company, Engineered soybeans to Resist weed killer. Resistance taken from bacteria resistant to weedkiller. Allows the farmer to use weedkiller on the crop without killing off plant; this means his crop will be less labour-intensive and more productive. Kill susceptible insect pests (Naturally occurring insecticide from inside caterpillar stomachs engineered into the plant), Reduced sat fats (Gene causing creation of sat fats 'knocked out' of DNA)

Natural law: aquinas: four kinds of law

Eternal law (things in the mind of god) divine law (laws from god revealed through scripture and miracles) natural law (eternal, unchanging rules for human conduct determined for the purpose god has given to the universe, discoverable through the application of reason to observation of the environment), human law (branch of natural law; moves from the general principles of natural law to specific applications in society)

Importance of intention in action: maths

Even if someone does the right thing for the wrong reason, it is still wrong. Like in maths; whilst the answer might be the same, correct working is required to make sure that the answer is always correct. If the answer is always correct, then it means the working is not wrong but rather different, and also correct.

Biblical approach: ecology

Ex nihilo (god created the world and everything in it ex nihilo), God (world is in possession of God. Psalm 24:1: "the earth is the lord's and everything in it", Job 41:11 "everything under the heavens belongs to [God]") world reflects god (in creation, god saw the world was good; world reflects god's goodness, therefore worthy of respect) stewardship and dominion given to humans ("be fruitful and multiply and fill the earth and subdue it and have dominion... over every living thing" (Genesis 1:22-28). subdue: Hebrew: Kabash. means to tread down, implying power and control. have dominion- hebrew radah- to rule. Oxford bible commentary: "it does not mean exploitation... rather it is a consequence of the gift to mankind of the image of god. mankind is, as it were... a supervisor of the world of living creatures") scholars: Geisler (four principles drawn from passage. Ecology means good stewardship (humans must respect the world and not turn it into a desert) principle of sabbath rest (rest needed for land to be productive. clear in jubillee law- every 50 years, land must be returned to it's original owner- Leviticus, 25:28. land is god's- man mustn't be greedy over it. man is image of god- above nature and not part of it) Paul, Romans 8 (the restoration of the world- after the fall of humans and coming of the kingdom of god- will occur once humans have repaired damage they have done to it. "we know that the whole of creation has been groaning in the pains of childbirth until now", :the creation waits with eager longing for the revealing of the sons of God", "the creation was subjected to futility... in hope that the creation itself will be set free from its bondage to corruption and obtain the freedom of the glory of the children of god". could be considered eco-holistic- personifies nature. implies nature has intrinsic feeling or desire) biblical passages: Genesis 8:22: "as long as the earth remains, there will be planting and harvest" (could imply anthropocentrism- earth there for humans to use. could also suggest ecoholism or gaia- the world is an ecosystem, and we are a part of it) Deuteronomy 20:19-20 "when you are attacking a town, don't chop down its fruit trees... fruit trees aren't your enemies, and they produce food that you can eat" (anthropocentrism, shallow ecology- trees are useful in so far as they are of use to you), Proverbs 12:10 "good people are kind to their animals (inherent goodness in action of kindness to creatures, suggesting creature has intrinsic worth) Luke 12:6: "five sparrows are sold for just two pennies, but god doesn't forget a one of them" (Intrinsic worth to creatures as part of creation)

word to remember bentham's hedonic calculus

F PRICED (fecundity, purity, remoteness, Intensity, certainty, extent, duration)

Arguments against natural law: Fall

Fall: Hick points out the evolutionary biology has revealed the impossibility of the fall as an historical event. indicates that thus Aquinas cannot explain through his current reasoning why people choose apparent goods

Modern developments of natural law scholars

Finnis, Hoose

Embryo research and genetic engineering: stem cell research: outline of stem cells

Found in all multicellular organisms. undifferentiated. can differentiate into specialised cells. Can divide (through mitosis) to produce more stem cells. In mammals, two kinds: embryonic (Found in early stages of embryo development, Can produce any kind of cell, Obtained from human embryos donated as surplus to human fertility treatment), adult stem cell (Found in various tissues E.g. bone marrow, Do not differentiate as widely) three types total: Totipotent (Able to produce entire organisms) Pluripotent (Able to produce all types of cells EXCEPT extra embryonic tissue; Obtained from embryonic stem cells) Multipotent (Produce many specialised cell types, Most adult cells are multipotent)

arguments against aristotle's virtue ethics: virtues gendered

Freud: "for women, the level of what is ethically moral is different from that for men... women show less sense of justice... they are often more influenced... by feelings of affection or hostility." counter: even if true, virtue ethics is aspirational- reason and practice would allow women to show the same justice as men over time. Greeno: Gender virtues are influenced by traditional gender roles; these stereotypes have eroded over the last 20 years- ever increasing number less gender specific

Applied ethics: war and peace: intro quote

Gill: "War has presented the twentieth century with perhaps its most crucial moral problem"

War and peace essay

Gill: "war has presented the twentieth century with perhaps its most crucial moral problem". Absolute pacifism: tolstoy, christian pacifism. Arguments against: difficult, mill, clean hands, rewards aggression, alternatives unworkable, Niebhur (counter mcmahon), anscombe, Augustine/Aquinas. biblical readings, commonly accepted, realistic, limits war. Counter: subjective reading, authority, not universally applicable, reductive, incomplete and vague

Abortion on quality of life grounds

Giubilini and Minerva. controversial paper arguing that in some cases it might be acceptable to end the lives of new born babies if adequate concerns about quality of life. morally equivalent (Newborns and foetus morally equivalent. Both human beings; Potential persons; Not a person in the sense of 'subject of a moral right to life'.) Definition of a person (Capable of attributing themselves some basic value, Thus loss of life represents loss to them; Capable of having aims, Thus being unable to accomplish aims is harmful. Thus many non-human animals and mentally retarded persons are not human.) parents and family human (thus their opinions of greater importance than newborn) genetics (being genetically human not in itself right to life. Spare embryos in embryo stem cell research are destroyed, Foetuses are aborted, Criminals are murdered where capital punishment is allowed. those capable of feeling pain have a right not to have pain inflicted) criticism: harm (someone is harmed because they are prevented from becoming a person capable of appreciating their own lives. counter: you can be benefited by being brought into being; you cannot be harmed from being prevented. in order for harm to occur, someone must be able to experience that harm; if a potential person is prevented from becoming a person, then neither an actual nor future person is harmed) actual people vs potential people (potential people cannot be harmed by not being brought into existence. actual people can be harmed by potential people) criticism: adoption (as alternative to infanticide. healthy newborn given up for adoption may improve overall happiness (adoptee, adopters) and not breach the rights of anyone involved. counter: abortion and adoption is often reported to cause severe psychological problems to the birthmother. cannot presume that post birth abortion would be worse than adoption. "those who grieve a death must accept the irreversibility of the loss, but natural mothers often dream their child will return to them. This makes it difficult to accept the reality of the loss because they can never be quite sure whether or not it is reversible") abortion and infanticide (Same reasons to justify abortion should be the same as infanticide. E.g. costs- social, psychological, economic; Moral status of newborn same of foetus- neither has moral value as potential person)

Natural Law: Aquinas: assumptions

God (there is a god who created the world and everything in it ex nihilo), soul (we have an eternal soul which must be preserved) nature (we have a common nature- Aristotelean influences) purpose (we have a common purpose- aristotelian influences. to be reunited with God)

Christian pacifism: counter: Lord of the armies

God leads and directs Israel against enemies. Joshua 6:17: "and the city and all that is within it shall be devoted to the LORD for destruction", Joshua 10:36-37: "Joshua... devoted [Hebron] to destruction and every person in it"

Ecoholism: critics: Crude storytelling

Gould. criticised as metaphorical description of earth processes. wanted to know actual mechanisms of self-regulating homeostasis. Counter: lovelock: no one mechanism; connections between known mechanisms may never be known; accepted in other fields of biology and ecology; specific hostility held to his theory for political reasons

arguments against Aristotle virtue ethics: dull

Grayling "suggests a rather limited individual prone to pomposity", "in shunning the extremes of passion, love, anguish and like states, cannot know the value of them as a source of insight and creativity" counter: Pojmann: nothing dull about people who stand up in the face of adversity to injustice and greed; good acts performed by virtuous people have a qualitative difference and lasting impact

Arguments for shallow ecology

Grey: anthropocentrism (inevitable. To develop non-anthropocentric views is a "hopeless quest". Seeks improved "shallow" view. "what's wrong with shallow views is not their concern about the well-being of humans, but that they do not really consider enough in what that well being consists. We need to develop an enriched, fortified anthropocentric notion of human interests to replace the dominant short-term, sectional and self-regarding conception") Passmore: libertarian nonsense (urgent need to change attitude to environment. humans cannot continue unconstrained exploitation, but we don't need to abandon scientific rationalism to do so. eco-holism is nonesense, misguided mysticism or irrationalism) human nature (Passmore. appealing to human nature only way to save environment. sceptical about attributing intrinsic value to nature. described himself as a "pessimistic humanist"- didn't consider human beings or human societies perfectible)

Arguments for shallow ecology: Anthropocentrism

Grey: anthropocentrism inevitable. To develop non-anthropocentric views is a "hopeless quest". Seeks improved "shallow" view. "what's wrong with shallow views is not their concern about the well-being of humans, but that they do not really consider enough in what that well being consists. We need to develop an enriched, fortified anthropocentric notion of human interests to replace the dominant short-term, sectional and self-regarding conception"

arguments against natural law SOFI ARE SHUT

Hick: fall (Hick points out the evolutionary biology has revealed the impossibility of the fall as an historical event. indicates that thus Aquinas cannot explain through his current reasoning why people choose apparent goods) synderesis rule: Neibhur (undermines christ. humans are by nature sinful, not good. Snell: Natural law invalidated by original sin: we want evil, not good. is human nature really as good as this? e.g. Golding, Lord of the Flies, Ballard: High rise) Intention (Sartre: outcome is what matters. "In life man commits himself and draws his own portrait, outside of which there is nothing"- even a good intention may not lead to a good action and it is by others' actions that we judge them) Mill: observation (if we observe the world then we come to the conclusion that "Nature is red in tooth and claw" (Tennyson) and natural life is "solitary, poor, brutish and short" (Hobbes)) absolutism: Hume (virtuous terminology, e.g. good and bad, describe negative and positivice emotions we have about a thing, thus a thing is never good or bad in itself and should not be treated as such. Descartes: the only truth is the 'cogito') rationality and emotion: hume, copelston (Hume: "reason is the slave of the passions", copelston: Natural law drives a wedge between reason and emotion that modern psychiatry warns us against; reason and emotion should be integrated; cashmore: studies have indicated that the conscious follows the subconscious indicating that our conscious is just a matter of rationalising our subconscious) rationality (if the natural law is so reasonable, why don't more people accept it?) subjectivity (Wittgenstein: seeing as (e.g. rorschach marks. indicates that people interpret signs very differently- depends on our context and preconceptions. indicates that the primary precepts are not objective but subjective), McGraths (a theory based on observation cannot avoid that we are preconditioned to observe certain things. "One does not observe nature, one constructs it" from "prior assumptions") Cultural context: Neibhur (uncritical of cultural captivity, thus out of date. e.g. justice: "filled with specific details drawn from the realities of a feudal order... they are rationalisations of a feudal aristocracy")) Ward: human nature fixed (aquinas implies a fixed human nature that doesn't change ofer time. but human nature seems to change over time: e.g. scientific worldview makes us less fearful of mysterious present, or acceptance of homosexuality over time) teleology: rachels (things have more than one purpose. e.g. sex also relaxes, bonds, is enjoyable, etc. "it may be that sex does produce babies, but it does not follow that sex ought or ought not to be engaged in only for that purpose. Facts are one thing, values are another") secondary precepts (too flexible; could be used to validate improper actions e.g. sex before marriage- validated through 'reproduction' despite 'worship god'), undeveloped: Grisez and Finnis (developed natural law, adding new primary precepts. Grisez: self-integration, authenticity, playfulness, appreciation of beauty. Finnis: changes procreation to marital good, including having fun with marital partner. could be argued that Aquinas ignores the erotic love play of "song of Songs" and the fact vaginas have a clitoris which has no function other than to increase pleasure during sex)

