Philosophy Questions

consciousness

David Chalmers proposed a distinction between two problems of this concept. Materialist explanations of this phenomenon fail to explain qualia such as the perception of colors, the "hard problem" of this concept. Monists like Aristotle said the world of matter and of this state were one and the same. Descartes claimed that this property is unique to all thoughts and thus the mind. For 10 points, name this ability to experience or feel, which is often synonymous with having executive control of the mind.

comedy

George Meredith noted that the French understand men and women better than the British do, due to having a "school" of this concept, in his Essay on this concept. G.K. Chesterton divided this concept into "old" and "new," while a more common division is between "high" and "low." The "high" form of this concept includes ones "of manners" and "of ideas," which often include satire; the "low" form typically makes use of farce. For 10 points, name this concept that describes any work intended to make people laugh.

David Hume

He argued that ethical judgments were based on feelings rather than on moral principles. This philosopher said that man was governed by custom, and argued that humans justified the use of induction by assuming that causes and effects were "constantly conjoined". This man apparently contradicted himself by positing the existence of a "missing shade" that a man who had experienced all other blues would be able to deduce. This British empiricist is often grouped with Berkeley and Locke but argued that we could never have true knowledge about complex ideas. For 10 points, name this Scottish philosopher, the author of works such as An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding.

Immanuel Kant

He proposed three "definitive articles", including republican government, as a basis on which to end intra-national hostilities in his Perpetual Peace. He stated that the answer to the title question is "man's emergence from his self-imposed immaturity" in "What is Enlightenment?" This philosopher based his system of ethics on a set of three maxims known as the (*) categorical imperative. For 10 points, name this German philosopher of Critique of Judgment and Critique of Pure Reason.

truth

It's not power, but Nietzsche described the will to power as the only basis for a "will to" this concept in Beyond Good and Evil. Deflationist and coherence theories describe this concept, which Charles Peirce ("PURSE") called the "end of inquiry." The idea that this concept is merely that which serves an individual well is a hallmark of pragmatism. Wittgenstein developed a way of assessing this concept with namesake "tables," and a contemporary theory of this concept defines it as the state corresponding with reality. For 10 points, name this philosophical concept, the opposite of falsehood.

The Republic

Karl Popper argued that this work depicted a totalitarian state, as music and art were banned and children were raised away from their parents. Its phulakes were to give up their wealth and rule for the good of the state, and it includes a parable describing souls of gold, silver, and iron. In one section, the Spindle of Necessity is the destination of Er. In another part of this work, shadows thrown by a fire are contrasted with the light of the Sun, which represents knowledge of the Good. That section details a figure's journey into the realm of the Forms from the ignorance of the Cave. For 10 points, name this work by Plato that describes an ideal world ruled by philosopher-kings.

Jean-Paul Sartre

One notable anecdote from this philosopher involves being asked by a young man whether he ought to abandon his mother to fight for freedom, to which he notes that any answer derived from Christian or Kantian ethics would be inauthentic. He also stated that "man first of all (*) exists... and defines himself afterwards." Strangely enough, he defended orthodox Marxism despite his extreme individualism and in doing so, lost the goodwill of Albert Camus. For 10 points, name this author of Being and Nothingness, who articulated the idea of "bad faith" and wrote No Exit.

Property

One notable articulation of this concept by Pierre Proudhon is that it "is theft!" Karl Marx distinguishes between the bourgeois and personal types of this concept, noting that when the revolution comes, only the bourgeois type would be (*) abolished. John Locke theorized that this concept only exists after "mixing your labor" with an object, which justified the colonial seizure of Native American land. For 10 points each, name this concept that denotes ownership over something.

Plato

One of this thinker's works examines whether poetic recitation is based on skill using a discussion about Ion. This philosopher compared a chariot driven by two different horses to the soul. In one of his works, several philosophers discuss the nature of love, while another explains a model of the world using the (*) analogy of the divided line. This author of Symposium described the concept of philosopher-kings in a work in which he relates the story of a man stepping into the light for the first time, his "Allegory of the Cave." For 10 points, name this author of The Republic, a Greek philosopher who was a student of Socrates.

St. Thomas

One of this thinker's works is structured as a series of objection and responses, and that work introduced the "unmoved mover" argument. At the behest of Urban IV he wrote Against the Errors of the Greeks. This man's best known work is divided into thirty-four sections that make up three larger books titled "Theology," "Ethics" and "Christ." This man originated the "Doctrine of Double Effect" to motivate just war theory. This theologian studied under Albertus Magnus and he is sometimes called "Doctor Angelicus." This man's best known works offers five arguments for the existence of God. For 10 points, identify this Christian theologian who wrote Summa Theologica.

The Social Contract, Or Principles of Political Right

One section in this work suggests that a right must have a sense of moral obligation, explaining that slaves only submit to their masters because they fear physical harm, not because they feel obliged to. It posits that monarchies work best in hot climates, and this work distinguishes between the sovereign and the state. This work begins, "Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains," and it states that laws must be approved by the general will of the people. For 10 points, name this work of political theory by Jean-Jacques Rousseau.

Social Contract

One thinker argued that this concept must achieve the condition of "full publicity" and is established under the "veil of ignorance." Rawls argued that justice is the primary concern of this concept, while Kant claimed that it is solely an idea of reason with the purpose of protecting the will of the subjects. Another philosopher argued for the normative version of this concept, writing that the sovereign gives voice to the general will and that man is "born free, but everywhere he is in chains." Man leaves the state of nature and creates society through the title arrangement by, For 10 points, what concept which titles a work by Jean Jacques-Rousseau?

Jean-Paul Sartre

This author, who founded the monthly review Les Temps Modernes (lay temm mah-DERNZ) with his lover and Merleau-Ponty, wrote about a scholar in Bouville who tries to distract himself from a peculiar sensation by reading Balzac and studying the Marquis de Rollebon. After talking with the Self-Taught Man at a cafe, that character, Antoine Roquetin, accepts that his existence is the cause of his nausea. In one play by this author, Garcin, Inez, and Estelle torture each other after their death and bring about the revelation that "Hell is other people." For 10 points, what French existentialist penned Being and Nothingness and No Exit?

Friedrich Nietzsche

This man denounced the anti-semitism of a composer he had earlier praised. A work by this man contrasted Apollonian and Dionysian forms of the title entity's creation in ancient Greece. A parable by this man in The Gay Science tells of a man who breaks a lantern after informing a crowd that they are murderers. That madman's claim that (*) "God is dead" is expounded in a work that contains a Persian prophet returning from the mountains. For 10 points, name this German philosopher of Thus Spake Zarathustra.

David Hume

This man first distinguished between descriptive and prescriptive statements and elucidated the is- ought problem. He defined a miracle as "a transgression of a law of nature... by the interposition of some invisible agent" and wrote a systematic criticism of the design argument in Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion. He wrote Four Dissertations and argued that morals are founded in sentiment, but his best known work awoke Kant from his "dogmatic slumber". For 10 points, name this Scottish philosopher, author of An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding.

Nicolaus Copernicus

This man received a doctorate from the University of Ferrara despite never having studied there. One of the only pupils of this scientist, Georg Rheticus (RET-ick-us), published an abstract of this man's most important theory in the Narratio Prima. The seven basic assumptions of this man's theory are laid out in his Little Commentary, and his namesake (*) revolution is seen as a model for future scientific advancement. For 10 points, name this Renaissance Polish astronomer whose work On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres advanced the heliocentric model of the solar system.

Søren Aabye Kierkegaard

This man wrote that anxiety arises from the "dizziness of freedom." According to this man, the self must renewfaith in God constantly because it is "a relation [relating] itself to itself." He described aesthetics, ethics and religionas the three stages of life. He also stated that distinction between good and evil depends on God, justifyingAbraham's sacrifice of Isaac as a "teleological suspension of the ethical." This man wrote under pseudonyms suchas Victor Eremita and Johannes de Silentio in order to separate himself from his ideas. For 10 points, name thisDanish existentialist philosopher and author of Fear and Trembling and Either/Or.

Immanuel Kant

Works by this philosopher include Attempt to Introduce the Concept of Negative Magnitudes into Philosophy and The Only Possible Ground for Demonstration of the Existence of God. This philosopher listed out the Three Definitive Articles in his work Perpetual Peace. In three works, this philosopher posits that beauty, moral laws, and a priori truths are universal. David Hume awoke this philosopher from his dogmatic slumber which then led to the development of the categorical imperative. For 10 points, name this German philosopher who wrote Critique of Judgment, Critique of Practical Reason, and Critique of Pure Reason.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

In one work, this philosopher debunks the conception of children as essentially being small versions of adults. In another work, the collective of all citizens is viewed as a separate body from the government known as the state when passive and the sovereign when active. In that work, this philosopher stresses the importance of expressing the general will and states that citizens secure liberation from the state of nature by entering in the titular agreement. For 10 points, name this French author of Emile and The Social Contract.

An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding

This work allows that a person could problematically conceive of a never-before-seen shade of blue if given all other shades of blue. It divides "Relations of Ideas" and "Matters of Fact" in drawing a contrast between analytic knowledge like algebra and synthetic knowledge of nature, a concept that is known as its author's namesake "fork." Drawn from its author's earlier Treatise on Human Nature and said to have awoken Immanuel Kant from his "dogmatic slumber," for 10 points, name this philosophical work about knowledge by David Hume.

Fear and Trembling

This work analyzes Agnes and The Merman, Amor and Psyche, and Agamemnon at Aulus to establish the outer world of aesthetics and ethics. The author admits that he cannot understand the central character, who chooses to embrace absurdity. In contrast to Socrates, who strives asymptotically as a Knight of Infinity, that character is portrayed as a Knight of Faith. The author answers the first of its three problemata by concluding that the religious sphere is beyond the ethical. For 10 points, name this work that analyzes the "teleological suspension of the ethical" during Abraham's near-sacrifice of Isaac, written by Johannes de silento, a pseudonym of Søren Kierkegaard.

Leviathan, or The Matter, Forme and Power of a Common Wealth Ecclesiasticall and Civil

This work asserts that civil law is superior to religious law because one cannot know whether God's vision asreceived by someone else is true. According to this work, there are only three types of government, and all otherforms are just alternate names for those three: aristocracy, democracy and monarchy. The last section of this workexplains that misinterpretation of Scripture causes the "Kingdom of Darkness." This work describes the state ofnature as a war of all against all and describes life as "nasty, brutish and short." For 10 points, name thisphilosophical work defending the absolute monarchy written during the English Civil War by Thomas Hobbes.

On Liberty

This work cites Akbar the Great as an example of a compassionate tyrant, and it notes that when Man fails to see Diversity, he loses the ability to conceive of it. One section of this work discusses the importance of Individuality, and describes it as "one of the components of well-being", and in that section, this work takes a notable stance against the principles of the Calvinist view of self-will. One of the most famous ideas to arise from this work is the idea that "the only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilized community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others", known as the Harm Principle. Name this work of Utilitarian political philosophy written by John Stuart Mill.