Embryo research and genetic engineering: stem cell research: outline of law

Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act, 1990. Research limitations: licence (Can only be carried out under licence gained from Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority (HFEA)) necessary and desirable (Only allowed if necessary and desirable) purpose (Must have strictly defined purposes) 14 days (WHOLE embryos may not be grown in vitro beyond 14 days) disassembled stem cells (Stem cells derived from embryos but disassembled may be used for longer)

Arguments against natural law: absolutism

Hume. virtuous terminology, e.g. good and bad, describe negative and positive emotions we have about a thing, thus a thing is never good or bad in itself and should not be treated as such. Descartes: the only truth is the 'cogito'

Virtue ethics: arguments for: deicide

Hume: "metaphysics is cast to the flames as it contains nothing but sophistry and illusion", Anscombe: "deicide is a salient reason for the renaissance of virtue ethics"

Arguments against natural law: emotion

Hume: "reason is the slave of the passions", copelston: Natural law drives a wedge between reason and emotion that modern psychiatry warns us against; reason and emotion should be integrated; cashmore: studies have indicated that the conscious follows the subconscious indicating that our conscious is just a matter of rationalising our subconscious

Modern developments of Virtue ethics

Hursthourse. Theoretical (concerned with character of agent, not the practical questions of ethics) reliable (most reliable way to ensure human flourishing) character (if you by nature are virtuous, what you do will be virtuous) counter: (how to judge what is done by a state of virtue?) conflict (what if my state of virtue conflicts with another's state of virtue- e.g. in liberating iraq i kill someone. cannot judge on action, because my action doesn't effect my character according to hursthouse) judgement (how can one judge a virtuous state- no deontological guidelines as in Kant) counter: Adams/sartre (people are defined by their actions- we cannot see others interiors but can see their actions so more accurate) Nussbaum. phroenesis (Aristotle believed knowledge of morality inbuilt- sophia. practical application of ethics is called phroenesis. Justice (Fragility of Goodness. throughout history those who have campaigned for justice have been destroyed- e.g. jesus, socrates, MLK. by looking at the virtue of the moral agent, the meaning of justice is lost) Sexual orientation ("From Disgust to Humanity". defends the rights of homosexuals. considers tolerance of others as long as they do not abuse others) anscombe. Is/ought dichotomy. houseplant (just because a houseplant is limp, doesn't mean that it ought to be so- thus you water the houseplant.) shopping analogy (you go shopping with a list but ignore the list. if you have a list, it is your fault if you ignore it and do not end up with the things you need. what matters is not what the list is, or where the list came from, but whether or not the moral agent's actions adhere to the list; thus their intentions matter. the list is virtues) double effect (based on intentions of the agent) Foot. objective (experiences of holocaust suggested to her that virtues are an objective reality) slote. emotivism (human sentiments and feelings are virtues- e.g. care and empathy. traditional approaches cold and clinical) admirable (not good- good needs definition and qualification, admirable does not) MacIntyre (consequentialism. virtues may be desirable but people need a reason to be virtuous- e.g. present giving)

implications of abortion

If abortion is opposed: Cardinal Bernadin: 'our moral, political and economic responsibilities do not stop at the moment of birth'

Situation ethics: criticisms: packer

Impractical: "as a method to guide us in choosing our behaviour, it appalls"- requires prophesising into the future- too difficult to work out all the consequences to possible outcomes. too complex to "love thy neighbour" without a framework of rules- "neighbourly love is to be guided by bylaw". our neighbour and ourselves are enigmas to each other- but "our maker knows our true nature and has told us how we are to do ourselves and each other real good". Not christian: "hail[s] as good what God calls evil", "treat god's revealed directive as working rules only". in a situation where two evils collide- e.g. Hamlet (honour thy parents and do not kill)- may help, but doesn't provide a morally positive solution. "evil remains evil, even when, being the lesser evil, it appears the right thing to do"

Arguments for fletcher's situational ethic

Individual (cases judged on their own merits regardless of past precedent; prevents trivial judgements), flexible (no rigid structure of rules, nothing intrinsically good or bad. allows application to any situation), social (seeks others' well being, avoids solipsism), christian (based on teachings of jesus; provides an objective metaphysical foundation for morality) Ends (Moore: "No action which is not justified by its results can ever be right"; Sartre ("In life man commits himself and draws his own portrait, outside of which there is nothing". we judge other people's characters by actions; it is therefore rational to assume that such judgement should carry through to the moral value of their actions) Tolstoy: "god is love" ("he who has love, is in god, and god is in him, for god is love"; "all men live not by care for themselves, but by love", "love is life... everything exists, only because i love") prevents immorality: Robinson (HOnest to god. if man operates in the spirit of love, prevented from performing immoral acts. no rules are necessary. "The only ethic for "man come of age""), Brown: biblical evidence (if you act with good intention, it seems fair to assume god will forgive you- e.g. peter "lied, cursed, and swore he did not love the lord"(Matthew 26:74)) Packer: importance of love and situationism ("as a reaction of protest [against legalism] it commends itself as making a healthy biblical point... only by love and care for others can we acceptable serve god", "right to stress that every situation is in some respects unique")

Counter to bentham utilitarianism

Intensity (psychology shows us there is an upper limit to pleasure) Pojman: prophesising (requires superhuman ability to predict consequences. impossible to gauge long-term consequences for actions. certainty- past results do not indicate future results. counter: doesn't give human mind enough credit- often able to successfully predict the future. may not be perfect, but best scheme we have) Brandt: counter intuitive ("It implies that if you have employed a boy to mow your lawn and he has finished the job and asks for his pay, you should pay him what you promised only if you can't find a better use for the money") Williams: too impartial, burning house dilemma (if your house was burning down and it contained your mother and a cancer specialist on the verge of creating a cure for cancer, clear you should save cancer specialist. counter: seems just and fair. what is best for the community is best for the individual long-term) singer: impractical (bentham replies with rule of thumb: but this does not necessarily produce the correct answer) Mill: impossible and society (impossible to measure pleasure-too subjective, does not take into account the importance of society)

criticisms: deep ecology

Interest (animal rights activists: for something to require rights (and therefore protection) intrinsically they must have interests. deep ecology criticised for assuming non-sentient life has interests as manifested by behaviour of life- e.g. self-preservation considered expression of will to live. deep ecologists claim to identify with non-human nature, criticise those who claim they have no understanding of non-human nature's desires/interests) ecofeminism (Kheel. we need to rethink how we relate to environment. but criticise deep ecologists because of focus on anthropocentricism- real problem is androcentrism, seeing world through male eyes. patriarchal system allows domination of one group over another) misunderstanding (Botkin. Deep ecology inappropriate focus- starts from concept and attempts to amend data to match- thus uses data mistakenly. deep ecology a political, not scientific movement) is/ought (Vardy. Deep ecologists make mistake: assume that because there is interrelatedness between all things, that this ought to be the case- incoherent. successful way to object to the claim that we should take care of the environment)

Why is existentialism optimistic?

It offers man the chance to self-determine by saying that man is defined by himself through his choices- offering self-determination

Arguments against Cicero's theory (and what it is)

Jus Ad Bellum (just war). vague (what does "humane laws" mean?) eye for an eye ("we should spare those who have not been barbarous in their warfare" but an "eye for an eye makes the whole world blind"- surely we should "turn the other cheek") basic (these rights the bare minimum that should be done) lack of authority (not based on guiding principle or authority) too strict (war should be allowed to be waged merely on national needs) not strict enough (Pacifism)

War and Peace: Cicero Outline

Jus ad bellum (Just war theory) context (civil war in Rome) Criteria: "the rights of war must be strictly observed" (Certain criteria have to be met for "just war") 1. last resort (war is the last resort; all other forms of discussion have been tried) 2. merciful victors ("we should spare those who have not been barbarous in their warfare"), 3. purpose: lasting peace (Purpose of warfare is to secure lasting peace- peace shall "not admit of guile"), 4. conduct humane (governed by humane laws) 5. due warning and formal declaration (should precede war) 6. promises kept to enemy (Counter: vague, eye for an eye, basic, authority)

War and peace: war theories

Jus ad bellum (Just war- Cicero, Augustine, Aquinas, Anscombe) absolute pacifism (deontological: tolstoy, teleological) contingent pacifism (Walzer- deontological; could apply act utilitarianism of Mill) christian pacifism

Aquinas: war theory

Just war. war inevitable. three criteria: Just authority (Under god OR sovereign: "Just as they use the sword in lawful defence against domestic disturbance when they punish criminals" - Paul, Romans 13:14) Just cause ("those who are attacked are attacked because they deserve it on account of some wrong they have done") just intention ("they must intend to promote the good and to avoid evil") Biblical justification (Matthew 26:52, Matthew 5:39, Romans 12:19, ROmans 13:4)

Against embryo research

Kantian ("never use a human just as a means to an end", not universalisable) Natural law (against reproduce. however, could be for the precept protect the self, as creates a helpful cure for diseases. therefore doctrine of double effect?) consequences unknown (Situation: surely more loving to allow choice rather than not choice) human life sacred (Kant; natural law) playing god (Natural law; Kant)

Embryo research and genetic engineering: stem cell research: outline of Potential uses

Leukemia, Degenerative diseases e.g. Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, Rheumatoid arthiritus

ecoholism: Gaia hypothesis

Lovelock. named after Greek primordial goddess of the earth. often described as viewing the earth as a single organism. Biosphere and physical components of earth (atmosphere, cryosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere) are integrated, complex interacting system. this maintains climatic, biogeochemical conditions on earth and creates a preferred homeostasis- preferred temperature. supporters consider it "gaia theory"- has passed predictive tests, showing idea could work- it has made "no less than 10 predictions which have come true". "revenge of Gaia", 2006: lack of respect humans have had for Gaia is testing capacity to minimise effects of greenhouse gases. damage to rainforests and reduction in biodiversity have eliminated negative feedback loops. increases likelihood of positive feedback potential- global warming. the warming of the oceans is extending oceanis thermocline layer of tropical oceans into the Arctic and Antarctic rivers; this prevents rise of oceanic nutrients into surface waters, and eliminates algal blooms of phytoplankton, which oceanic food chains depend upon. phytoplankton and forests are the main ways gaia drains greenhouse gases out of the atmosphere. elimination of this will make most of the earth uninhabitable for humans and other life forms by the middle of this century