Leviathan

This work cites controversies involving Cardinal Bellarmine and points out that the Apostles were teachers, not commanders, to downplay the extent of ecclesiastical power. This work describes the world as matter in motion and identifies competition, diffidence, and glory-seeking as the main sources of conflict in the state of nature, which is defined as a bellum omnia contra omnes. Known for describing the life of man as "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short", For 10 points, name this philosophical tract which promotes absolute sovereignty written by Thomas Hobbes.

Leviathan

This work claimed that there is no justification for supernatural rules taking precedence over civil law, and it proposed a test to determine which scriptures should be applied and which should not. This work also claimed that society allows no right to rebel against the titular figure, and it identified three characteristic features of men, including desire for glory and safety, that make the titular figure necessary. FTP, identify this work which called human life "nasty, poor, brutish, and short" and advocates escaping from the state of nature by trading liberty for the protection of the titular ultra-strong ruler, written by Thomas Hobbes.

United States of America

An intellectual movement in this country was documented in Louis Menand's The Metaphysical Club. A man from this country claimed that our perception of an object's effects is our entire perception of the object. Another man from this country tried to resolve conflict between religious and scientific approaches, which he called "tender-minded" and "tough-minded," and advocated evaluating the truth of a statement by its (*) "cash value." A man from this country founded a Laboratory School based on principles outlined in his book Democracy and Education. For 10 points, name this home country of pragmatist philosophers John Dewey and William James.

The Social Contract, Or the Principles of Political Right

Book One of this philosophical work critiques Grotius' concept of the "right of slavery;" another section in this work claims monarchies are most successful in hot climates. One part of this work discusses how the entire population comprises the "Sovereign," which is distinct from the government. This work advocates adherence to the "general will" and includes the famous quote, "man is born free, yet everywhere he is in chains." For 10 points, name this 1762 philosophical work arguing legitimate government derives from people's consent to the titular agreement, written by Jean-Jacques Rousseau.

history

Bossuet wrote a discourse on the "universal" conception of this concept, and Hayden White wrote about a "meta-" version using the tools of literary criticism. Hegel argued that this concept is the ultimate judge of the actions of men, and wrote that Africa did not possess it until it was colonized. Thomas Carlyle developed a (*) "great man theory" of this subject, and Giambattista Vico developed a cyclical model of it. Francis Fukuyama claimed that liberal democracy was the final form of human government in a book titled for the End of this subject. For 10 points, what subject is the study of the human past?

truth

Charles Sanders Peirce [PURSE] argued that this concept is the only end for inquiry. Tarski's semantic theory of this concept often invokes the sentence "Snow is white." It is not power, but Beyond Good and Evil opens by discussing a "will to" it for philosophers. The coherence and correspondence theories define this concept. A common definition of knowledge is a (*) justified belief with this property. Wittgenstein developed namesake tables with two to the N rows, to determine if an N-component statement has this property. For 10 points, name this property possessed by facts.

David Hume

David Parfit advanced the bundle theory first put forth by this philosopher, and in six volumes he detailed English history from Julius Caesar's invasion. His namesake "guillotine" is his raising of the "is-ought problem," and in another work he defined (*) miracles as transgressions of the laws of nature. Demea, Philo, and Cleanthes debate the status of God's existence in his Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion, and he also wrote A Treatise of Human Nature. For 10 points, name this Scottish philosopher who wrote An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding.

ethics

Charles Stevenson espoused an emotivist form of this, and G.E. Moore advocated an intuitionist form of it. The "virtue" form of it is distinct from consequentialism, which is par tof Jeremy Bentham's utilitarianism, and deontology, which is the form of it used in Immanuel Kant's categorical imperative. It shares its name with the most famous work of Baruch Spinoza, as well as a "Nicomachean" treatise by Aristotle. For 10 points, name this branch of philosophy that deals with right and wrong.

Jacques Derrida

He attacked Foucault's interpretation of Descartes in his "Cogito and the History of Madness," and his Geschlecht I-IV discussed the issues of race and sex in the works of Martin Heidegger. Two hundred pages of love letters to no one can be found in his Post Card: From Socrates to Freud and Beyond, and he employed his most noted philosophical tool to analyze communism in his 1993 work Specters of Marx. For 10 points, name this French-Algerian philosopher who wrote Of Grammatology and advocated finding hidden meanings in texts through deconstruction.

faith

Hegel tries to reconcile this title idea and philosophy in one of his essays beginning with a discussion of Kant. Voltaire applauded a section of Emile in which a vicar speaks for the defense of this abstract idea. In Kierkegaard's Fear and Trembling, the knights of infinite resignation are (*) contrasted with the knights of this concept, one of whom is Abraham. A "bad" type of it is used by Sartre to describe when people disown their innate freedom and adopt false values. Thomas Aquinas believed that supernatural revelation was due to this theological virtue. For 10 points, those who possess this trust in God "have not seen and yet have believed", according to Jesus.

John Locke

In Book 1 of a work by this thinker, probabilistic thinking is compared to reasoning and argumentation. This author's namesake proviso limits how much property one can privatize. Parents should be seen as "absolute governors" by their children according to this thinker's Some Thoughts Concerning Education. This philosopher refuted Robert(*) Filmer's Patriarcha in one work and described the mind as a "tabula rasa" ["ta-boo-lah rah-sah"] in another. For 10 points, name this author of Two Treatises of Government and An Essay Concerning Human Understanding.

Communism

In Germany, one adherent to this political philosophy, Ferdinand Lasalle, was disdained as an "opportunist." This set of ideas was influenced by the thought of utopian thinkers like Claude-Henri Saint-Simon and Robert Owen. In 1864, thousands of adherents to this ideology gathered at the First International. This philosophy teaches about a revolution that will lead to the rule of the proletariat. For 10 points, name this radical philosophy, based on the ideas of the author of Das Kapital.

utilitarianism

A notable work from this school of thought argues against the moral claims of Kant and presents a list of items commonly viewed as just and unjust. In A Theory of Justice, John Rawls critiques this school. One proponent of this advocated for felicific calculus, while Karl Popper and others argued for a "negative" form of it. Notable adherents include Peter Singer, who wants to expand it to encompass all sentient beings. Founded by Jeremy Bentham, it holds that the right act benefits the greatest number of people possible. For 10 points, name this philosophical school whose name titles a John Stuart Mill work.

England

A philosopher from this country called sentences that do things "performative utterances." Another philosopher from this country proved that good does not simply follow from natural properties. Yet another of its philosophers resolved the ambiguity of sentences with non-existent objects, like "The present King of France is bald." A philosopher from it argued that the external world exists by saying "here is a (*) hand." A philosopher from this country furthered the logical work of Frege with works like "On Denoting," and attempted to prove things like God not existing and 1+1=2. For 10 points, name this country of the authors of Principia Mathematica, Alfred North Whitehead and Bertrand Russell.

Francis Bacon

A philosopher with this man's last name was the most famous student of Robert Grosseteste and championed the use of mathematics in science in his Opus Majus. This philosopher inspired the structure of the Encyclopédie by classifying knowledge of "Memory," "Reason" and "Imagination" in his The Advancement of Learning. This philosopher discussed errors of thought of the "theater" and the "market place" that he called (*) "idols." This 17th-century philosopher urged the use of induction to gain knowledge through experiment. For 10 points, name this author of the Novum Organon, who pioneered the scientific method and stated "knowledge itself is power."

Blaise Pascal

A posthumous work of this philosopher contains sections such as "Thoughts on Mind and on Style" and "The Misery of Man Without God." Under the pseudonym Louis de Montalte, he criticized Jesuitism and supported Jansenism in his Provincial Letters. His argument in favor of making the decision to live as if God (*) exists was included in his Pensees. For 10 points, name this French philosopher who made a wager about the existence of God.

feminism

A text from this movement declares that the "problem that has no name" is people thinking, "Is this all?" A book about this movement's theory "from margin to center" was written by bell hooks. William Godwin wrote the "memoirs" of an early member of this movement who wrote a (*) "vindication" in response to Charles Talleyrand. This movement is currently in its "third wave" in the US; its second wave was pioneered by the founder of NOW, Betty Friedan. For 10 points, name this movement which also included Simone de Beauvoir, which advocates the equality of women.

Ars Poetica

Although it never explicitly uses the word, this work popularized the concept of "decorum" in insisting that unbelievable or grotesque actions not be depicted directly. It was written in verse as a letter to the Pisones. It warns against flowery and irrelevant "purple patches," suggests a division into five acts, and compares its subject to painting. This work also acknowledges that even Homer nods and praises that poet for not starting from the egg but beginning "in medias res." For 10 points, name this critical text by Horace.

knowledge

Alvin Goldman added a "causal condition" to a common three-part definition for this concept. Moore's paradox considers assertions made in spite of this concept. Foucault writes about power-hyphen-this in The History of Sexuality, and Foucault's major methodological work analyzes the basic unit of discourse, which he calls the statement, and is titled after the "archeology" of this concept. Edmund Gettier gave scenarios such as "The Cow in the Field" to suggest that this concept was different from justified true belief. For 10 points, name this philosophical concept, the subject of epistemology, which one gains by learning.

Bertrand Russell

An argument removing the burden of proof from the skeptic envisions an undetectable orbiting object, this man's namesake "teapot". A principal follower of logical atomism, his namesake paradox asks, "Does the set of all sets that do not contain themselves contain itself?" With Einstein, he names a manifesto advocating [*] nuclear disarmament, signed by many nuclear physicists, and claimed that organized churches oppose moral progress in "Why I Am Not A Christian". Also known for his work with Alfred Whitehead, for 10 points, name this author who attempted a logical foundation for math in his Principia Mathematica.

aesthetics

An essay in this field discusses the decline of aura in the age of mechanical reproduction, and was written by Walter Benjamin. Another work in this field emphasizes the need for "free play" and defines a disinterested, universal, and necessary judgment. That work is Immanuel Kant's Critique of Judgment. This field was discussed in terms of the Apollonian and Dionysian in a work that criticizes the excess rationality of Socrates and Euripides and praises Richard Wagner. This field is the subject of Friedrich Nietzsche's The Birth of Tragedy. For 10 points, name this field of philosophy concerned with the nature of art and beauty.

Immanuel Kant

In one work, he insisted that beautiful Maori tattoos do not belong on the human face; in another, he sought a so-called Copernican revolution of metaphysics. His political essays include "Idea For a Universal History" and "Perpetual Peace." He identified time and space as preconditions for the understanding, distinguished between the sensory phenomenon and noumenal things-in-themselves, and sought to determine whether a priori synthetic judgments are possible. He advocates treating people as ends, not means, in Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals in terms of the categorical imperative. For 10 points, name this author of Critique of Pure Reason.

Socrates

In one work, this character describes the doctrines of his mentor, Diotima, about love. This character relates the story of Er to demonstrate the immortality of the soul, and refutes Thrasymachus's idea that justice is "the advantage of the stronger." This character compares himself to a gadfly stinging a lazy horse to describe his method of questioning established beliefs, and defends himself from (*) Meletus's charges of atheism and corrupting the youth of Athens in the Apology. For 10 points, name this subject of Meno, Crito, and Phaedo, as well as many other dialogues by his student Plato.

pragmatism

In one work associated with the "neo" variety of this philosophical movement, the author criticizes a reliance on the correspondence theory of truth in Analytic philosophy. That work is Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature by Richard Rorty. The founder of this branch of philosophy described four methods to overcome the titular "Fixation of Belief" in one essay; that man is Charles Peirce. In one work advocating this philosophy, it is described as "A New Name for Some Old Ways of Thinking." For 10 points, name this philosophy that advocated practical knowledge, championed by men such as John Dewey and William James.

Soren (Aabye) Kierkegaard

In one work this man compared Fichte and Hegel to the irony of the titular philosopher as described by Aristophanes. In addition to On the Concept of Irony with Continual Reference to Socrates, this man wrote a work which compares one figure to the blackened breast of a woman trying to wean her child. In another work this man considered Don Juan and wrote a chapter entitled "The Seducer's Diary." One of this thinker's works begins, "is there a teleological suspension of the ethical," and goes on to consider the Knight of Faith and the Knight of Infinite Resignation. For 10 points, name this philosopher, author of Fear and Trembling and Either/Or.

The Republic

In this work, the story of Gyges' ring is used to support Thrasymachus's formulation of justice as the "advantage of the strong." This work's third book discusses the need for a "noble lie" to support the title concept, and it outlines that concept's decline from (*) timocracy to tyranny. This work uses the metaphor of prisoners watching shadows on a wall to illustrate the Theory of Forms through the Allegory of the Cave. For 10 points, name this Platonic dialogue that states that philosopher-kings would be the ideal rulers of the titular state.

The Republic

One character in this work uses an analogy of a deaf and blind ship owner to demonstrate that true knowledge is viewed as useless by society. Another man in this work refutes an argument using a comparison of the soul to a virtuous city. Glaucon argues that virtue is not its own reward with the legend of the Ring of Gyges, and this work posits that Philosopher-kings would rule an ideal government. It contains the story in which a group of shackled prisoners see shadows against a wall. For 10 points, name this work containing the allegory of the cave, a work by Plato that describes the city-state.

pragmatism

One member of this philosophical school wrote about its "Maxim," which helps define terms with clarity, in "How to Make Our Ideas Clear." This school inspired the ideas found in Democracy and Education. Another of its proponents wrote The (*) Principles of Psychology and gave a series of lectures that dubbed this school "A New Name for Some Old Ways of Thinking." This school informed Charles Sanders Peirce and John Dewey. For 10 points, William James was one proponent of what philosophical school, which focused on practicality?

Simone de Beauvoir

One of this thinker's works opens with a quote by Hegel, stating, "Each conscience seeks the death of the other." Another work by this thinker designates the meaning-disclosing, meaning-making, and meaning-desiring activities of consciousness, which is described as ambiguous. This author of She Came to Stay and The (*) Ethics of Ambiguity substituted the terms "master" and "slave" with "Subject" and Other" in her most famous work, which includes a discussion on "Facts and Myths" about the title group, and indicates that "One is not born but becomes a woman." For 10 points identify this French existentialist, the author of The Second Sex.

arguments for the existence of God

One response to an attempt to do this posited a "perfect island" and was advanced by Guanilo. The argument from degree is one of the Quinque Viae, or Five Ways, which are five proofs of this contention listed by Thomas Aquinas. St. Anselm attempted to prove this via the "ontological argument." Many "cosmological" arguments in favor of this are based on the assumption that there must be a first mover or first cause. For 10 points, name this philosophical position regarding the reality of a major figure in Western religion.

atheism

DESCRIPTION ACCEPTABLE. This belief was popularized by The System of Nature authored by the Baron d'Holbach. Temples for a religion largely formulated by Antoine-Francois Momoro to promote this belief hired an actress in blue, red, and white to represent Marianne, or Liberty. This belief would only result in finite gain or loss, while its opposite would have an infinite expected value, according to part of the (*) Pensees [pahn-SAYz]. This religious belief was the foremost promoted by the Cult of Reason. It was argued against in a probabilistic "wager" put forth by Blaise Pascal, and also argued against by Voltaire and other deists. For 10 points, name this belief in the non-existence of any number of deities.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

One work by this man argued against the idea that Geneva would be better off with a theatre, and another stresses the superior value of the nascent society. In addition to writing Discourse on Inequality, this man contributed music articles to Diderot's Encyclopedie. He believed that the individual is essentially good, but is usually warped by society, and his works include Reveries of a Solitary Walker and Emile: or, On Education. His most famous work proposed an elective aristocracy form of government and asserts that "man is born free, but he is everywhere in chains." For 10 points, name this French philosopher, the author of The Social Contract.

time

One work with this concept in its title suggests that the other title concept results from philosophers improperly translating the unextended into the extended. This concept was paired with

utilitarianism

Richard Mervyn Hare has developed new forms of this ethical philosophy, including one version that considers the preferences of involved parties and another that distinguishes between intuitive and critical thinking. The person generally credited with starting this philosophy was criticized for giving too much consideration to animals and for being too simplistic in his development of felicific calculus. Considered by its critics to be a form of hedonism, this philosophy aims to maximize happiness and minimize suffering. Name this philosophy developed by Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill.

causes

The second of Aquinas' five ways illustrates the lack of God, who according to Aquinas, is the "first efficient" one of these factors. Since not everyone with CFTR mutations gets cystic fibrosis, CFTR mutations are necessary but not sufficient ones. Aristotle differentiated these factors into material, formal, efficient, and final ones. For an acorn, Aristotle's final one, or telos, would be an oak tree. Regularity analysis determines these factors using two constantly conjoined events, from which we habitually induct these according to David Hume. For 10 points, effects result from what factors that cannot be solely established by correlation?

utilitarianism

Thinkers associated with this ethical philosophy include Peter Singer and Herbert Spencer. This philosophy was founded by the author of A Fragment on Government who also created a felicific calculus, Jeremy Bentham. A book named for this philosophy discusses the Greatest-Happiness principle and was written by John Stuart Mill. For 10 points, name this ethical philosophy which holds that the worth of an act lies in the benefits it creates.

mathematical logic

The "modal" type of this field was developed by C.I. Lewis. The axiomatic predicate type of this field was created in the work of Gottlob Frege. Frege's work in this field led him to develop (*) set theory, which led to Bertrand Russell's conclusion that a set that contains all possible sets cannot exist, because it cannot contain itself. Ludwig Wittgenstein's Tractatus is named for philosophy and this field. This field deals with deductive and inductive reasoning. For 10 points, name this field of reasoning that can be undermined by "fallacies."

Herbert Spencer

This intellectual asserted that nothing should infringe on the "laws of life" in a work including a chapter called "The Great Political Superstition." In addition to writing Man Versus the State, he discussed the "coercive" aspects of reform movements in a work subtitled the "Conditions Essential to Human Happiness." This author of System of Synthetic Philosophy argued for the application of Lamarck's theory to society in Social Statics. For 10 points, name this thinker who coined the phrase "survival of the fittest" and championed Social Darwinism.

Michel Foucault

This man coined a term for the mechanism by which the state controls the life of its people, a mechanism he called "biopower." He described the separation of a patient's body from the patient's identity as the "medical gaze." This author of The Birth of the Clinic wrote the three-volume History of (*) Sexuality. This philosopher discussed Bentham's panopticon prison in another work. For 10 points, name this French philosopher who wrote Discipline and Punish.

Bertrand Arthur William Russell

This man espoused the "doctrine of external relations," which later grew into his "logical atomism." G.E.L. Owen's article "Eleatic Questions" was heavily inspired by this man's analysis of Parmenides in his History of Western Philosophy. His rejection of Moore's concept of the absolute good influenced such works of ethics as Religion and Science and Why I am Not a Christian, though he may be best known for co-developing a theory of types with Alfred North Whitehead. For 10 points, name this logician and co- author of Principia Mathematica.

Confucius

This man presented himself as a "transmitter who invented nothing" and was the first to suggest a limit on the power of a ruler. This man taught the value of personal exemplification instead of adherence to a set of rules, which was a form of virtue ethics. Mencius was a follower of this philosopher. Father-to-son and ruler-to-ruled are two of this man's [*] five relationships. This philosopher of the Spring and Autumn Period championed Li and Ren, which mean propriety and benevolence respectively. For 10 points, name this Chinese philosopher, who created the Silver Rule, the inverse of the Golden Rule, in his Analects.

Gottfried Leibniz

This man was a prolific inventor of mechanical calculators and invented a namesake Wheel. His Law of Continuity and Transcendental Law of Homogeneity were only mathematically implemented in the 20th century. He described the universe as being composed of irreducibly simple units called monads. In his work Theodicy he argued that this world is "optimal among all possible worlds," for which he was satirized as the Professor Pangloss in Voltaire's Candide. For 10 points name this German philosopher and mathematician who is believed to have developed integral and differential calculus independently from Isaac Newton.

Martin Heidegger

This man rejected Franz Berbanto's treatise on Aristotle's different uses of the word "being" as lacking unity. In his lecture Die Sprache, he coined the phrase "language speaks." His view of the essence of technology as an undifferentiated energy reserve for human use is termed Gestell, and is part of a major shift in his thinking called (*)"kehre." This philosopher's first work was heavily influenced by Edmund Husserl, with whom he lost contact after joining the Nazi party. For 10 points, name this philosopher who introduced the concept of "Dasein" in Being and Time.

John Locke

This man used the example of light striking the mineral porphyry to claim that the ideas of redness and whiteness are not actually in that rock. This secretary to the Earl of Shaftesbury argued that mixing one's labor with natural substances entitles a man to property, and distinguished between primary and secondary qualities. He claimed that estate, with life and liberty, is a right any valid government must protect, in whose absence people may form a new social contract. For 10 points, name this British empiricist author of Two Treatises of Government, whose Essay Concerning Human Understanding proposed a mental blank slate, or "tabula rasa".

Epicureanism

Followers of this philosophy are locked in flaming tombs in the Sixth Circle of Dante's Inferno. Evolving from the work of Aristippus of Cyrene, this school of philosophy was originally named "the Garden" after the location of its first school. Lucretius advocated for this philosophy in his poem "On the Nature of Things" and it was heavily influenced by the atomism of (*) Democritus. Followers of this philosophy seek ataraxia and aponia, or freedom from fear and the absence of bodily pain. For ten points, name this philosophy contrasted with Stoicism that holds that the only evil is suffering.

epistemology

Reliabilism is a system of argumentation within this discipline that is primarily meant to discredit objections raised by a philosophical school that was founded by Pyrrho; that school is skepticism. The 1963 Gettier problem in this field sought to challenge a central assumption that is often abbreviated JTB. James Ferrier is believed to have coined this field's name, and W.V.O. Quine wrote Two Dogmas of (*) Empiricism in this field. In an early statement relating to this field, Plato defined the central focus of this field of study as "justified true belief". For 10 points, name this field of philosophical inquiry that addresses the nature and validity of knowledge.

John Stuart Mill

Some of his early works include "The Spirit of the Age" and Two Letters on the Measure of Value," and he laid out the five principles of inductive reasoning, which would become known as his namesake method in his book System of Logic. In one essay he discusses the "tyranny of the majority" and created the Harm Principle, and in another work he would defend the Greatest (*) Happiness Principle and lay the foundation for a movement that would include philosophers such as Henry Sidgewick and Jeremy Bentham. FTP, name this philosopher who wrote On Liberty and Utilitarianism.