Sermon on the Mount: Organisation

Matthew 5: 1-2: Introduction (significance of mountain location: throwback to Moses, link to future in Mount Zion), Matthew 5: 3-12 beatitudes (christian character- "blessed are those..." poor in spirit, mourn, meek, yearn for righteousness, merciful, pure in heart, peacemakers, persecuted for righteousness), Matthew 5: 14-16 salt and light (instructions about genuine discipleship), Matthew 5: 17-20 Law (Teachings about law: "I have not come to abolish the law), Matthew 5:21-48: Antitheses ("you have heard it said... but I tell you"), Matthew 6: 7-12 Righteousness (including instructions for charity, fasting, praying, wealth), Matthew 7: 13-27 obedience (Christian choices, the narrow gate: a tree and its fruit)

Christian pacifism

Messianic hope. Euseubius' account of the martyr St Maximillian (4th c historian; Maximillian refused induction into the army: "i cannot serve as a soldier, for I am a christian... I cannot do evil" and was thus put to death") Isaiah 2:4: "he will judge between the nations and will settle disputes for many people... nation will not take up sword against nation", Zechariah 9:10 "he will proclaim peace to the nations"; Jesus: "love your neighbour as yourself" (Matthew 22:39), "if someone strikes you on the right cheek, turn to him the other also" (Matthew 5:38-9), "all who draw the sword will die by the sword" (Matthew 26:52). Counter: lord of the armies (God leads and directs israel against enemies. Joshua 6:17: "and the city and all that is within it shall be devoted to the LORD for destruction", Joshua 10:36: "Joshua... devoted [Hebron] to destruction and every person in it"), Anscombe (Pacifism "teaches people to make no distinction between the shedding of innocent blood and the shedding of any human blood"; war justified if did not directly intend to kill non-combatants, doctrine of double effect)

Arguments against absolute pacifism: cowardly

Mill "war is an ugly thing, but not the ugliest of things: the decayed and degraded state of moral and patriotic feeling which thinks nothing worth a war is worse"

Arguments against natural law: observation

Mill: if we observe the world then we come to the conclusion that "Nature is red in tooth and claw"- Tennyson, and natural life is "solitary, poor, brutish and short"- Hobbes

kinds of abortion

Morning after pill- within 3 days; Early medical abortion- within 9 weeks; Vacuum aspiration- 7-15 weeks; Surgical dilation and evacuation- 15-20 weeks; Surgical dilation and evacuation or medical induction- After 20 weeks

Situation ethics: criticisms: morris and clark

Morris and Clark: "one can rationalise much deviant behaviour in the name of love" (too subjective), Not christian "a system of ethics will excuse man's unbelief and pander to his perversions", "an ethical system is christian when it conforms to the Bible" situationist ethics is a very subjective reading of the bible. "Situationists claim Christ completely dismissed the Old testament laws and replaced them with the single law of love. Christ did say that the love of god and of one's neighbour were the two greatest commandments... but he never left men without laws for the fulfilment of the greatest commandments" e.g. Matthew 5:17: "do not think that i have come to abolish the law or the prophets", true observance must include "internal as well as external obedience". undermines god's authority- assumes that one can observe or disregard god's commandments as he sees fit- "when man's reason begins passing judgement on god's revelation, one forfeits the right to claim any part of the revelation binding". Jesus affirms the laws- adultery (matthew 7:27-28), divorce (Matthew 5:31-32), Praying (matthew 6:5-8). importance of keeping laws: John 14:15: "if you love me, you will keep my commandments". counter: matthew 5:17 "do not think that i came to abolish the law or the prophets; i did not come to abolish, but to fulfil" could be interpreted to mean that he has fulfilled the old laws. Romans 6:14: our relationship to god is no longer determined by the law

arguments against Singer's utilitarianism

Mother (when his own mother, Cora, came to be in the position of an inability to choose with Alzheimer's disease, he said "perhaps it's more difficult than i thought before, because it is different when it is your mother". indicates that may not actually be pragmatic) subjectivity (impossible to judge others' preferences impartially) prophesising (overestimates human ability to prophesise the future accurately)

Theories opposing abortion

Natural law (opposes primary precept "reproduction"- thus not allowed; unless in a situation where it may oppose first precept, "preservation of the self", then doctrine of double effect may come into play) Kantian ehtics (maxim: "have an abortion"- contradiction in nature: no children would be born. contradiction in will: person would not want to have been aborted, thus contradiction in will. therefore cannot be moral obligation. Maxim: "never have an abortion": first formulation: law of nature but contradiction in will- person may want to have an abortion- thus "have an abortion" is imperfect duty)

modern developments of natural law: finnis

Neo-naturalism. people share a common goal and purpose, fulfilled by pursuit of common basic rules. moral rules enable pursuit of goods. basic goods are irreducible, self-evident, unquestionable, and would be assented to by every reasonable person. "Indemonstrable but self-evident principles that shape our practical reasoning". Basic goods: 1. Life (physical and mental health; freedom from pain and injury; procreation of children) 2. knowledge (pursuit of knowledge for its own sake; "an interest in or concern for truth and a desire to avoid ignorance or error) 3. play (actions or "performances" enjoyed for their own sake) 4. Aesthetic experience (beauty outside of oneself, internal appreciation of beauty) 5. sociability/friendship (acting for another's purpose) 6. practical reasonableness (ability to "bring one's own intelligence to bear effectively", ability to reason about what is best for yourself and act on those decisions; development of a "coherent life plan"), 7. religion (individual's connection with and participation in the orders that transcend humanity) exhaustive, non-hierarchical

Fletcher's situational ethic: 4 kinds of love

Noted in CS Lewis' book, "the four loves". eros (sexual), philia (friendship), storge (family) agape ("a disinterested but compassionate concern for one's neighbour")

Virtue ethics: arguments for: reason and desire

Nussbaum: tension of reason and desire of humans resolved. akrasia (weakness of will) solved by humans following rational choice over irrational desires. phronesis entails interpreting moral dilemma through holistic approach- reason and emotions. allows the selection of emotions appropriate for individual expression due to golden mean

Arguments for shallow ecology: human nature

Passmore. appealing to human nature only way to save environment. sceptical about attributing intrinsic value to nature. described himself as a "pessimistic humanist"- didn't consider human beings or human societies perfectible

Arguments for shallow ecology: libertarian nonesense

Passmore: urgent need to change attitude to environment. humans cannot continue unconstrained exploitation, but we don't need to abandon scientific rationalism to do so. eco-holism is nonesense, misguided mysticism or irrationalism

Criticisms of Singer: euthanasia: somerville

Positive: "highly individual rights-based, rational and logically grounded approach", 'based on true compassion'. Negative: Slippery slope ("it gives very little... weight to the harms and risks to society, and the institutions of medicine and law that legalising euthanasia... would involve". medicine and the law uphold value and respect for life. respect for life would diminish if euthanasia were legalised. This may have untold and terrible consequences on society) human mystery ("It leaves no room for human mystery", 'we have a human spirit... that gives meaning to life...that deeply intuitive sense of... connectedness to other people and to the world and the universe in which we live'. not necessarily religious/supernatural, rather the 'deep cultural information' passed down generations. 'difficult to articulate adequately, but that is not a reason to dismiss either its existence, its intrinsic worth, or its crucial role in human flourishing', 'euthanasia directly threatens the human spirit, because respect for the mystery of death is essential to maintaining respect for the mystery of life [and] respect for life', each death involves the 'community as a whole')

Euthanasia: Singer

Quality of Life Arguments. In favour of human right to end life preference (Individuals able to express preferences have a right to make decisions about their own bodies) Replaceablility (Non voluntary euthanasia- when explicit consent of individual concerned is unavailable (e.g. persistent vegetative state, or law doesn't recognise as legally binding (e.g. mature child, minor by law. UK allows abortion under the circumstances of birthing a severely disabled child; therefore the only difference is 'timing' with killing a severely disabled infant. Children are replaceable. 'When the death of a disabled infant will lead to the birth of another infant with the prospects of a happy life, the amount of happiness will be greater if the disabled infant is killed'. thus it would 'be right' to kill the disabled child) Quality of life (Voluntary euthanasia) Potential criticism: doctors can be mistaken, and people 'survive and enjoy years of good health' (Counter: it is not logical to ban euthanasia on the 'very small number of unnecessary deaths that might occur' as the majority suffer considerably and are terminally ill 'longer life is not such a supreme good that it outweighs all other considerations'. If it were there would be better ways of prolonging life- e.g. banning smoking.) Potential criticism: Elisabeth Kubler-Ross: improved care for the terminally ill has eliminated pain and made voluntary euthanasia unnecessary (counter: 'only a minority of dying patients receive this care'. Thus for the majority it is still logical to allow them to choose euthanasia as this prevents them from having to cope with pain) (criticised by Somerville. based on true compassion and rational approach, but leaves no room for human mystery and issue of slippery slope)

Existentialism is a humanism: what are the four criticisms of existentialism the book aims to defend against?

Quietism (Marxist criticism. existentialism encourages inaction, is too contemplative and impractical and is thus a bourgeois philosophy because to contemplate is a luxury), pessimism (christian. negative view of life. leads to ignominious behaviour. better parts of life, e.g. infant's smile, are ignored), relativism (general criticism. no moral truths. impossible to pass judgement on others' morals. offers no clear moral guidance)

genetic engineering: evaluation: good

Reduces pesticide usage (Pesticide is a threat to species such as monarch butterfly.) Could improve environment and solve world hunger (Norman Ernest Borlaug developed wheat that produces twice the grain for the same amount of water. 'Man who saved a billion lives') Reduced use of water saves money, less impact on environment; More productive, more profitable; Kenyan researchers developed a GM sweet potato with 80% improvement in yield

Arguments against absolute pacifism: clean hands

Refuses to take brutal measures necessary for personal and national defence to retain inner moral purity- thus pacifists are free riders, and can gather the benefits of citizenship without sharing the burdens. Counter: Many pacifists have paid a high price for their moral stance- including imprisonment, public ridicule, even death sentences- unfair to call it cowardly

Fletcher's situational ethic: four ideals

Relativism (rejects absolutes- 'never', 'always'. rejects the idea of absolute moral values. every situation requires its own code of ethics. no action cannot be performed as long as the action is for a good cause and motivated by agape) Pragmatism (proposed course of action should work. success or failure judged according to principle of agape) positivism (love the most important criterion), Personalism (Puts people first)

Arguments against natural law: intention

Sartre: outcome is what matters. "In life man commits himself and draws his own portrait, outside of which there is nothing"- even a good intention may not lead to a good action and it is by others' actions that we judge them

pro choice: theories

Singer, preference utilitarianism (Abortion is permitted- the child is under 4 weeks and is thus not a morally significant being. If the parents want an abortion, it is permitted) Act Utilitarianism/Rule (Abortion allowed as long as it creates the most pleasure or happiness given in the situation) Biblical passages: Deuteronomy, 22:6-7 ('if the mother bird is in the nest with her eggs or her baby birds, you are allowed to take the baby birds or the eggs, but not the mother bird. Let her go and the LORD will bless you'- could be used to argue that there is greater inherent value in a mother than a child- perhaps support for Singer's preference utilitarianism sub-humans. counter- practical advice. The mother is able to produce more baby chicks)