Peter Abelardus

This man wrote that verbs possess a vis copulativa that distinguishes them from nouns in his Dialectica. He commentated on logica vetus in his Logica Ingredientibus. In the prologue to another work, this philosopher wrote that church students "should not rashly pass judgement" on "the writings of the saints" before providing patristic citations for 158 yes-or-no questions. In his autobiographical Historia Calamitatum, this Frenchman described his castration due to a secret marriage to an Argenteuil nun with whom he often swapped letters. For 10 points, name this writer of Sic et Non, an early Scholastic who had an affair with Heloise.

John Duns Scotus

This man's Tractatus de primo principio discussed what reason can prove about God, and he claimed that universal concepts are based on a common nature among individuals. This man formulated the defense of the doctrine of Immaculate Conception, and he wrote A Treatise on God as First Principle. This man wrote several commentaries on the Sentences of Peter Lombard known as the Ordinatio, and he was nicknamed the Subtle Doctor. For 10 points name this philosopher of the Middle Ages, whose name was later used to describe dim-witted students.

Socrates

This man's argument that forms exist independently of the objects that possess them is refuted by the title character in the Parmenides. This character teaches a slave to perform a mathematical problem during a discussion of virtue in the Meno. He claimed "the unexamined life is not worth living" at a trial where he refused to admit to "corrupting the youth," according to the Apology. In the Crito, this man refused to escape from his conviction of death. For 10 points, name this Athenian philosopher who was used as a character in the dialogues of his student Plato.

Plato

This man's political philosophy is alleged to promote totalitarianism in Karl Popper's The Open Society and Its Enemies. This philosopher relayed how a man taught a slave to double a square; that is part of this man's argument that knowledge is innate. He describes the arguments of Thrasymachus in a work that contains the "Allegory of the Cave." That work of his claims that philosophers would rule the title place. For 10 points, name this author of the dialogues Meno and Crito, who relayed Socrates's defiance in the Apology and wrote the Republic.

George Berkeley

This man's proof of God's existence rested in his belief that human perceptions of the outside world are consistent because a Spirit maintains them. He advanced this proof in a treatise in which he also claimed that numbers and colors are subjective. By saying that, he opposed John Locke's abstractions, personified as Hylas, and advanced his own philosophy, which he called "immaterialism" and represented as Philonous in three namesake Dialogues. For 10 points, name this Irish clergyman, the author of Alciphron, who said "esse est percipi," or, "to be is to be perceived."

Confucius (accept Kong Qiu or Kong Zi)

This man's values are often exemplified through the story of a stable fire. This thinker pursued the "rectification of names" and his work was first translated by Michele Ruggieri. This man's "Six Arts" included archery and chariot racing while this mentor to (*) Mencius articulated the "Silver Rule" that no one should do what they do not want done to them. This man's notion of ren, or monarchical compassion, formed a key aspect of the Mandate of Heaven. For ten points, name this ancient Chinese philosopher and author of The Analects.

Jean-Paul

This philosopher argued one cannot think about the "intuitive apprehension" of another person's contemplation in his essay

"Tradition and the Individual Talent"

This quality is described as being both temporal, timeless, and a combination of the two, and its attributes of historicism let it avoid the trap of novelties being preferable to repetition. It is remarked as lamentable that this term has been linked to the science of archaeology. The essay that analyzes it concludes by recommending a move away from analyzing poets to analyzing their works. For 10 points, name this concept contrasted with the "Individual Talent" in a T. S. Eliot essay, a term referring to bygone practices.

Soren Kierkegaard

This thinker argued that the self is "a relation which relates itself to itself," and lampooned the process of sublation through a series of ironic "deliberations". He further contended that one cannot arrive at faith through reason, but only by virtue of the absurd-embracing "leap to faith." One of his works details the knight of infinite resignation and knight of faith in its concept of the teleological suspension of the ethical, which is illustrated through a discussion of Abraham's sacrifice of Isaac. For 10 points, name this Danish philosopher of The Sickness Unto Death, Fear and Trembling, and Either/Or.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

This thinker argued that what differentiates people from animals is man's capacity for perfectibility in a book distinguishing between natural and moral sources for the title concept. A book by this thinker describes a servant who steals a ribbon and frames a young girl. He's not (*) Augustine, but he wrote a set of Confessions, as well as some Discourses on Inequality. This thinker posited the idea of a solitary, irrational "natural man," and he wrote in a work arguing against divine right that "Man is born free; everywhere he is in chains." For 10 points, name this French Enlightenment thinker who wrote Confessions and The Social Contract.

Immanuel Kant

This thinker outlined the formation of a global republic in his work Perpetual Peace, while he defended against attacks on his most famous work in his Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics. He divided all objects into a phenomenon and noumenon, with the latter being associated with the (*) "thing-in-itself," and asserted that everyone should act only in such a way that they could will it to become a universal law, a maxim known as the categorical imperative. For 10 points, name this German philosopher of Critique of Pure Reason.

Karl Marx

This thinker pointed out that, since goods are valuable not for the labor put into them, but their ability to be exchanged, they are attributed human characteristics, a process he calls "commodity fetishism." This one-time Young Hegelian originated the aphorism that "Religion is the opiate of the masses." One of this man's works begins by noting that "a spectre is haunting Europe;" that work was co-written with Friedrich Engels. For 10 points, name this author of Das Kapital and The Communist Manifesto.

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz

This thinker portrayed himself as "Theophilus" and his interlocutor as "Philalethe" in a chapter-by- chapter rebuttal of a work by John Locke. In addition to his Discourse on Metaphysics and the posthumously printed "New Essays on Human Understanding," he inspired Schopenhauer's discourse on the "Fourfold Root" of an idea that he devised, the "principle of Sufficient Reason." For 10 points, name this author of the Monadologie, a philosopher parodied as Pangloss in Candide and co-inventor of calculus.

Soren Aabye Kierkegaard

This thinker was ridiculed by the newspaper The Corsair, and near the end of his life he attacked the bishop H.L. Martensen in several letters. This author of The Concept of Anxiety presented three forms of despair in his Sickness unto Death, which he wrote under the pseudonym Anti-Climacus. He contrasts the aesthetic and ethical ways of life in his book (*) Either/Or, while another work by him centers on Abraham's decision to sacrifice his son Isaac. For 10 points, name this Danish philosopher of Fear and Trembling.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

This thinker's last work was the autobiographical Reveries of a Solitary Walker, and a previous autobiography chronicled a love affair with Madame de Warens. He foretold that Corsica would rule the world due to its simplicity of manners. He wrote an unused constitution for Poland, and claimed that the first man to say "This is mine" about land introduced social ill in Discourse on Inequality. He wrote an educational treatise called Emile and claimed "man is born free, but everywhere he is in chains." For 10 points, name this author of The Social Contract.

The Leviathan, or the Matter, Forme and Power of a Common Wealth Ecclesiasticall and Civil

This work proposes that curators can personate madmen, children, and hallucinations, and its 46th chapter says that the savages of America have knowledge but not philosophy while musing on the struggle between darkness and knowledge. It dismisses imagination as "nothing but decaying sense" in its "Of Man" section, which calls life "nasty, brutish, and short," and it denies the right to rebel against the social contract, which replaces the state of nature with rule by an absolute monarch. FTP, identify this treatise named for a sea monster by Thomas Hobbes.

Summa Theologica

This work states that monks and bishops are in a state of perfection, and theorizes that natural law is the participation of the eternal law. This work introduces proper authority, reasonable cause, and right intention as the three conditions for "just war" in its second section, which is titled "Ethics". It posits that an endless regress of causation and movement is not possible, and it contains the argument that there must be an unmoved mover. This work includes the quinquae viae, five proofs of the existence of God. For 10 points, name this unfinished treatise by Saint Thomas Aquinas.

prisons

While in Tasmania, Alexander Maconochie created a system used in these entities that was later reused in the Elmira System. Along with George Beaumont, Alexis de Tocqueville wrote about these entities before penning Democracy in America. The Presidio Modelo one in Cuba was based off one that implemented an "unequal gaze," and was designed by Jeremy Bentham. Michel Foucault also borrowed the idea of the Panopticon, one of thesein which all inhabitants can be observed from one place, in his Discipline and Punish. For 10 points, name these institutions that currently house Jerry Sandusky and Bernie Madoff, places where society locks up criminals.

The Gospel of Luke

According the Farrer Hypothesis, this book was written last out of a certain group of three "synoptic" books. Its use of medical language and dedication to Theophilus is evidence that its author also wrote (*) Acts of the Apostles. The Beatitudes are stated in the beginning of its Sermon on the Plains, and it is the only Gospel that contains the parables of the Prodigal Son and the Good Samaritan. Coming after Mark, this is, for 10 points, what third and longest of the canonical Gospels?

civilization

John Dewey claimed that there were two views of history centered on the Occident and Orient in a work about "Philosophy" and this concept. Lewis Mumford claimed that the world progressed through three stages in writing about "Technics" and this. Marcuse claimed that modernity represses sex in writing about "Eros" and this, while Foucault analyzed the "great confinement" in a work about "Madness" and this. Freud postulated that humankind creates laws against primitive behavior in, for 10 points, a book titled for what concept "and "its Discontents"?

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel

Karl Popper criticized this philosopher for promoting fascist and communist government by setting the Prussian State as the ultimate goal of history. One work of this thinker describes the objective and subjective types of the title concept, as well as synthesizing Plato and Aristotle in the portion Doctrine of Essence. He defines formal and substantial freedom in another work. In addition to The Science of Logic and The Philosophy of Right, he discussed the master-slave dialectic, a concept which carried over into the teachings of Sartre and Marx. For 10 points, name this German philosopher who developed the idea of organicism and wrote The Phenomenology of Spirit.

ontological argument (prompt on stuff like "proof God exists")

Kurt Godel authored one of these, using modal logic to arrive at its conclusion, and in a work by David Hume, Cleanthes rejects that any type of them is valid, restating Kant's criticism that "existence is not a predicate." The monk Gaunilo rejected it using the Lost Island objection. The earliest known one of these was offered in the Proslogion and relies on understanding the definition "that of which nothing greater can be conceived." For 10 points, name this type of argument attempting to show that a certain omnipotent being is real, put forth by Saint Anselm.

Thus Spoke Zarathustra

Late in this work, the author proposes the metaphorical "Don Juan of the mind" who exhausts all knowledge without being able to enjoy it. Early in this work, a contrast is drawn between the earth-bound serpent and sky-ruling eagle, and the image of the sun's rebirth every morning foreshadows a central theme. Great attention is given to a figure that despises his former self, is able to acknowledge his mortality, and embraces the truth of eternal recurrence. The analogy of a tightrope walker crossing a gorge is used to depict the transition between ape, man, and Overman, or the Ubermensch. Subtitled "A Book for All and None," for 10 points, name this work of Friedrich Nietzsche concerning the founder of Zoroastrianism.

Stoicism

One adherent of this school of thought used a conditional related to the death of Dion to refute the "master argument" of Diodorus Cronus, and members of this school of thought analyzed speech in terms of underlying meanings called lekta, or "sayables". This school of thought holds that fear and passion arise from false judgments and that virtue alone is sufficient for happiness. Advocated by the author of Meditations, For 10 points, name this philosophical school of thought embraced by Chrysippus, Zeno of Citium, and Marcus Aurelius.

France

One thinker from this country used the analogy of rotting apples to reject beliefs. Another man from this nation wrote a work in which Usbek and Rica observe bizarre Western traditions; that work is (*) Persian Letters. That man also posited the separation of powers in government in his The Spirit of the Laws. One thinker from this country developed the theory of mind-body dualism in his Meditations and famously asserted "I think, therefore I am." For 10 points, name this modern-day country, the birthplace of Baron de Montesquieu and René Descartes.

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel

Posthumous published works of this philosopher include one with a proclamation on the "death of art." In addition to Lectures "on Aesthetics" and "on the Philosophy of History," this philosopher discussed abstract right, ethics, and morality in his Elements of the Philosophy of Right. More works by this philosopher include one split into objective and subjective sections, and another which discusses self-consciousness through the master-slave dialectic. For ten points, name this philosopher who penned the Science of Logic and The Phenomenology of Spirit.

capitalism

Pierre Guattari and Gilles Deleuze wrote a work titled for this concept "and schizophrenia." Frederic Jameson labeled postmodernism "the cultural logic" of its "late" form. Trotsky claimed that the USSR should orchestrate its "state" form, while Lenin labeled imperialism its "highest form." Joseph Schumpeter compared it to both socialism and democracy. For 10 points, name this form of economic organization which can be "laissez-faire" and designates private ownership of factors of production.

ethics (prompt on morality; prompt on philosophy)

Simone de Beauvoir wrote a book titled after this subfield and its relation to "ambiguity." G.E. Moore described the naturalistic fallacy in this subfield, and G.E.M. Anscombe coined the term "consequentialism" in a work reviving the (*) "virtue" theory of this field. Baruch Spinoza titled one of his books after this field, and a discussion of the pursuit of happiness, or "eudaimonia," appears in a book on this field written by Aristotle and titled for Nicomachus. Utilitarianism studies this field by arguing action should benefit the overall good. For 10 points, name this branch of philosophy studying morality and the difference between right and wrong.

Friedrich Engels

The concept that monogamous marriage originated from the economic constraints is outlined in this philosopher's The Origin of the Family, Private Property, and the State. This philosopher also published a work entitled Herr Eugen Duhring's Revolution in Science. This philosopher outlined the "grim future of...the industrial age" in a work titled The Conditions of the Working Class in England in 1844. Another of his collaborations begins with a part entitled "Commodities and Money," a work in which he discusses the folly of capitalism. For 10 points, name this German philosopher who co-authored Das Kapital with Karl Marx.

pragmatism

The consequences of this philosophy title a work by Richard Rorty. One proponent of this philosophy seeks the "cash value" of truths in a work that delineates the "tender-"and "tough-minded" types of it with the example of a man chasing a squirrel around a tree. Its founders include Charles Sanders Peirce ("PURSE") and John Dewey. It was described as "A New Name for Some Old Ways of Thinking" in an eponymous essay by William (*) James. For 10 points, name this philosophy that measures value with practical consequences.

Leviathan, or The Matter, Forme and Power of a Common Wealth Ecclesiasticall and Civil

The famous "three-cause argument" of this work puts forward a trio of causes of social conflict: competition, diffident greed, and glory-seeking. In its section "Of Commonwealth", its author argues that the ruler should be able to choose the religion of his subjects, concluding that absolute monarchy is the greatest form of government. Its first section, "Of Man", posits that life is "a war of all against all." For 10 points, name this work which declares life to be "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short", written by Thomas Hobbes.

The Leviathan, or The Matter, Forme and Power of a Common Wealth Ecclesiasticall and Civil

The first section of this work is a follow-up to its author's De Cive, and the fourth and final section of this work bashes clergymen who mix Aristotle with scripture as a "confederacy of deceivers" who would usher in the "Kingdom of Darkness." Also containing sections "Of Man" and "Of a Christian Common-Wealth," it concludes that an absolute monarchy is the best form of government. For 10 points, name this tome which labels human existence in the state of war "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short," written by Thomas Hobbes.

Or, the Matter, Forme, and Power of a Commonwealth Ecclesiastical and Civil

The first twelve chapters of this work attempt to axiomatize human nature, beginning with Sense and Imagination, after a preface which describes life as a "motion of limbs" and coined the term "body politic." Its second section writes that differences of strength and craft make men equally able to kill each other; that section, "Of the Commonwealth," describes the "war of all against all," a pre-covenant state of nature in which life is "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short." For 10 points, name this work of political philosophy advocating for a single absolute sovereign, by Thomas Hobbes.

Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz

The four days this thinker spent in 1676 with Baruch Spinoza are examined in the new book The Courtier and the Heretic. This man argued against Spinoza's monism by positing an infinitude of extensionless entities which manifest the universe, a contention which also denied the possibility of mind-body dualism. His claims about the goodness of God's world in his Theodicy were mercilessly lambasted by Voltaire, who used this man as the basis for Pangloss. For 10 points, name this German who conceptualized the monad and co-developed calculus with Newton.

Niccolo (di Bernardo dei) Machiavelli

The preface to one work by this thinker states that it has always been more dangerous to discover new countries than to found new institutions; that work argues that the defeats of the Samnites and Latins had more to do with skill than luck as the author deals with the titular Roman historian. In another work, this author discourages the use of mercenaries and makes frequent references to the personification of Lady Fortune. This author of Discourses on Livy warned the titular figure of another work to be both a lion and a fox. For 10 points, name this thinker, who advised rulers that "it is better to be feared than loved" in his book of advice to the Medici, The Prince.

women

The roles these people play in society are called "situations" in a book that attacks narcissists, actors, and mystics for their "justifications." These kind of people are not allowed to be transcendent, but only "immanent," according to a book that attacks a series of "Facts and Myths." The status of these people was compared to slavery in a (*) utilitarian essay written alongside On Liberty. Harriet Taylor co-wrote an essay on these people's Subjection with John Stuart Mill. An existentialist book from 1949 claims that "one is not born, but rather becomes," this kind of person. For 10 points, name this kind of person that Simone de Beauvoir dubbed the "Second Sex."

Karl Marx

The work of this thinker is split into two eras by an "epistemological break" described by Louis Althusser. This thinker's work was extended to describe how social relations are "reified." This thinker described how the "superstructure" of society is predicated on an economic "base." His work was expanded upon by both Gyorgy [George] Lukacs and the (*) Frankfurt School. He argued that the substitution of the C-M-C pathway by the M-C-M cycle leads to an detestable emphasis on "surplus value" and to commodity fetishism. People are alienated from each other and from their work under capitalism according to this theorist. For 10 points, name this author of Das Kapital.

Friedrich Nietzsche

This man advocated expelling anti-Semites from his country, believing that they were inferior to Jews. He praised himself with chapter headings like "Why I am So Wise" and "Why I Am So Clever" in his Ecce Homo, and discussed the connection of Appolonian and Dionysian ideals in his The Birth of Tragedy. He revived the theory of eternal recurrence and described the slave morality, which must be rejected if people are to realize the will to power. The idea of ubermensch comes from, for 10 points, what German philosopher who wrote Beyond Good and Evil and Also Sprach Zarathustra, noted for declaring that "God is dead"?

Rene Descartes (day-CART)

This man argued against empiricism by noting that melting wax changes some of the wax's qualities, yet we know it is the same wax. This man was asked by Princess Elizabeth of Bohemia to explain how an immaterial soul can cause a body to move in a correspondence. He claimed that he could (*) doubt everything except the fact that he exists. He is the namesake of a belief in mind-body dualism. For 10 points, name this author of Discourse on the Method and Meditations on First Philosophy, who is credited with saying "I think, therefore I am."

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel

This man argued that Jesus knew sin and evil when he cried out "why hast thou forsaken me" on the cross. In oneof his works, this man introduced the idea of respecting others as "non-interference" and wrote about three spheresof righteousness in Elements of the Philosophy of Right. This philosopher argued that world history is man'sconsciousness awakening to freedom and divided another work into "being," "essence," and "concept". This authorof Science of Logic described a "struggle to the death" between two self-conscious beings in his master-slavedialectic. For 10 points, name this German philosopher who wrote The Phenomenology of Spirit.

George Berkeley

This man defended his Tory political views in his Passive Obedience, and he also wrote Advice to the Tories Who Have Taken Oaths. He attacked Deism in Alciphron; or, The Minute Philosopher, advocated drinking pine tar in Siris, and believed that everything except the spiritual exists only if it can be perceived. This author of An Essay Towards a New Theory of Vision explained his views in Three Dialogues between Hylas and Philonus. For 10 points, name this Irish bishop who wrote the Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge.

Romanticism

Victor Hugo wrote a manifesto for this movement in the preface to his play Cromwell. A branch of this movement centering around the town of Jena included the author of Hymns to the Night, Novalis. This movement is exemplified by the poetry of William Cowper and the young Sir Walter Scott, which are read by the "sensibility" loving Marianne Dashwood in Austen's Sense and Sensibility. For 10 points, name this early 19th century movement exemplified by Lord Byron which stressed a connection to nature and strong emotion.

Desiderius Erasmus

While analyzing literary tropes, this writer gave 195 variations on the phrase "your letter pleased me greatly" in his textbook Copia. In another work by this thinker, St. Peter tells a pope to "build yourself a new paradise" after that pope tries to break into heaven with the key of his treasury. That work was Julius Excluded from Heaven, and was followed by the Novum Instrumentum Omne, the first published Greek New Testament. This philosopher is most famous for a work whose title figure was born in the "pagan Eden" and nursed by Inebriation and Ignorance. For 10 points, name this Dutch humanist, the author of In Praise of Folly.

Karl Marx

While in London during the American Civil War, Horace Greeley hired this man as a pro-Union correspondent for the New York Daily Tribune. This author of The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis-Napoleon claimed "philosophers have only interpreted the world; the point is to change it" in his Theses on Feuerbach, a criticism of a fellow Young [*] Hegelian. He described commodity feitishism in the first volume of another work which puts forth his labor theory of value. For 10 points, name this author of Das Kapital who supported a temporary dictatorship of the proletariat and, with Engels, wrote The Communist Manifesto.

Germany

A thinker from this nation described the role of mass media in the "flattening" of people's behaviors in The One-Dimensional Man. Herbert Marcuse was from this country, and a thinker from here defined authenticity as presence in time and space in (*) The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction. A thinker born in this country described the consequences of everymen just "doing their jobs" with the term "banality of evil," which she coined in a book discussing the trial of a man from this country; that book is Eichmann in Jerusalem. For 10 points, name this nation home to Walter Benjamin, Hannah Arendt, and the Frankfurt School.