Ecoholism: support

Singer: fear (fear tactics may be required to show us that we must stop negatively impacting the world) Huxley ("treat nature aggressively: wounded nature will turn and destroy you")

Criticisms of Singer: euthanasia

Somerville (Positive: "highly individual rights-based, rational and logically grounded approach", 'based on true compassion'. Negative: Slippery slope, human mystery) British Medical association, 1994 (reject consequentialism; emphasise difference between passive and active euthanasia; double effect) Rachels

Arguments against euthanasia

Somerville (mystery-we have human spirit that gives meaning to life, "difficult to articulate adequately but that is not a reason to dismiss either its existence, its intrinsic worth, or its crucial role in human flourishing", and slippery slope- respect for life would diminish if legalised, untold consequences for humanity) Rachels (rejects difference between act and omission. "there's no moral difference between killing and letting die". smith, jones, and the bath. counter: good samaritan, Kitty Genovese) Kantian ethics (suicide is using the self as a means to death, not as an end. therefore wrong) slippery slope (begins terminally ill, becomes more widely accepted. e.g. netherlands 2001 not only terminally ill but physical and mental unbearable suffering. Borst: "I am not against [assisted suicide] if it can be carefully controlled so that only those people of advanced age who are tired of life can use it") Catholic church (on euthanasia, 1990. "nothing and no one can in anyway permit the killing of an innocent human being", "it is a question of a violation of the divine law, and offence against the dignity of the human person, a crime against life, and an attack on humanity", "what a sick person needs, besides medical care, is love" counter: situation ethics: most loving thing is death) Aquinas ("it is completely unlawful to kill oneself"- against "inclination of nature", contrary to "natural law" and agape- "everything naturally loves itself" and tries to keep itself alive. community: "every part belongs to the whole". unless doctrine of double effect: primary intention to relieve pain but side effect is hasten death, action morally permissible) catechism (2278: discontinuing medical treatment disproportionate to outcome acceptable. 2279: use of painkillers to reduce pain even if foreseeable side effect is death)

utilitarianism: Mill: quote: good and sacrifice

The utilitarian morality does recognise in human beings the power of sacrificing their own greatest good for the good of others. It only refuses to admit that the sacrifice is itself a good. A sacrifice which does not increase, or tend to increase, the sum total of happiness, it considers as wasted.

Natural law: virtues

Theological: faith (belief in god), hope (positive outlook) charity (being caring). Natural: Prudence (sensibility), temperance (moderation), fortitude (courage) justice (fairness)

Existentialism and humanism: Why are the actual pessimists the people who call existentialism pessimistic?

They believe depressing proverbs like "charity begins at home," meaning that one should focus on oneself before others. They are willing to excuse repulsive acts as predetermined by human nature and experiences

Sermon on the Mount: scholars

Tolstoy (literal), Schweitzer (interim ethic) Bultmann (existential), Freud (refutes)

War and peace: absolute pacifism (deontological)

Tolstoy- "wisdom has no need of violence"; "violence breeds violence... the only means of deliverance from violence lies in not taking part in it". Belief there is a duty on all men to avoid aggression, use of force, and violence in any and all situations. Counter: difficult (prohibits intervention even when innocent people are being attacked or murdered- e.g. genocide in WW2)

genetic engineering: evaluation: bad

Unnatural (Attack God's role as creator and owner of creation) Profit (Driven by profit, not concern for encironment) Unintended consequences (Could be potential knock on effects that are devastating; Brazil nut gene inserted into soybeans that caused nut allergy. Antibiotic resistance may get into bacteria. Weedkiller resistance may get into weeds. Cotton seeds Devestated by Bollworms (parasite). Require double the amount of water. Farmers were not informed of this) Removes choice (GM seeds can get into non-GM crops) Effect on traditional farming (Traditional farming reuses seeds. Biotech companies charge on yearly basis. Much more expensive; often require loans to buy- 10 pounds per 100 g of GM seed; 10 pounds per 100,000g traditional seed. Can lead to bankruptcy if harvests fail because seeds cannot be reused- Contain 'terminator technology'- resulting crops do not produce viable seeds of their own. Has led to the plight of 'GM Genocide'- farmers who kill themselves because they are plunged into debt. 125,000 farmers had killed themselves as a result. Traditional varieties of seed have been banned in certain areas in India to encourage GM crops) Disease (Lack of diversity in plant genetics makes them susceptible to disease) Inefficient (Only 0.6% of 7,000 eggs injected to produce transgenic pigs were successful)

Abortion and law in Uk

Up to 24 weeks; No age limit. criteria: hospital (Abortions must be carried out in hospital or specialised licensed clinic) two doctors (Two doctors must agree that an abortion would cause less damage to a woman's physical or mental health than pregnancy) Abortion act, 1967 (Covers England, Scotland and wales but not northern Ireland) After 24 weeks (can be carried out, if: Necessary to save woman's life Prevent permament injury to physical or mental health of woman, Substantial risk that the child would be seriously handicapped by physical/mental abnormalities)

arguments for Natural law *DIPPIN D FRAS*

Vardy: flexible (More flexible than most suppose due to secondary precepts), positivism (synderesis rule: "no evil can ever be desirable"; positive view of human nature), improvement (follows aristotelean tradition of arguing that people can improve by following the virtues- faith, hope, charity, prudence, temperance, fortitude, justice) deontological (doing duty; morality is clear and fair; everyone has shared responsibilities) absolutism (bad action can never be good; prevents the problem of: Manley Pippert: "if you say there is no such thing as morality in absolute terms, then child abuse is not evil, it just may not happen to be your thing") shared purpose and nature (all are equal; all are able to be rational, whether or not one believes in god) responsibility (humans are autonomous and responsible; not "slaves" to our "passions" or determined by genes; capable of using reason to work out how to live), Simplicity (primary precepts easily understood and easily folllowed) Improvement (people's morality able to improve- e.g. "The Good Place"- common sensical. e.g. why prisons are used to reform criminals) Double effect (can allow flexibility enabling compassion) intention (prevents people doing good things for the wrong reason- use maths example)

Pro choice: thompson

Violinist coma analogy (A violinist falls into a coma. It is determined by the Society of Music Lovers only you can save the violinist's life. You must do this by being hooked up to him for 9 months. The Society break into your home and hook you up to the violinist. The violinist is unconscious and thus innocent. You may want to unhook him, but the music lover argue that: The violinist is an innocent person with a right to life. Unhooking him will result in his death. Therefore it is your responsibility to remain hooked up to him. Thus she is arguing: A woman does not choose a pregnancy; If she keeps the pregnancy that should be her choice. Even if the violinist is innocent, that does not give them a right to life- their life is dependent on yours) Third party interventions (What if the person hooked up to the violinist cannot unhook themselves?) 'I should have thought that—in light of his having no right to the use of your body—it was obvious that we do not have to accede to your being forced to give up so much. We can do what you ask. There is no injustice to the violinist in doing so' (Thus she is arguing: A doctor has a moral obligation to a woman wanting an abortion to give her one if she asks) Samaritans: good vs. minimally decent (Luke, 10:30-35 (Good Samaritan story) Went out of his way, with cost to himself, to help someone in need. Jesus said: 'Go, and do thou likewise'- perhaps this means we are morally obligated to be good Samaritans, or urging people to do more than is morally required of them) Kitty Genovese ( murdered while 38 people watched and did not help her. Good Samaritan: would have rushed out to help her. Minimally decent: call the police. These people did nothing; there is no law to charge these people) 'In no state in [the USA] is any man compelled by law to be even a minimally decent Samaritan to any person... by contrast, in most states in this country women are compelled by law to be not merely Minimally Decent Samaritans, but Good Samaritans to unborn persons inside them. This doesn't settle anything one way or the other... but it does show that there is a gross injustice in the existing state of law' 'The groups currently working toward... having it declared unconstitutional for a state to permit abortion, had better start working for the adoption of good Samaritan laws generally, or earn the charge that they are acting in bad faith'

Contingent pacifism outline (deontological)

Walzer. Principle (against war and violence) conditional (there are certain rare circumstances when war is morally imperative) Duties (cannot be considered in isolation; overlap, requiring moral judgement between duties. such circumstances are "supreme emergencies". sometimes duty to be non-violent comes secondary to other duties- e.g. save and defend lives)

Arguments against natural law: human nature

Ward: aquinas implies a fixed human nature that doesn't change over time. but human nature seems to change over time: e.g. scientific worldview makes us less fearful of mysterious present, or acceptance of homosexuality over time

criticism of christian approach to ecology

White: although "all forms of nature modify their contexts", e.g. the coral polyp- "by serving its own ends, it has created a vast undersea world favorable to thousands of other kinds of animals and plants.', humans are more destructive than this- e.g. elimination of european aurochs. "the historical roots of our ecological crisis"- due to Christian command of 'dominion' over the earth, dualism between man and nature, use of saints (made man anthropocentric- no longer saw spirits in natural objects) and belief in "progress". movement from nature- centred religions (e.g. pagan animism- mermaids in the water) to dominion over nature. only when Christian view is rejected can ecological crisis be solved. The "whisper" of enlightened individuals, who treat all nature of equally worthy of God's faith, hope and love, e.g. St Francis of Assisi- 'he tried to substitute what he thought was an alternative Christian view of nature and man's relation to it; he tried to substitute the idea of the equality of all creatures, including man, for the ideas of man's limitless rule of creation. He failed'. simplest course of action is to revert to previous existence, e.g. letting roads grow over- we need to reevaluate our current attitude towards ecology. best way would be zen, but not suitable to west because of a lack of history. rather assissi- virtue of humility of man as a species, democracy of animate creatures. "since the roots of our trouble are so largely religiious, the remedy must also be essentially religious"

Arguments against natural law: subjectivity

Wittgenstein: seeing as (e.g. rorschach marks. indicates that people interpret signs very differently- depends on our context and preconceptions. indicates that the primary precepts are not objective but subjective, McGraths- a theory based on observation cannot avoid that we are preconditioned to observe certain things. "One does not observe nature, one constructs it" from "prior assumptions". Cultural context: Neibhur- uncritical of cultural captivity, thus out of date. e.g. justice: "filled with specific details drawn from the realities of a feudal order... they are rationalisations of a feudal aristocracy"

Abortion: pro life: weak sanctity of life

abortions rarely as possible (Should only be permitted in cases where there is immediate risk to the mother's mental or physical health) Prominent amongst moderate Christian denominations E.g. mainstream Anglicanism, Methodism. Church of England: General Synod (Church's governing body) 'the church of England combines strong opposition to abortion with a recognition that there can be... conditions under which it may be morally preferable to any available alternative'; 'in situations where the continuance of a pregnancy threatens the life of the mother a termination of pregnancy may be justified'; 'the number of abortions carried out since the passage of the Abortion Act 1967 is unacceptably high'. Church of England Board of Social Responsibility, 1980: 'the foetus has the right to live and develop as a member of the human family'; 'we see abortion... as a great moral evil'; 'we do not believe that the right to life... admits of no exceptions whatever; but the right of the innocent to life admits surely of few exceptions'