Arabic

A widely-used anthology of philosophy in this language was compiled by Jon McGinnis and David C. Reisman. The doctrine of "double truth" was derived from the works of a philosopher in this language. Philosophers in this language often called Aristotle the "First Teacher." A philosopher in this language was dubbed "The Commentator" in the (*) Summa Theologica. Much of Greek philosophy first became known in Medieval Europe through translations from this language into Latin, especially after the destruction of the House of Wisdom in a 1258 sack by the Mongols. For 10 points, name this language of philosophers like Ibn Rushd and Al-Farabi.

knowledge

Examples involving houses with barn facades and a job interviewee with 10 coins in his pocket challenge the classical definition of this concept. Those are Gettier problems, which involve a degree of luck. It is innate to the Forms and achieved through recollection, according to the dialogue Meno. The world of the Forms outside the Cave represents this concept reached by philosophers in the Allegory of the Cave. The evil demon challenges the extent of this concept, which can come in a posteriori or a priori types. It is studied in epistemology and traditionally defined as justified true belief. For 10 points, name this concept, the absence of which is ignorance.

crime

"Strain theory," first developed by Robert Merton, holds that this behavior arises due to social structures. "Broken window theory" claims that it can be reduced through community vigilance. Michel Foucault wrote a book about society's evolving reaction to this behavior; that book discusses Bentham's Panopticon, a hypothetical prison, and is entitled Discipline and Punish. For 10 points, name this phenomenon, examples of which include felonies and misdemeanors, in which individuals break laws.

pragmatism

"The Myth of the Given" is discussed in a work by one philosopher of this school, Wilfrid Sellars, and a proponent of it wrote Philosophy of the Mirror of Nature. In addition to Richard Rorty, it was espoused in a work attacking tenets of the logical positivists, Quine's Two Dogmas of Empiricism. (*) Democracy and Education was written by John Dewey, a proponent of it, and it was outlined in How to Make Our Ideas Clear by Charles Peirce. For 10 points, name this philosophy that seeks truth in practical experience, discussed in a tract by William James.

John Stuart Mill

(JG) Amartya Sen criticized many of his economic theories in Collective Choice and Social Welfare. This philosopher wrote about sensation and association in Psychological Theory of the Belief in an Exter- nal World, and placed a high importance on societal ethics and their breakdown in a work that elaborated on and slightly modified a book by his father James. He was one of the first philosophers to treat human nature as a science, a study he called "ethology", noting that unlike physical phenomena, human actions were not dependent simply on their present state. Give the name of this nineteenth-century British phi- losopher and economist known for utilitarianism and his book On Liberty.

Jean Jacques Rousseau

(JG) He invented his own scheme for musical notation and wrote two operas: Les Muses Galantes and Le Devin du Village. He thought highly of Newton and Descartes but reserved his highest praise for Fran- cis Bacon, despite often criticizing scientific advancement. His masterwork on education refuted John Locke's, stating that one form of education should be suitable for everyone. That work, L'Emile, was the companion to a better-known book of his, which discusses the responsibility an educated man has to soci- ety, and elaborates on the author's views on social order. Name this French philosopher, author of Dis- course on Inequality and The Social Contract.

happiness

(Note to moderator: Read to yourself the entire answerline [to YOURSELF] before reading the tossup)Robert Nozick's "experience machine" thought experiment attacks this concept as the only intrinsic value by putting people in a place devoted only to it. An attempt to quantify the effects of it uses duration and intensity as two of seven "dimensions" in its namesake "calculus". Aristotle argued this concept manifests itself as the highest human state through eudaimonia. Epicurus equated the lack of pain to the highest possible amount of this state. According to Sigmund Freud, the id is compulsively driven to find this state in a namesake "principle". For 10 points, name this self-serving state of being whose pursuit is espoused by hedonism.

Jean-Paul Sartre

. This philosopher wrote a critical and psychoanalytic biography of Gustave Flaubert entitled The Family Idiot. In one essay, this thinker wrote that "Man first of all exists, encounters himself, surges up in the world, and defines himself afterwards." This man's most famous work discusses the absence of the waiter Pierre and the effect of "the look." That work explains how a person defines himself through his socially constructed role, a concept this man termed "bad faith." This man explained the philosophy he developed as "a humanism" in another essay. For 10 points, name this French author of Being and Nothingness, perhaps the most influential existentialist thinker.

utilitarianism

10. Henry Sidgwick compares intuitional morality with this philosophy in his Methods of Ethics, and R. M. Hare created a "Two-level" form of it in an attempt to combine its "Act" and "Rule" theories. The founder of this philosophy formulated a felicific calculus and wrote The (*) Principles of Morals and Legislation. One proponent of this philosophy argued against the "tyranny of the majority" and formulated the "harm principle." For ten points, identify this philosophy advocated for by John Stuart Mill, which seeks the "greatest happiness for the greatest number."

neopragmatism

12. One proponent of this philosophy attacked the pseudo-problems of analytic philosophy in Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature; that man was Richard Rorty, who developed the "neo" version of it. One philosopher of this movement discouraged "obscure conceptions" in "How to Make Our Ideas Clear," and this movement's most famous text asks if a man ever goes around an unseen (*) squirrel while chasing it around a tree. For ten points, identify this school of thought championed by CS Peirce and William James, which assesses philosophy by its practical applications.

women

13. A book about these people, which criticizes the Napoleonic Code, is separated into the volumes Facts and Myths and Lived Experience. John Stuart Mill argued for a free market for these people in an essay co-written with his wife Harriet Taylor about their "Subjection." An essay by Arthur Schopenhauer stated that these people are not intended for too much (*) mental or physical work due to the shape of their bodies. A book about these people discusses the "Other" and states that "one is not born, but rather becomes" one of these people. For 10 points, name these people who are the subject of Simone de Beauvoir's book The Second Sex.

Immanuel Kant

15. This man wrote a work which compared historical religions to "clothing" and rational religions to "bare humans." Another one of his works proposed constitutional republics as a proper political means of attaining perpetual peace. This philosopher drafted three propositions regarding duty and authored a work which focuses on (*) a priori knowledge. He suggested following an unconditional, universal law that would function in all circumstances. For ten points, name this philosopher who wrote Critique of Pure Reason and introduced the categorical imperative in his Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals.

The Republic

16. Karl Popper argued that this work portrays the working class as "human sheep" in his work The Open Society and Its Enemies. One character in this work narrates the "earth-born" myth that claims each human has a predetermined nature as one of his "noble lies", while another character, (*) Glaucon, responds to Thrasymachus by reciting the story of the ring of Gyges. Several definitions of justice are discussed in the beginning of this work, which advocates for the rule of the philosopher-king and in one scene, it describes the shadows shackled prisoners see from the fire behind them. For ten points, identify this Platonic dialogue which includes the Allegory of the Cave and describes the ideal society.

JeanJacques Rousseau

16. One nonfiction book by this thinker describes stealing a ribbon and framing a servant for the crime. This man claimed that the founder of civil society was the first man "who, having fenced in a piece of land, said 'This is mine.'" In contrast to Thomas Hobbes, this man coined the term (*) "noble savage" to argue that man is naturally good in the state of nature, and he claimed that "Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains." For 10 points, name this Enlightenment philosopher who wrote books such as the Confessions,Discourse on Inequality, and The Social Contract.

The Communist Manifesto (accept Das Kommunistische Manifest or Manifesto of the Communist Party)

16. This work cites Proudhon's Philosophy of Poverty as an example of a form of a philosophy to which it claims economists, philanthropists, and humanitarians belong. Its second section advocates a ten-point program which calls for the establishment of industrial armies as well as free education for all children in public schools. That section follows one which examines the history of the (*) bourgeoisie and the proletarians and claims that the history of society is a history of class warfare. For ten points, name this work authored by Friedrich Engels and Karl Marx, which discusses how the problems of capitalism would be solved by adopting socialism and eventually the title ideology.

Arthur Schopenhauer

17. This thinker observed that "every action can only take place in consequence of a sufficient motive" in The Basis of Morality, and also wrote an essay arguing that the title group of people can't take a "purely objective interest in anything", titled "On Women". This philosopher applied "observations of unbiased physical investigators" to the "kernel of [his] Metaphysics" in On the Will in Nature, and described four classes of objects in On the (*) Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason. The "Epistemology" volume of his best known work discusses the Kantian "thing-in-itself". For ten points, name this pessimistic German author of The World as Will and Representation.

Confucius or Kong Zi or Kong Fu Zi

19. This philosopher contended that the first thing to do in conducting state affairs is to "rectify names", and emphasized music and archery among the "Six Arts". One follower of this philosopher used the example of reactions to a child falling down a well to exemplify innate goodness, which begins the Trimetric Classic. This namesake of a philosophy advocated by (*) Mencius argued that rulers must cultivate "ren", or compassion, which formed the basis of the Mandate of Heaven. He also regarded filial piety as the most basic form of altruism. For ten points, name this Chinese philosopher whose beliefs are collected in the Analects.

Confucius

2. A follower of this man used the example of a child falling down a well to illustrate the Four Beginnings. This man cautioned self-watchfulness, leniency, and sincerity as three guidelines for the path to the title pursuit in his book Doctrine of the Mean. In this man's philosophy, the Six Arts are necessary to become a "superior person". This man named (*) filial piety as the greatest moral imperative. This man created an ethics based around interaction with the world and responsibilities towards others, called li and ren, respectively. For 10 points, name this ancient Chinese philosopher who wrote the Analects.

Thomas Aquinas

2. This thinker differentiated the Greek word "hypostasis" from the Latin word "personae" to show how two languages can convey the same meaning. He also refuted the claim made by Averroes, whom he called "The Commentator," that people share an intellect. One of this man's works was legendarily inspired by Raymond of Penafort, while another work by this author of (*) Summa contra Gentiles lays out the principles of just war and includes "degree," "contingency," and "the unmoved mover" among his five arguments for the existence of God. For ten points, name this 13th-century theologian who wrote Summa Theologica.

Plato

20. In one of his works, this philosopher used the example of a slave solving a complicated geometry problem to show that certain knowledge is innate, and also explained how the universe was created from a combination of "Sameness", "Difference", and "Existence". Another work by this man describes the Sun as the child of the Form of the Good and uses a (*) parable of a ship to argue for justice as harmony. That work by this author of Meno and Timaeus also posited an ideal city-state governed by philosopher-kings and described chained prisoners observing shadows in its Allegory of the Cave. For ten points, name this Greek philosopher and author of The Republic, a student of Socrates and teacher of Aristotle.

Friedrich Nietzsche

20. This philosopher argued that great art is the result of hard work, not of genius or divine inspiration, in a compilation of aphorisms originally dedicated to Voltaire. This author of Human, All too Human discussed the dichotomy between the Apollonian and Dionysian aspects of literature in The (*) Birth of Tragedy and also called amor fati the "formula for greatness in a human being". He identified master and slaves form of the title concept in On the Genealogy of Morals, and suggested that the "will to power" explains all human behavior in Beyond Good and Evil. For ten points, name this German author of Ecce Homo, whose The Gay Science claimed "God is Dead."

Leviathan or The Matter, Forme and Power of a Common Wealth Ecclesiasticall and Civil

20. This work claims that appetite and aversion underlie all "Passions" of humans after dividing animal motion into "Vital" and "Voluntary" components. It lists judicial and law-making authority as two of the twelve principal rights of Commonwealths. Besides stating that (*) absolute monarchy is the best of three types of government, a section titled "Of the Kingdom of Darkness" explains four causes of ignorance. This work warns of a "war of all against all" and describes life as "nasty, brutish, and short." For ten points, identify this treatise by Thomas Hobbes titled after a biblical sea monster.

Michel Foucault

21. This philosopher noted that the exclusion of lepers eventually transitioned to other exclusion rituals in an analogy of a ship of fools. His genealogy of knowledge is a direct allusion to Nietzsche's genealogy of morality. This thinker developed the concept of the medical gaze in his The Birth of the Clinic and argued that the conditions of discourse changed over time in The (*) Order of Things. This man analyzed Bentham's Panopticon in work,.and he developed the theory of biopower in his The Will to Knowledge. For ten points, name this French philosopher and author of Discipline and Punish.

Bishop George Berkeley

3. This man argued against a mathematical interpretation of motion in his tract De Motu. This man rejected the validity of intuition by claiming that it is impossible to conceive of objects that do not exist in the mind in his "master argument." This man used the example of a mite observing its own foot to reject the distinction between (*) primary and secondary qualities. This philosopher wrote a dialogue between himself and John Locke which expounded his principle that "to be is to be perceived.". For 10 points, name this Irish bishop and philosopher who wrote Three Dialogues between Hylas and Philonous.

Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz

5. This man formulated the law that two identical objects have exactly the same properties in his identity of indiscernibles. This man divided truth into necessary truths and contingent truths and claimed that the world exists in pre-established harmony in his Discourse on Metaphysics. This man believed that all composite matter is a representation of simple substances called (*) monads. This man's Theodicy uses the principle of sufficient reason to show that we live in the best of all possible worlds. For 10 points, name this German philosopher who codiscovered calculus with Isaac Newton.

Baruch Spinoza

6. This philosopher argued that there can only be one substance because, via an ontological argument, a single substance must have both the attributes of "thinking" and "extension". This thinker's idea of mens una resembles Rousseau's concept of the general will. The Esnoga issued a cherem on this man for his assertion that (*) Ezra wrote the Torah. He posited a Hobbesian view on the state of nature and argued that a democracy was the best form of government in his Tractatus Theologico-Politicus. For 10 points, name this Dutch Jewish author of Ethics.

ethics

8. Lawrence Kohlberg championed the "descriptive" variety of this study by examining the stages of child development. Simone de Beauvoir argued for "an original solution" in a book titled this of Ambiguity. Peter Singer wrote about the "Practical" form of it, and Aristotle claimed the ultimate goal in life is to achieve (*) happiness in a work titled after this concept. Another important book for this discipline contained sections titled "Of God" and "Of Human Bondage", and was "demonstrated in geometrical order." For ten points, identify this branch of philosophy, a tract in which was written for Nicomachus and which titles a work by Spinoza.

Stoicism

8. One philosopher from this movement divided "protreptic," "elenctic," and "instructional" modes of consultation and claimed that the faculty of "prohairesis" separates humans from other animals. Arrian compiled the text Discourses from this school, which developed the concept of pneuma. This school's followers included Cleanthes and Epictetus, and one (*) Roman emperor wrote a set of 12 books on this philosophy entitled Meditations. This school emphasized that "virtue is sufficient for happiness." Marcus Aurelius was a member of, for ten points, what ancient school of philosophy founded by Zeno of Citium that advocated freedom from emotion?

Søren Aabye Kierkegaard

9. This man included a set of fictional lectures to the Symparanekromenoi and an essay on the sexuality of music in one of his books. This man asked, "Is there a Teleological Suspension of the Ethical?" as the first of three Problemata in one of his books. This man considered (*) despair as one not aligning himself with God, thus committing sin. This man discussed Agamemnon's sacrifice of Iphigenia and Abraham's sacrifice of Isaac to contrast the Knight of Faith with the Knight of Infinite Resignation in his book Fear and Trembling. For 10 points, name this existentialist Danish philosopher.

Baruch Spinoza or Benedict de Spinoza

9. This philosopher claimed that the mind can be filled wholly with joy by loving something eternal and infinite and argued that because miracles are declared according to the understanding of ignorant masses, they cannot be used to prove God's existence. This author of On the Improvement of the Understanding discussed how it follows from the nature of a triangle that its three interior angles should not be equal to two right angles and claimed that God is (*) Nature and Nature is God in his most famous work, which refutes Descartes's mind-body dualism and advocates Pantheism. For ten points, name this excommunicated Dutch Jewish philosopher who wrote Tractatus Theologico-Politicus and Ethics.

social classes

A classic text of free-market economics by William Graham Sumner analyzes the question of what these groups "owe each other." Frederic Engels wrote a report on the condition of one group of this type in England. Thorstein Veblen wrote a theory about the "leisure" one of these, and another theorist identified the chiefly important ones as the proletariat and bourgeoise (BUJ-wah-zee). For 10 points, identify this groups which are arranged in a hierarchy within society, according to Karl Marx.

Plato

A character in one of this man's works claims that love is descended from resource and poverty and describes the hierarchy of the forms of beauty, while another character in the same work claims humans were perfect circles that were cleaved in two. A man teaches a slave how to (*) square a circle in one of this thinker's works, while yet another of his works contains the example of the Ring of Gyges and a discussion of a man who comes to realize there are forms beyond the shadows on the wall. For 10 points, name this philosopher who wrote the Symposium, Meno, and included the Allegory of the Cave in his The Republic.

conservatism

A book on "The Meaning of [this school of thought] was written by Roger Scruton. Russell Kirk argued that this school of thought can be organized into six canons in a book titled after this school of thought's "mind." Bill Kristol founded a magazine dedicated to promoting the neo form of this ideology, (*) The Weekly Standard. A book titled "Conscience of [a person with this ideology]" was written by Barry Goldwater. Because he claimed that the French Revolution destroyed traditional morals, Edmund Burke is considered the modern philosophical founder of this ideology. For 10 points, name this political ideology that is often contrasted with liberalism.

German

A book in this language includes refutations of "paralogisms," "antinomies," and "antithetics" of the title concept. A philosopher in this language claimed that "the I" needs to consider itself to properly be an "I." Another philosopher in this language argued that space and time do not exist outside of us, but are just how we perceive things. Exponents of "Nature Philosophy" and the "Science of Knowledge" were leaders of this language's (*) "Idealism." A book written in this language distinguishes between phenomena and noumena, or "The Thing in Itself," and proves that synthetic a priori propositions exist. For 10 points, name this language of Critique of Pure Reason by Immanuel Kant.

justice

A book of this name, which contains the chapter "Arguing Affirmative Action" before summarizing Aristotle, adapts a lecture taught by Michael Sandel at Harvard. This quality is undesirable according to Thrasymachus's second objection. The theoretical "veil of ignorance" is key to A Theory of [THIS] by John Rawls, who defines it as fairness. The ideal city is an analogy for this trait in Plato's Republic, in which Socrates seeks to define it. For 10 points, name this virtue symbolized by a blind "lady" holding a scale, often equated with people getting what they deserve.

induction

A "problem" with this process was divided into logical and psychological issues by Karl Popper. Matters of fact, unlike relations of ideas, are derived from this process assuming the uniformity of nature. A "new riddle" surrounding it considers that being green can be logically identical to being grue. Carl Hempel popularized its paradox about ravens. David (*) Hume described the "problem" of this process. An example of this process is assuming it will rain tomorrow, since it always rains on Sundays. For 10 points, name this reasoning which makes general rules from specific cases, the opposite of deduction.

irony

A backwards question mark has often been proposed as a symbol for this term. The cosmic form of this term refers to when a god or other greater being is toying with fate of a human being. The dramatic form of this term occurs when the audience knows something that a character does not, as seen in Othello and Oedipus Rex. An example is in Rime of the Ancient Mariner in which there is water everywhere but not a drop to drink. For 10 points, name this literary device in which there is a sharp difference between what a character says and what actually happens.

United States of America

A feminist lecture in this country argued that "the master's tools will never dismantle the master's house." Another thinker from here tried to dissolve the mind-body problem as a "pseudoproblem" in Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature. Audre Lorde and Richard Rorty challenged academic norms in this country, where "live" and "dead" options for belief were discussed in "The Will to Believe." An experimental "lab school" was founded in this country by the author of Democracy and Education, John Dewey. For 10 points, name this home country of pragmatism, where William James taught philosophy at Harvard.

will (accept free will before the word "serve")

A form of this concept arising from the conflation of quality with quantity was paired with "time" in Henri Bergson's doctoral thesis, while Thomas Hobbes thought that form of it as absurd as "accidents of bread in cheese" and defined it as one's last appetite or aversion preceding action. Another thinker argued that knowledge exists to serve it, since Schopenhauer believed The World consists of it and Representation. The Wanderer and His Shadow introduced and The Gay Science explained another kind of, FTP, what term that Nietzsche paired with "to power"?

Philosophi

A formulation of the scientific method entitled "Rules of Reasoning in Philosophy" is included at the beginning of the third part of this work. Although ideas from calculus appear in this work, the methods are primarily geometrical in nature and are referred to as "fluxions". The second book, written as a rebuttal of a theory of Descartes, contains a study of air resistance and hydrostatics, while the third book, On the System of the World, contains a derivation of Kepler's laws. For 10 points, name this book which introduces the law of universal gravitation and contains the author's three namesake laws, a Latin treatise on mechanics by Isaac Newton.

Silent Spring

A major idea of this work is the concept of bioaccumulation, in which fat-soluble molecules concentrate in living tissue as it moves up the food chain. Its opening chapter, "A Fable For Tomorrow", described the devastation wrought by a certain "white granular powder" which was responsible for (*) eggshell thinning and was eventually banned in 1972. For 10 points, name this book which focused on the dangers of the pesticide DDT and founded the environmentalist movement, written by Rachel Carson.

Jean-Paul Sartre

A march of 5,000 military veterans chanted a demand to "Shoot [this philosopher]!" This philosopher claimed in one work that military occupation actually provided freedom by allowing residents under occupation to live "authentic" lives. This philosopher became fascinated by the work of Husserl after being told that phenomenology meant that you could "take a cocktail and make a philosophy out of it," and used the example of looking for Peter in a cafe to illustrate his views on perception. This man used a waiter to illustrate a form of "self-deception" he termed "bad faith." This writer contrasted "being for itself" and "being-in-itself" in his Being and Nothingness. For 10 points, name this man who incorporated his existentialist philosophy into his play "No Exit."

utilitarianism

A method called felicific calculus in this philosophical theory was first described in An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation. One man in this school wrote Enquiry Concerning Political Justice and was named William Godwin. One work in this school of philosophy distinguishes between intuitionist and "inductive" schools of morality in the first of five chapters. In the 20th century, philosophers split this theory into types that differ in their consideration of moral rules called its "act" and "rule" types, and this theory is now considered a form of consequentialism. For 10 points, name this hedonistic theory founded by Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, striving for the greatest happiness for the most people.