Criticisms of acts and ommissions: euthanasia: Rachels

act and omission (rejects distinction in law between active and passive euthanasia) if difference invalid, no objection to euthanasia. smith jones bath analogy (Both smith and jones stand to inherit money on the death of their young nephew; both want nephew dead. Smith drowns nephew in the bath. Jones is prepared to drown nephew, but the boy hits his head and drowns on his own; jones is ready to push his head back under the water but doesn't need to . 'what jones did is just as morally bad as what Smith did' 'there's no moral difference between killing and letting die') (counter: analogy- not the same- boy would have drowned whether or not jones there- boy would not have drowned if smith there- therefore not the same, because smith did not cause his death)

aristotle; virtue ethics: essential characteristics

agent centred (concerned with whole character of agent, not the individual acts- once the person is virtuous, the acts will follow) being (refers to the whole character- one can be bad without doing bad things) virtues (life is too complex for deontological systems of rules; instead focus on character traits, which are their own reward) community (acquisition of virtues requires a teacher; takes into account personal relationships) agent benefits (enables 'eudaimonia', living the good life)

Environmental ethics:shallow ecology

anthropocentric (world should be preserved because it is of value to us) extrinsic (environment is only valuable in as much use as we can get from it; as different organisms lose their usefulness, we can decide that they lose the right to protection of conservation ethics. environment is a means, not an end in itself) slogans (recycle, save energy, plant trees) society (doesn't question fundamental beliefs of culture; accepts human life as evolved will impact the environment, and seeks to minimise impact of each person) Scholars: Pinchot (instructed James Wilson, Secretary of Agriculture, that the goal of the forest administration needed to be the "greatest good for the greatest number in the long term"; earth as a set of natural resources needing to be managed for present and future generations of humans) passmore ("i treat human interests as paramount; i do not apologise for that fact", "the traditional teachings of the west... Christian and utilitarian... have always taught men... that they ought not so to act as to injure their neighbours"- we need a change of habits, not a change of moral principles)

Arguments against pacifism: Niebhur

began pacifist, began to realise there were times when there was a moral imperative to go to war. insists human nature inherently sinful. limitations of the peacemaking abilities of morality and rationality. contrast between egotism of individuals and groups. "all social cooperation on a larger scale than the most intimate social group requires a measure of coercion". special moral rules apply to groups that do not apply to individuals: countries have moral responsibilities to go to war that do not apply to individuals. Religion: reduces selfishness through contrition and spirit of love- but this cannot prevent conflict. Jesus shows god's pure love but cannot be realised in present human existence. will be realised when god changes world to the perfect harmony of god's kingdom. pacifists fail to recognise that god works through law courts and wars- needs human cooperation to realise his will. counter McMahon: argues that there is no difference in action because a group of moral agents. there are no limits to what a government might do in the National interest

Natural law: forming secondary precepts

begin with primary precept, absolute and objective. casuistry: apply reason to see how this principle can be applied to everyday life. outcome is secondary precept. require interpretation of situation

Jackson: counter to situation ethics

christian courier, 1999. "situation ethics... if persistently pursued, will ultimately result in societal chaos." case study: woman jilted by her lover. married friend decides to have an affair to comfort her, thinking this is the most loving thing to do. man's wife finds out, unable to cope with trauma, kills herself. sons disillusioned by the actions of their father and mother: one becomes a drunkard and kills two in an automobile accident, the other becomes a criminal and is imprisoned for murder. counter: extreme, verging on absurd example based on a false premise. if the situationist ethic had been consistently applied, then it is unlikely that the most loving thing would have been to have an affair in the first place, let alone for the wife to kill herself or the sons to become murderers. however, if it was the most loving thing, it would merely imply there was little else better to do in the situation. unlikely: could have comforted in a different way- and considered his own wife's feelings. does show that the theory can be misinterpreted- but this is not the fault of the theory, but rather whoever is using it)

Arguments against absolute pacifism: Anscombe

christian opponent. "Pacifism teaches people to make no distinction between the shedding of innocent blood and the shedding of any human blood"- war justified if did not aim to kill non-combatants, doctrine of double effect

Existentialism is a humanism: Sartre quote: god/human nature and counters

claims that the only bein powerful enough to create a human essence is god. "thus there is no human nature, because there is no God to have a conception of it" (counter: doesn't provide atheistic proof to support assumption there is no god; existence precedes essence doesn't require atheism, e.g. Kierkegaard; even without god there may be another source of essence, e.g. Aristotle, utilitarianism, biological naturalism, marxist materialism)

Warren's 5 criteria for personhood

consciousness reasoning self-motivated activity capacity to communicate Self-awareness

euthanasia: active/passive: British Medical association, 1994

consequentialism ('reject the view that is only ... consequences which should count in the moral evaluation of actions';) active and passive (difference between active (e.g. administering lethal dose of drugs) and passive (e.g. withdrawing treatment)) double effect (euthanasia- intention is important; 'we accept drug treatment which may involve a risk to the patient's life if the sole intention is to relieve illness, pain, distress or suffering") (counter: Rachels: if difference between acts and omissions invalid, no objection to legalising euthanasia- example, smith jones bath)

Arguments against shallow ecology: marxist

conservation ethics seeking to conserve status quo- division between haves and have-nots. Naess: "the central objective of shallow movements is to promote the health and affluence of people in the developed countries"

Outline of natural law

context: aristotle. 4 kinds of law (eternal, divine, natural, human), natural law (application of reason to the world to find out the eternal and objective values that god has suggested for human action), primary precepts (Protect the self, Obey society, Worship god, Educate the young, Reproduce) secondary precepts (casuistry: application of situation to primary precepts using reason) synderesis rule ("no evil can ever be desirable": humans by nature do good), doctrine of double effect (bad effects are permissible as long as a side effect of good end and good intention)

Virtue ethics: arguments for: counter cultural

counter cultural remedy for capitalist meritocracy. highly pressurised atmosphere. encourages self-reflection (theoria- contemplation). care of a person's soul (character) is paramount. e.g. Jesus: "what does it benefit man to gain the whole world and yet lose his soul?" Mark 8:36, or Polonius: "to thine own self be true"

Modern developments of virtue ethics: Rachels

courage, honesty, loyalty

aristotelian virtues

courage, temperance, liberality, magnificence, magnamity (generosity) pride, good temper, truthfulness, wittiness, friendliness, modesty, righteous indignation

Warren spaceman analogy

culture of creatures on a distant planet. genetically different from us. But They feel pain, love their children, have a sense of right and wrong. They have a city set up above a seam of ultra-valuable minerals, which would improve the general health of everyone on earth. They refuse to move for humans to mine the minerals Is our killing them justified because they are not human beings?

Deep ecology

deep (deeper questions concerning why and how) biospheric egalitarianism (avoids anthropocentric environmentalism) intrinsic value (well being of human and non-human life on earth have intrinsic value, independent of usefulness of non-human world for human purpose. total field image, shriveled human individual) slogans (Let the river live) Naess (only way way we can hope to defend the environment is through re-evaluation of our ethics. rejects Shallow ecology and Gaia hypothesis as anthropocentric- humans rather than the totality of environment at centre. Sherpa culture: regard certain mountains as sacred; would not venture into them. Basic principles: 1. inherent value (well being and flourishing of human and non-human life on earth have intrinsic value. value independent of usefulness of non-human world for human purpose) 2. diversity (diversity of lifeforms contribute to realisation of these values; also values in selves. simpler life forms are valued in themselves and not regarded as steps towards higher life forms) 3. Vital needs (humans no right to diminish richness and diversity except to satisfy vital needs'. deliberately vague to allow latitude in judgement amongst different climates and structures in society- e.g. for eskimos, snowmobiles are necessary to satisfy vital needs) 4. population (flourishing of human life compatible with decrease of human population

Existentialism is a humanism: what is the aim of the novel

defence of existentialism from it's criticisms of Quietism (Marxist criticism. existentialism encourages inaction, is too contemplative and impractical and is thus a bourgeois philosophy because to contemplate is a luxury), pessimism (christian. negative view of life. leads to ignominious behaviour. better parts of life, e.g. infant's smile, are ignored), relativism (general criticism. no moral truths. impossible to pass judgement on others' morals. offers no clear moral guidance)

Arguments against absolute pacifism:Luban

defends war on the basis of human rights: "such rights are worth fighting for... Not only by those to whom they are denied, but... by the rest of us as well"

Existentialism is a humanism:What does Sartre mean by essence?

definition of a thing, created in the mind of an artisan before production (e.g. paper knife, or theists and God- e.g. Aquinas)

Euthanasia: Kantian ethics

deontological (ends do not justify means) second formulation (of categorical imperative- "treat people never merely as a means, but also and always as an end in themselves") suicide (against. People using themselves as a means to their own deaths.) "disposing of oneself as a mere means to some discretionary end is debasing humanity in one's person"

Kantian ethics outline: background

deontological (innate sense of duty we are compelled to follow) intrinsic (acts are always right or wrong- moral value intrinsic to the action) a priori (what is right or wrong is determined by reason alone. validity of moral judgements is thus objective, not subjective.) emotion (rejection of emotion. Kant rejected emotion as passive (cannot be controlled, heteronomous influence coming from outside the body), unreliable (inconsistent and prone to leading to irrational behaviour) phenomenal (belong to the world of animals and physical objects) reason (autonomous- allows individuals to govern themselves)) morality (comes from the noumenal realm inhabited by gods and angels and governed by reason) synthetic a priori (analytic: truth contained within predicate, a priori, deductive- e.g. all bachelors are unmarried. synthetic: truth of statement not in predicate, a posteriori, inductive- e.g. all bears are brown. ethical statements are synthetic a priori- a priori in that known without experience of the phenomenal realm, synthetic in that not true by definition, because an application of an objective law to the phenomenal realm) freedom of will ("postulate" to morality, caused by humans uniquely straddling the abstract angel inhabited reason governed noumenal realm and the cause and effect governed animal inhabited phenomenal realm) god (world makes sense, because everything conformed to underlying principle. however the world does not make sense: an autonomous agent who freely does his duty is sometimes negatively rewarded. thus for everything to make sense, god, the 'divine guarantor' must exist in order to provide an afterlife where people achieve the 'summum bonum' or greatest good) summum bonum (some scholars consider the summum bonum a goal- you do your duty for duty's sake with the result of achieving the greatest good- not teleological, because not the main driving force) intention (to be moral we must act on the good will, and do duty for duty's sake. the good will is the only intrinsically good thing, and occurs when practical reason is applied to a situation) action (to be moral, must act on categorical imperatives, which are worked out using reason. these have application and absolute meaning for everyone everywhere at all times and have no exceptions- e.g. do not lie)

Arguments for virtue ethics (ccj crard cwird)

deontology (rejects- deontological systems tend to create situations with a lack of clarity over the right thing to do, the wrong thing was advocated, impossible situations were created. situation ethics avoids this) deicide (Anscombe: a "salient reason" for the resurgence in virtue ethics; Hume: "metaphysics is cast to the flames as it contains nothing but sophistry and illusion"), improvement (the fact people are able to improve in the system and are not predestinately bad is positive and commonly accepted- e.g. "the Good Place"- postulates people can become better through practice and through the instruction provided by a teacher. Hick: "virtues are better hard won than ready made"- people's personal understanding and moral nature improves through choosing virtuous path even when counter intuitive. foot: virtues are not only qualities of character but require continuous intention, thus can correct deviant behaviour, e.g. dictatorship- czechoslovakia, 1968, Havel) MacIntyre and Keenan: character (MacIntyre: "the ethical condition is not the condition of having a certain right theory; rather the ethical condition is having a certain character", Keenan: the questions relevant to humans are not deontological or consequential- they're character based) community (values the need for a community. counter: Rand: encourages corruption) complexity (acknowledges the complexity of life; a fully virtuous person would be able to know what to do in any situation whereas deontological systems will never be able to cover all situations) aspiration (Taylor: "an ethics of aspiration rather than an ethics of duty") realistic- elderly neighbour (visiting sick elderly neighbour. Kant: duty: cold/impersonal. Utilitarianism: only do if not better to visit a stranger- not comforting to neighbour. virtuous person visits and enjoys it) judgement before action (e.g. paedophile misanthropist who never acts. utilitarianism and kantian ethics are unable to form a conclusion. virtue ethics: bad based on character. counter: this isn't fair) Avoids need for law giver (Rachels: "modern philosophy is misguided because it rests on the notion of a law without a law giver"- here ethics is its own reward) good for whole (Aristotle: 'Man is by Nature a Political Animal'- Individual flourishing is societal flourishing. encourages people to stay together in society. counter: is society necessarily a good thing?) Nussbaum: reason and desire (tension of reason and desire of humans resolved. akrasia (weakness of will) solved by humans following rational choice over irrational desires. phronesis entails interpreting moral dilemma through holistic approach- reason and emotions. allows the selection of emotions appropriate for individual expression due to golden mean) counter cultural remedy (counter cultural remedy for capitalist meritocracy. highly pressurised atmosphere. encourages self-reflection (theoria- contemplation). care of a person's soul (character) is paramount.) hursthouse: reliable (most reliable way to ensure flourishing. like maths- correct answer (right action) correct working (right intention) and understanding (correct character) creates right solution more often than wrong working does)

Arguments against natural law: underdeveloped

developed natural law, adding new primary precepts. Grisez: self-integration, authenticity, playfulness, appreciation of beauty. Finnis: changes procreation to marital good, including having fun with marital partner. could be argued that Aquinas ignores the erotic love play of "song of Songs" and the fact vaginas have a clitoris which has no function other than to increase pleasure during sex

Aristotle: virtue ethics: outline: rationality behind it

essence precedes existence: purpose (all things have purpose. e.g. a knife's purpose is to cut well. something is good which fulfils its purpose) function argument (people cause things to have functions (thus the cause of functioning things must itself have a funciton), people have functions in society (therefore society must have a function), bodies are made up of parts with funcitons- therefore the human as a whole must have a function. human function is happiness- Aristotle, Nichomachean ethics: "the masses and the cultured classes agree in calling [the goal of life] happiness") happiness (different people have different definitions of happiness. gentlemen: honor (aristtole rejects due to the fact it is not distinctive to humans. animals have hierarchies; possible to have honour under false pretences; only satisfying honour is true honour. lowly men: pleasure. aristotle rejects: not distinctive to humans: we share pleasure and pain with animals. Virtue: arete, meaning excellence. only thing worth pursuing for its own sake) nature (nature of a thing is what is distinctive to that thing. human nature is rational, because reason is distinctive to humans. emotion is not denied, but reason is used to use them effectively) golden mean (virtues lie in between the excesses of two vices- excess and deficiency) relative (relative to each person- too much food for a baby is sufficient for a football player) practice (Phronesis: knowledge of virtue. acquired through the example of a teacher and through being practiced) analogy of archer

Sermon on the mount: Bultmann

existential perspective. "the obedience which Jesus asks is easy... it frees a man from dependence on a formal authority", :It is not a decision of satisfying an outward authority but of being completely obedient" (authority- jesus removed adherence to external authorities; men responsible to God) obedience (about internalising God's command and becoming obedient to it)Ethics of attitude ("the ethic of Jesus... is an ethic of obedience"- no universal standards, theory of value, measure of action, or intention; teaches no normative thics; teaches obedience, so one knows god's command naturally in the moment) not legalistic ("Misunderstanding" to take "But i tell you" passages as legalism- e.g. to refuse to end an unendurable marriage just because Jesus said so misunderstands Jesus- these actions will follow naturally as a result of the attitude of internalising God's command)

arguments against strong/weak sanctity of life

foetus person (Augustine and Aquinas considered that the foetus becomes a person between 40 and 80 days after conception) church (has affirmed the right and responsibility of each catholic to follow his or her conscience on moral matters, even when if conflicts with church teaching; has not declared that its teaching on sexual and reproductive issues is infallible) general opinion (64% of US Catholics disapprove of the statement that abortion is always morally wrong (Lake Research and Tarrance Group, 1995); 72% of Australian Catholics say decisions about abortion should be left to individual women and their doctors (Survey for Family Plannning Australia and Children by Choice, Melboune, 1996))

arguments against aristotle's virtue ethics: God

foregoes the grace of god. erasmus: virtue ethics meant people could claim the authority to promote their own well being and reject god. contrary to original sin

Biblical approach: ecology: Geisler

four principles drawn from passage. Ecology means good stewardship (humans must respect the world and not turn it into a desert) principle of sabbath rest (rest needed for land to be productive. clear in jubillee law- every 50 years, land must be returned to it's original owner- Leviticus, 25:28. land is god's- man mustn't be greedy over it. man is image of god- above nature and not part of it

word to remember arguments against aristotle's virtue ethics

g(god- erasmus)u(unsuccessful- kant)i(incomplete) de(elitist- aristotle and slavery) g(guidance- lacks deontological guidelines. counter: reductio ad absurdum, hursthouse: virtuous thinking) w(lack of will- zimbardo, milgram, stanford prison)a(aspirational ethic- no one succeeds, MacIntyre. adams: so where should we look for examples of morality? counter: look for morality where people succeed- even if in just one aspect of life) y(underestimates youth- malala yousafzai) s(science and efficient cause, e.g. darwin) j(judgement without action- unfair) g(gender virtues- freud, greeno)r(role models- sartre, kant)d (dull- grayling, counter pojmann) s(selfish- rand) 2f (genetic fallacy and composition falacy) v (vice: e.g. daring to commit murder. counter foot: not virtue)

arguments against Mill's utilitarianism

higher/lower pleasures (not necessarily true. many intelligent people will continue to indulge in lower pleasures- e.g. some academics even study nursery rhymes. shakespeare not necessarily high pleasure; indulged in by all sorts originally- 'groundlings' capable only of 'noise'. it is not the thing itself but how you treat it, how you conceive or indulge in it)

Natural law: aquinas: Primary precepts

immutable, deontological, and objective. human reason applied to creation. Preservation of the self, obey the laws of society, worship god, education, reproduction

Fletcher's situational ethic: agape

inspired by Matthew 15-17: Jesus' dialogues with the pharisees. The pharisees elaborate on the torah to accommodate every situation; jesus returns to the original principles. "a disinterested but compassionate concern for one's neighbour" (disinterested=objective) every situation confronted with past experience, but overridden should agape be better served by doing so. always good.

Bentham: hedonic calculus: components

intensity, duration, certainty, remoteness/propinquity, fecundity (probability it will lead to other pleasure/pain), purity, extent

Eco-holism/ecological extension: outline

interdependence (we exist as part of a single ecosystem. as a consequence, any damage we do to the ecosystem impacts our well being) Gaia hypothesis (Lovelock. named after Greek primordial goddess of the earth. often described as viewing the earth as a single organism. Biosphere and physical components of earth (atmosphere, cryosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere) are integrated, complex interacting system. this maintains climatic, biogeochemical conditions on earth and creates a preferred homeostasis- preferred temperature. supporters consider it "gaia theory"- has passed predictive tests, showing idea could work- it has made "no less than 10 predictions which have come true". "revenge of Gaia", 2006: lack of respect humans have had for Gaia is testing capacity to minimise effects of greenhouse gases. damage to rainforests and reduction in biodiversity have eliminated negative feedback loops. increases likelihood of positive feedback potential- global warming. the warming of the oceans is extending oceanis thermocline layer of tropical oceans into the Arctic and Antarctic rivers; this prevents rise of oceanic nutrients into surface waters, and eliminates algal blooms of phytoplankton, which oceanic food chains depend upon. phytoplankton and forests are the main ways gaia drains greenhouse gases out of the atmosphere. elimination of this will make most of the earth uninhabitable for humans and other life forms by the middle of this century)

arguments against aristotle's virtue ethics: guidance

lacks guidance for what qualifies as a virtue; phroenesis comes with experience, so young people are disadvantaged; lack the judgement that comes with experience. without guidelines may perform actions which are harmful. doesn't seem wise to withdraw protective deontological frameworks. what if i have no access to morality? counter: reductio ad absurdum. clash of virtues? e.g. whistleblowers between loyalty and honesty

Fletcher's situation ethic: response to

legalism (rule bound ethical systems, e.g. DCT, Calvin "sola scriptura"), Antinomianism (nihilism, existentialism- abandonment of rules and principles)

Arguments against Fletcher's situational ethic

legalistic (application of the "rule" of love makes it legalistic. counter: attitude, not love) nihilistic ("for the situationist, there are no rules- none at all" counter: rule of love is an attitude; this is more effective than the rule because the intention is right) too subjective (Morris and Clark: "one can rationalise much deviant behaviour in the name of love", open to exploitation. love cannot be measured- thus how can we decide the most loving action? moral value of consequence depends on individual) absolutist (love may seem relative because of the deontological systems it is compared to, but it is essentially an absolute principle. counter: love is an atittude, not a principle) prophesy (requires prediction of the future in order to assess the calculation of consequences. this will no doubt be unsuccessful because it is impossible to know what factors apply. assumes humans are able always to predict the most loving course of action; not necessarily true) optimism (over estimates human ability to make moral choices. requires humans not to be influenced by personal preferences- impossible. huamns need guidelines of laws system) punishment (not enough: most loving thing is always to forgive; therefore not satisfying to the victim of the crime. too much: if claimed that "most loving" thing is harsh punsihment- that is acceptable. too subjective, misused) exception (most cases offer an obvious course of action; only applies to the exception. counter: what is the point of any ethical theory if most cases have an obvious course of action? could be considered an attitude to life, thus application to entire life) Morris and Clark: Not christian ("a system of ethics will excuse man's unbelief and pander to his perversions", "an ethical system is christian when it conforms to the Bible" situationist ethics is a very subjective reading of the bible. "Situationists claim Christ completely dismissed the Old testament laws and replaced them with the single law of love. Christ did say that the love of god and of one's neighbour were the two greatest commandments... but he never left men without laws for the fulfilment of the greatest commandments" e.g. Matthew 5:17: "do not think that i have come to abolish the law or the prophets", true observance must include "internal as well as external obedience". undermines god's authority- assumes that one can observe or disregard god's commandments as he sees fit- "when man's reason begins passing judgement on god's revelation, one forfeits the right to claim any part of the revelation binding". Jesus affirms the laws- adultery (matthew 7:27-28), divorce (Matthew 5:31-32), Praying (matthew 6:5-8). importance of keeping laws: John 14:15: "if you love me, you will keep my commandments". counter: matthew 5:17 "do not think that i came to abolish the law or the prophets; i did not come to abolish, but to fulfil" could be interpreted to mean that he has fulfilled the old laws. Romans 6:14: our relationship to god is no longer determined by the law) Packer: impractical, unchristian (Impractical: "as a method to guide us in choosing our behaviour, it appalls"- requires prophesising into the future- too difficult to work out all the consequences to possible outcomes. too complex to "love thy neighbour" without a framework of rules- "neighbourly love is to be guided by bylaw". our neighbour and ourselves are enigmas to each other- but "our maker knows our true nature and has told us how we are to do ourselves and each other real good". Not christian: "hail[s] as good what God calls evil", "treat god's revealed directive as working rules only". in a situation where two evils collide- e.g. Hamlet (honour thy parents and do not kill)- may help, but doesn't provide a morally positive solution. "evil remains evil, even when, being the lesser evil, it appears the right thing to do") Pope Pius XI: existentialist, subjective, against moral law, unchristian (Acta Apostolicae Sedis 44, 1956. Existentialist: "it is not difficult to recognise how the new new moral system derives from existentialism, which either prescinds from god, or simply denies him", and "man is intelligible only in terms of his relation to God". counter: existentialist christian ethic of Kierkegaard. Subjective: against the moral doctrines of the catholic church- based on Aquinas's natural law. immoral: bishop o hara: "substitution of emotion for the rational process" whereas natural law focuses on reason as the deciding factor for action. natural law works from the way things are, and is founded in the ontological truth of things. unchristian: "the christian moral law is in the law of the creator engraved in the heart of each one and in revelation". churchteaches that there are certain acts which are "gravely forbidden by the divine law maker... no matter what the situation of the individual... there is no other course open to him but to obey" counter: if it is indeed "engraved on the heart of each one" surely then situation ethics works- because it is defined by the fact it is upon the individual to respond) Gustafson: unclear, too utopian ("love, like situation, runs through fletcher's book like a greased pig", "omits any possibility of a bad conscience") Jackson: "societal chaos" ("situation ethics... if persistently pursued, will ultimately result in societal chaos." case study: woman jilted by her lover. married friend decides to have an affair to comfort her, thinking this is the most loving thing to do. man's wife finds out, unable to cope with trauma, kills herself. sons disillusioned by the actions of their father and mother: one becomes a drunkard and kills two in an automobile accident, the other becomes a criminal and is imprisoned for murder. counter: extreme, verging on absurd example based on a false premise. if the situationist ethic had been consistently applied, then it is unlikely that the most loving thing would have been to have an affair in the first place, let alone for the wife to kill herself or the sons to become murderers. however, if it was the most loving thing, it would merely imply there was little else better to do in the situation. unlikely: could have comforted in a different way- and considered his own wife's feelings. does show that the theory can be misinterpreted- but this is not the fault of the theory, but rather whoever is using it)

Fletcher's situation ethic: 6 propositions

love ("only one thing is intrinsically good"- love.) Norm (ruling norm of christianity is love (Jesus and Paul replaced the torah with love)) Justice (justice is love redistributed- love and justice are the same (representing those oppressed by standing up in justice)) neighbours (love wills the neighbours good, whether or not we like him.) ends (only the ends justify the means) situational (love's decisions are made situationally, not prescriptively)

Arguments against shallow ecology

marxist (conservation ethics seeking to conserve status quo- division between haves and have-nots. Naess: "the central objective of shallow movements is to promote the health and affluence of people in the developed countries") ecofeminism (Cuomo, "ecological feminism". doesn't consider the roots of the problem. women and the environment are victims of androcentric society; men use women and environment as possessions, only understand relationships based on domination. womanist approach: shared understanding of intrinsically connected nature of the world) Singer's forest (shallow ecology considers things only in as useful as they are to humans. singer's forest is of immediate known use to humans- providing energy and jobs, also of unknown future use. however, it is likely that by taking an anthropocentric view the immediate benefits outweigh the long-term benefits, thus singer's forest is not saved)

Kant: formulation of morality outline

maxim (simplest form of the statement- hypothetical rejected (contain the word 'if')) universalisable (first formulation. determine whether the maxim could apply consistently in all situations at all times. objected to inconsistencies because believed that laws were derived from noumenal realm which was consistent) contradictions of nature (make the world absurd- contradictory. e.g. do not keep promises- promises would not make sense) contradictions of will (universalise- doesn't make world absurd; but wouldn't want to, because the world would be unacceptable. e.g. do not help others in hardship) perfect duty (neither contradiction of will or nature; must be followed without exceptions), imperfect duty (passes first test (could become a law of nature) but doesn't pass second (wouldn't want it to)- opposite of maxim becomes imperfect duty. e.g. don't develop your talents becomes imperfect duty of develop your talents, to be pursued when doesn't contradict other duties) principle of ends (universalise humanity, implying equality- every human agent has the same worth. never treat humans as a means, only as an end. whilst ignoring one's own, take into account before acting other people's desires, feelings and interests), principle of autonomy (universalise your idea of shared interests. morality is shared obligation with an idea of common goods- act as though making a law for everyone to act as you do)

arguments against aristotle's virtue ethics: science and efficient cause

modern science may be interpreted to indicate things are efficiently caused (by a prior thing) rather than directed towards a telos- e.g. darwinian evolution. finches adapt to encironment, not the other way around. counter: doesn't need foundation in telos; still successful- allows adaption to environment

Existentialism is a humanism: what does sartre claim existentialism is not?

naturalism (existentialism doesn't provide ready made definition of human nature- man has no shared human nature but is rather always defining himself through his acts and is thus creating himself constantly. counter: "man is free, man is freedom"- seems like human nature) traditionalism (doesn't support establishment or established views) romanticism (doesn't provide overly romantic views of humanity)

Arguments against absolute pacifism: rewards aggression

no disincentive for aggressive behaviour; doesn't protect those unable to defend themselves- e.g. World War 2 appeasement. Counter: other disincentives- economic or cultural sanctions, eg.. Ghandi in India- civil disobedience or indirect coercion work more effectively than war

Existentialism is a humanism: what is humanism?

non-religious system of beliefs, focusing on humans, emphasising dignity and capacity for choice (not humanism as shown in "around the world in 80 days", which celebrates and worships the glories of other men and claims them as one's own as a part of humanity)

Embryo research and genetic engineering: stem cell research: outline of practical considerations

obtaining/using separate (Those obtaining stem cells for research should be separate from those using them) consent (Fully informed consent should be obtained for: use of embryos and of stem cells; consent possible to withdraw) tissue banking regulations (2004, Human tissue act; Stem cells created for therapy need to conform unlike those for research) source (needs to be known- Traceability key issue in good manufacturing practice)

deep ecology scholar Naess

only way way we can hope to defend the environment is through re-evaluation of our ethics. rejects Shallow ecology and Gaia hypothesis as anthropocentric- humans rather than the totality of environment at centre. Sherpa culture: regard certain mountains as sacred; would not venture into them. Basic principles: 1. inherent value (well being and flourishing of human and non-human life on earth have intrinsic value. value independent of usefulness of non-human world for human purpose) 2. diversity (diversity of lifeforms contribute to realisation of these values; also values in selves. simpler life forms are valued in themselves and not regarded as steps towards higher life forms) 3. Vital needs (humans no right to diminish richness and diversity except to satisfy vital needs'. deliberately vague to allow latitude in judgement amongst different climates and structures in society- e.g. for eskimos, snowmobiles are necessary to satisfy vital needs) 4. population (flourishing of human life compatible with decrease of human population. united Nations state of World Population report 1984: high human population growth rates (over 2% per annum) in developing countries were 'diminishing the quality of life for many millions of people'. 1974-84, world population grew by 800 million people, more than the size of India. even though population growth rate has declined for the first time in human history, population base is larger leading to bigger human population. necessary to reduce consuption) 5. interference (present human interference in non-human world excessive- see IUCN's world conservation strategy) 6. policy changed (current economic policy incompatible with 1-5. effect basic economic, technological, ideological structures. resulting state of affairs different from present) 6. quality of life (appreciating life quality- dwelling in situations of inherent value- rather than adhereing to increasingly higher standards of living), 7. obligation of action (those who subscribe to aforementioned points must directly or indirectly try to make necessary changes)

On what grounds did kant reject emotion?

passive (cannot control them; heteronomous influence, coming from outside the body), unreliable (inconsistent, prone to leading to irrational behaviour), phenomenal (belong to the realm of animals and physical objects)

arguments against aristotle's virtue ethics: lack will

people lack strength of will to be virtuous. even people habitually virtuous can be manipulated by authoritarian structures. Zimbardo: main reason that dictatorships succeed is because people passively stand by. e.g. Stanford Prison experiment, Milgram shock experiment. Most people willing to cause harm due to pressure and persuasion. counter: Fromm: application of reason prevents this (though this could be argued to be overly simplistic)

Doctrine of double effect natural law

permissible to bring about a bad consequence as a side effect of a good end and good intention. requirements: act itself must be morally positive or neutral; bad effect must not be means by which good effect achieved (e.g. abortion to save woman's life) intention must be achievement of good effect; bad effect may be foreseen but cannot be intended; good effect must be good enough to compensate for bad effect

word to remember aquinas natural law primary precepts

power (preservation of the self, obey society, worship god, educate the young, reproduce)

pro choice arguments

preference utilitarianism (singer. subhumans- under 4 week old newborn) act utilitarianism (abortion permitted as long as it creates the most pleasure) Thompson (violinist analogy. good samaritans/minimally decent samaritans) warren (spaceman analogy. human beings/persons. 5 criteria. foetuses not humans.) catholics (Augustine and aquinas. conscience over teachings. not infallible. general support.) Bible (deuteronomy- birds) quality of life (Giubilini and Minerva)

Existentialism is a humanism: what does sartre mean by consciousness?

process by which an object, person or thought makes itself known to the perceiver. by this process one realises the meaninglessness and contingency of existence

Arguments against absolute pacifism: difficult

prohibits intervention even when people are being attacked or murdered- e.g. genocide in WW2. Hennesy: "being a pacifist between wars is as easy as being a vegetarian between meals"

Arguments against natural law: teleology

rachels: things have more than one purpose. e.g. sex also relaxes, bonds, is enjoyable, etc. "it may be that sex does produce babies, but it does not follow that sex ought or ought not to be engaged in only for that purpose. Facts are one thing, values are another"

Mill: utilitarianism outline

rejected hedonism (flawed; impossible to measure pleasure- e.g. what one person considers high pleasure may be for another low pleasure) eudaimonistic system (humans seek low and high pleasures. low: animalistic- e.g. sex, good food. high: deep friendship, intellectual ability, culture) qualitative ("it is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied". not all pleasures of equal value. lower pleasures of lesser value but more intensely gratifying. over time, may lead to pain. higher pleasures: Maslow's hierarchy of needs. attended to after bodily needs met, longer term, continual, develop gradually- e.g. nursery rhymes to mozart) competent judge (how we know it is better to experience higher pleasures. we imagine a panel of experts with a wide range of experiences. all these people would choose higher pleasures over lower pleasures) individual ("over himself... the individual is sovereign". in ethical dilemmas involving the individual's body, the individual has complete rights) rule utilitarianism (bentham and act utilitarians too individualistic. best chance of maximising utility is through establishing rules. morality is a social and a public exercise. first order: maximising rules of thumb (should always be followed), second order: conflict resolving ("it is more important to avoid causing harm than to tell the truth") third order: remainder rules: if another rule doesn't apply, resort to act utilitarianism)

singer: preference utilitarianism

rejects hedonistic consequentialism of bentham and mill (impractical to measure pain and pleasure; insufficient to deal with complexity of life on earth) preference utilitarianism: "Preference utilitarianism judges actions, not by their tendency to maximise pleasure and to minimise pain, but by the extent to which they accord with the preferences of any beings affected by the action or its consequences" (agent freely acts on their choice without impinging on the choices of others) universal (considers a world where everyone's preferences are considered; people would always choose the ability to make preferences, thus we should universalise freedom to choose) morally significant being (multi-level. act utilitarianism applies to all sentient beings- right to live a pain free life. preference utilitarianism applies only to morally significant beings: sense of self, biography, identity in history: "beings who cannot see themselves as entities with a future cannot have any preferences about their own future existence". only applies to humans over the age of "about four weeks" and higher order primates. doesn't include babies, foetuses, disabled people) justification (euthanasia, infanticide- replacement of suffering with pain free life. abortion: foetus has no worth up to 18 weeks when it begins to feel pain, then progressively more significance until 4 week old new born capable of expressing preferences) redistribution of wealth (all wealth and income over a certain level should be redistributed to maximise pleasure and ability to choose for maximum number of people) animal rights (all sentient creatures have a right of protection from their pain; but because they cannot express their preferences their interests are limited)

Abortion: pro life: strong sanctity of life

revealed ethics, christian with root in scripture. Associated with Evangelical Conservative Christians and Catholics. god (Human life is a gift from god. Inviolable by anyone other than him) Bible passages: Genesis 1:27 'God created Mankind in his own image' (Supporting: thus to kill is to kill an image of God) Genesis 9:6 'whoever sheds human blood, by humans shall their blood be shed' (Supporting: therefore it is bad to abort) Job 1:21 'the lord gave and the lord has taken away' (Supporting: thus no one else but the lord should or can) Exodus 21:21-25 'if people are fighting and hit a pregnant woman and she gives birth prematurely but there is no serious injury, the offender must be fined... but if there is serious injury, you are to take life for life'. roman catholic church: life begins (Believe life begins when the woman's egg is fertilised by male sperm. Not a potential new human being but a human being with potential) support: Catechism: 'every human being's right to life... from the moment of conception until death'. Code of Cannon Law, 1983: 'a person who actually procures an abortion incurs automatic excommunication'. Didache, 2nd C: 'you shall not kill the embryo by abortion' Pope John Paul II- on abortion 'frequently man lives as if god did not exist, and even puts himself in God's place... He claims for himself the Creator's right to interfere in the mystery of human life' 'I confirm that the direct and voluntary killing of an innocent human being is always gravely immoral... since it is the deliberate killing of an innocent human being'. 1996: 'The Common Good'- Catholic Bishops of England and Wales. Church's opposition to abortion stemmed from the recognition of basic rights and intrinsic value of all individuals, including the unborn (counter: depends whether one considers the bible is including foetuses as humans)

libertarian extension

rights (all rights afforded to individual in community should be extended to all in community. encironment: all living things. should we include things without sentience- e.g. atmosphere?) singer (if we fail to give rights to other creatures, we are guilty of "speciesism". provides protection of singer's forest, as it has intrinsic worth) Spinoza (no transcendent, personal god; no immortal soul; no freewill; universe exists without purpose or goal; natural world, including humans, follows same set of natural laws- humans aren't special. everything that has happened could not have happened differently. universe one inherently active totality. god/nature not a distinct being, rather synonymous with universe) snyder ("the world environment should remain natural")

Kantian ethics: support DLEF SIDE CRC

scruton ("one of the most beautiful creations the human mind has ever devised") Raphael: democracy ("kantian ethics is in fact the ethic of democracy. it requires liberty (allow everyone to decide for himself), equality (because it requires us to recognise that every human being equally has the power to make moral decisions) and fraternity (think of yourself as a member of a moral community)"), clarity (creates absolute rules without exceptions, thus easy to follow) innate (kant argues that rational beings understand what they should do out of duty alone- so follow his theory unconsciously already. Pojmann: "everyone who is ideally rational will legislate the same universal principles") consistency (ensures consistency in application of rules- to all people, including ourselves. good treatment of people. Rachels: "moral reasons, if they are valid at all, are binding on all people at all times... it implies that a person cannot regard himself as special from a moral point of view... that his interests are more important than others") Dignity and equality (all people are equal, and have intrinsic value "beyond all price" (Kant) "humans have an intrinsic worth i.e. dignity because they are rational agents... guiding their conduct by reason") harshness and retribution (eye for an eye- "an evil deed draws punishment on itself". respecting others' autonomy means holding them accountable)

War and peace: pacifism outline

set of theories, rooted in the principled rejection of violence. extreme pacifism: opposition to all forms of violence as a means to settle disputes. minimum: rejection of participation in international/civil wars. origins in religious movements, e.g. quakerism, and more secular, e.g. Kant (People used as a means, not as ends in themselves- "Humanity itself is a dignity, for man cannot be used merely as a means by any man... but must be used at the same time as an end"; not universalisable; contradiction of will) some forms of utilitarianism (not the way of spreading the greatest happiness)

modern developments of virtue ethics: Keenan

suggests virtues of prudence, justice, fidelity, self-care and mercy

Arguments in favour of euthanasia

suicide (people perhaps more likely to take own lives but may be more painful or less successful. may be regulated this way, done in a way less likely to result in painful or expensive complications) pro choice (same arguments as used for abortion- one's personal choices over one's body should not be decided by others. counter: somerville: slippery slope) whose life is it anyway (play by brian clark. demonstrates issues around euthanasia. postulates that in certain situations logical to desire death- should be individual's choice), Preference utilitarianism (preference- people should be able to make decisions about their own bodies. replaceability: "when the death of a disabled infant will lead to the birth of another infant with the prospects of a happy life, the amount of happiness will be greater if the disabled infant is killed", Quality of life: Not logical to ban euthanasia on the "very small number of unnecessary deaths that might occur" as the majority suffer considerably and are terminally ill. COunter: kubler-ross: improved care eliminated pain for terminally ill. response: only for small number) acts and omissions (British medical association 1994. importance of intention: difference between active (administering lethal dose of drugs) and passive (withdrawing treatment) euthanasia. counter: rachels: smith, jones, and the bath. "there's no moral difference between killing and letting die")

Real and apparent goods: Natural law

synderesis rule: "no evil can ever be desirable". No human ever intentionally does evil. real goods: actions according to natural law. Apparent good: the fall damaged our ability to reason and corrupted our nature: thus we desire things that are not in line with primary precepts. incorrect reason leads to action incongruent with natural law. appears good because we desire it or it has good consequences.

Arguments against natural law: Synderesis

synderesis rule: Neibhur. undermines christ. humans are by nature sinful, not good. Snell: Natural law invalidated by original sin: we want evil, not good. is human nature really as good as this? e.g. Golding, Lord of the Flies, Ballard: High rise

Virtue ethics: arguments for: improvement

the fact people are able to improve in the system and are not predestinately bad is positive and commonly accepted- e.g. "the Good Place"- postulates people can become better through practice and through the instruction provided by a teacher. Hick: "virtues are better hard won than ready made"- people's personal understanding and moral nature improves through choosing virtuous path even when counter intuitive. foot: virtues are not only qualities of character but require continuous intention, thus can correct deviant behaviour, e.g. dictatorship- czechoslovakia, 1968, Havel- able to overcome imprisonment and became president of Czech republic following Velvet Revolution

Biblical approach: ecology: Paul, Romans 8

the restoration of the world- after the fall of humans and coming of the kingdom of god- will occur once humans have repaired damage they have done to it. "we know that the whole of creation has been groaning in the pains of childbirth until now", :the creation waits with eager longing for the revealing of the sons of God", "the creation was subjected to futility... in hope that the creation itself will be set free from its bondage to corruption and obtain the freedom of the glory of the children of god". could be considered eco-holistic- personifies nature. implies nature has intrinsic feeling or desire

War and peace: Augustine

theory: Jus ad bellum (just war theory) context (early christians broadly pacificists. roman empire converted to christianity under Constantine in 4th c. necessary to have a christian army to defend the first christian empire) Bible (made case using bible; reconcile old and new testament positions) deontological (war justified: God commanded it in the OT- Joshua 10:40, Deuteronomy 2:34) authority (God alone can sanction war. "He alone knows the suitable command in every case and who alone is incapable of inflicting unmerited suffering on anyone") Natural law ("the act, the agent and the authority are all of great importance in the order of nature") Criteria: 1. Lawful authority (Law only declared by lawful authority- i.e. God) 2. Natural order (wars fought to sustain order in society, secure peace) 3. Justice in war (treat people well- i.e. avoid torture) Biblical justification (Joshua 10:40- God commands Joshua to "destroy all who breathed" in the Negev region. Deuteronomy 2:30.) counter: Tertullian (some scholars consider that Jesus revoked old testament. counter: "do not think that i abolish the law or the prophets" Matthew 5:17) John 18 (Jesus commands peter to put his sword away. has been interpreted as a condemnation of violence. counter: viewed in context, appears to be more about resistance of fate- Jesus says "shall i not drink of the cup" that the lord gave him) Bible (only one interpretation of the bible; not an objective reading but rather searching to justify his cause)

Arguments against natural law: secondary precepts

too flexible; could be used to validate improper actions e.g. sex before marriage- validated through 'reproduction' despite 'worship god'

utilitarian dilemmas

trolley problem (Bentham: kill the one, save the five; Mill: likely kill the one, but if say the five were drug dealers and the one was a nun, then kill the five; singer: cannot kill either without their consent; if consent impossible then kill the one) man in a box (Bentham yes box; singer: no unless consent)

Arguments against absolute pacifism: spurious history

view of history is spurious. isn't necessarily true that consequences of violence are worse than not using it; e.g. WW2: created the peaceful Europe that appeasement failed to. counter: 20 million deaths or 60 years peace for hundreds of millions?

Arguments against absolute pacifism: alternatives unworkable

what about a remorseless aggressor who doesn't respond to such sanctions- e.g. Nazi Germany. Walzer. Under such conditions, pacifism is a "disguised form of surrender"

Existentialism is a humanism: despair meaning

whatever i may choose to do, others may thwart; no certainty- we should accept this and "act without hope"