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

A philosopher from this country formulated four maxims which constitute the cooperative principle. Another philosopher from this country noted that a statement might have a perlocutionary effect if it is an illocutionary act, which he classified as a speech-act. A thinker from this home country of Paul Grice stated proper names are "disguised" definite descriptions, demonstrated with reference to the (*) "present King of France." A native of this country published "On Denoting" in the journal Mind, which was edited at different times by Gilbert Ryle and G.E. Moore. "Ordinary language" philosophy was promoted here by J.L. Austin. For 10 points, name this country where Bertrand Russell worked at Cambridge University.

Stoicism

A philosopher from this school taught Arrian, who wrote down his Discourses and Handbook. Another philosopher from this school wrote bloody tragedies like Hercules Furens. One philosopher from this school urged readers to take a "cosmic" perspective on things and thought about twelve phases of his life while (*) campaigning on the Rhine frontier. This school included Epictetus and was founded by Zeno of Citium. Nero was taught this philosophy by Seneca, and it is espoused by the Meditations of Marcus Aurelius. For 10 points, name this ancient philosophical school that stressed virtue and freedom from emotions.

David Hume

A posthumous work of this thinker sees Cleanthes' use of the teleological argument attacked by Philo, who claims human reason cannot understand the divine. Book I of another work by this author discusses skepticism and the importance of the experimental method. When it was unsuccessful, that book was edited into a work that includes a discussion of human reason compared to animal reason, as well as sections titled "Of Probability," "Of Liberty and Necessity," and "Of Miracles." The author of Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion, name this Scottish Empiricist philosopher and author of Treatise of Human Nature and An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding.

atoms

A property of these things titles a 2011 book about Poggio Bracciolini ["PAW-jyoh brah-chyoh-LEE-nee"] and "How the World Became Modern" by Shakespeare scholar Stephen Greenblatt. These things were theorized to refute Parmenides' assertion that all change is an illusion. Free will arises because these things can randomly "swerve," according to De rerum natura by (*) Lucretius. These things were proposed by Leucippus and discussed by Democritus. These things were later introduced in a scientific context by John Dalton. For 10 points, name these tiny particles named for being indivisible, although they turned out to be made of neutrons, protons, and electrons.

The Republic

A section of this text compares the universe to a spindle, and in it a reanimated soldier describes how souls select their next lives by a lottery. This book's idea of a "noble lie" is criticized in a section on the "Spell" of its author in Popper's The Open Society and its Enemies. This work visualizes the visible and intelligible realms with the image of a divided line. In this book, (*) Glaucon argues that no one would be moral without fear of punishment by the Ring of Gyges story. The work imagines prisoners who can only observe shadows in its Allegory of the Cave. For 10 points, name this work whose title city is ruled by philosopher-kings, a dialogue by Plato.

ethics (accept Nichomachean ethics, Spinozas

A work named this contains the proposition Substance is by nature prior to its affections in its 1st part, Of God, while the fourth part is called Of Human Bondage. Another work with this word in its title focuses on the concept of eudamia which is a form of satisfied happiness, and contains the doctrine of the mean. Its meta form is considered the most imprecisely defined part of moral philosophy, while its normative form attempts to define proper (*) conduct, such as in the Golden Rule. Nichomachean is attached to this word in the title of an Aristotle work, while it names a work advocating Pantheism. FTP name this branch of philosophy, the title of a Baruch Spinoza work, which attempts to categorize right and wrong behavior.

utilitarianism

A work of this name claims rules of conduct must exist alongside the "sentiment of justice" for justice to occur, two chapters after trying to find an "Ultimate Sanction". Extended in Methods of Ethics by Henry Sidgwick and Animal Liberation by Peter Singer, this philosophy's namesake book claims "better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a pig satisfied." A type of consequentialism with "rule" and "act" forms, its founder proposed the Panopticon prison model and the "felicific calculus". For 10 points, name this school of thought championed by John Stuart Mill and Jeremy Bentham, which believes moral goodness is the greatest happiness of the greatest number.

slavery (prompt on "bondage" until mentioned)

According to John Locke, this condition is a state of conflict between a conqueror with absolute power and the conquered. Rousseau posited that this condition only persists because people fear physical harm while Montesquieu linked it to hotter climates. A person of this condition in Plato's Meno helps prove a point about knowledge by solving a (*) geometry problem. This condition names half of a dialectic described in Hegel's Phenomenology of Spirit which compares lordship and bondage. For ten points, name this condition of forced servitude in which one human being is owned by another.

evil

According to Nietzsche, this concept is created by the ressentiment of the oppressed, and is the pole of slave morality that differs in master morality. Kant's radical type of this concept was reformulated by Hannah Arendt, who identified alienated individuals latching onto zealous idealism as the root of its banality. Saint Augustine, influenced by Neo-Platonism, defined this concept as misguided will. Leibniz asserted that we live in the best of all possible worlds in a work that attempts to solve its namesake problem. Theodicies attempt to reconcile the existence of an omnipotent and benevolent deity with the existence of this concept. For 10 points, name this concept that Augustine characterized as the absence of good.

knowledge

According to Timothy Williamson, this concept is unanalyzable. Plato's dialogue Theaetetus deals with the definition of this concept. Its propositional variety is distinguished from the procedural variety, and it can be classified as a priori or a posteriori. Gettier problems are used to argue against the traditional definition of this concept as (*) justified true belief. For 10 points, name this concept which is studied in epistemology.

Stoicism

According to proponents of this school of philosophy, truth can be distinguished from even the most fallacious statement, even if only a semantic approximation is available. This school's central belief of the "certainty of truth" can be seen in the writings of Boethius, Epictetus, Seneca the Younger, and the man who wrote that one must be "free of secular desire" in his Meditations, Marcus Aurelius. For 10 points, name this school of philosophy that was founded by Zeno of Citium, which stressed the importance of internal gratification rather than material success.

Leviathan

According to this book, the conservation of motion is the cause of human thoughts. Stating that imagination is at the start of all voluntary actions, it sets forth the premise of a mechanistic universe. The author denies the existence of devils and suggests that a "confederacy of deceivers" creates "the Kingdom of Darkness." The third book about a Christian Commonwealth annoyed the audience because it declared civil laws more important than religious laws. It suggests that a social contract to obey an absolute authority represented by the titular entity is necessary to avoid the war of all against all. Life is "nasty, brutish, and short," according to, for 10 points, what work by Thomas Hobbes?

the problem of the existence of God

Al-Ghazali addressed this problem with his Kalām argument, which stated that a beginning implies a cause.Descartes gave three solutions to this problem in his Third Meditation on First Philosophy. The answer to thisproblem does not matter according to Pascal's wager, and this problem's burden of proof is often shifted usingRussell's teapot. Leibniz argued that we are in the best of all possible worlds in his Theodicy as an attempt toreconcile this problem with the "problem of evil." St. Anselm of Canterbury created his ontological argument toaddress this issue. For 10 points, name this philosophical problem over whether there is a higher being.

Saint Thomas Aquinas

Alisdair MacIntyre wrote that this man's rule of "double effect" could frame morality without utilitarianism or Kant's duty-based reasoning. This man wrote that sovereign authority, a cause avenging some wrong, and an aim to advance the good were three criteria for just war. This man, who used the objection-reply-response format for his largest work, was taught by Albertus Magnus. He made arguments called the Five Ways in an unfinished synthesis of Aristotelian philosophy with theology. For 10 points, name this Scholastic medieval thinker who included proofs of God's existence in his Summa Theologica.

irony

Along with "contingency" and "solidarity," this quality titles a Richard Rorty work. This quality in a sentence can be denoted by a backwards question mark. Its "dramatic" variety occurs in literature when the audience knows something unknown to the characters. The "verbal" form of this quality is similar to sarcasm. For 10 points, name this quality, a difference between what is stated and what is implied.

ethics

An 1874 book by Henry Sidgwick purports to describe "the methods" of these, and Simone de Beauvoir wrote a short treatise about those "of ambiguity." G.E. Moore's best known work also references them, while a philosophical work titled after them contains the section "Of Human Bondage" and is laid out as a series of (*) geometric axioms; that work was written by Baruch Spinoza. For 10 points, give this term that describes the branch of philosophy that deals with the existence of morality.

John Locke

An analogy in this philosopher's most famous work describes a slave ship heading to Algiers, implying that minorities may be oppressed even in his prescribed political system. He stresses the development of critical thinking skills in Some Thoughts Concerning Education. This man claimed that property is earned through human labor on nature, and addressed the issue of Catholics in England in A Letter Concerning Toleration. He claimed that the mind at birth was a tabula rasa, or blank slate, in his Essay Concerning Human Understanding. For 10 points, name this British social contract theorist, who posited a natural right to "life, liberty, and property" in his Two Treatises on Government.

medicine

An approach to this subject called unani was divided into seven principles like arkan and mizaj by Arabic scholars like Rhazes [ROZZ-ees]. Apollonius of Citium compiled a "Corpus" concerning this subject, written by an author from Cos. A philosopher of this subject criticized Aristotle's "one-seed" conception theory--that servant of Marcus Aurelius was named (*) Galen. Avicenna wrote a canon on this subject. This subject was dominated by a theory that described people as choleric, melancholic, phlegmatic, or sanguine, depending on overexpression of four humors. For 10 points, name this subject whose classical practitioners included Hippocrates.

materialism

An argument for the cultural form of the anthropological approach with this name was subtitled "The Struggle for a Science of Culture" and was written by Marvin Harris. A philosophical approach with this name was opposed by George Berkeley [BARK-lee] and other idealists, and that approach has now become synonymous with physicalism. When Marx and Engels took the approach that Hegel [HAY-gul] had applied to ideas and applied it instead to historical developments, their approach was labeled as the dialectical [dy-ah-LEK-tih-kul] type of this. Give this label sometimes applied to people primarily interested in owning consumer goods.

David Hume

An argument trying to prevent this man from being persecuted for atheism also prevented his taking a post at an institution where he wrote the essay "Of Superstition and Religion." Better known works of his include the essay "On the Immortality of the Soul," "On Suicide," and a work in which Cleanthes, Demea, and Philo debate the validity of the ontological argument. For 10 points, name this author of Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion, a Scottish empiricist best known for An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding.

Harold Bloom

An attempt by this man to answer the question of how a poet comes to terms with all the great poetry was subtitled "A Theory of Poetry." This man adapted his doctoral dissertation into a work in which he uses Buber's idea of "I and Thou" to describe the romantic poets relation with nature. In addition to The Anxiety of Influence and Shelley's Mythmaking, this man concluded in another work that all writers regardless of period must be judged in terms of William Shakespeare. For 10 points, name this Yale professor, a literary critic and author of The Western Canon.

Rene Descartes

An ontological argument proposed by this thinker argues that the concept of a mountain cannot be separated from the concept of a valley. This thinker dedicated a work to Princess Elisabeth of Bohemia that analyzes the Passions of the Soul. This man claimed that the (*) "seat of the soul" is in the pineal gland to resolve the mind-body problem. One of this man's books imagines an "evil demon" responsible for altering the senses, to which he responds by doubting everything but his existence. For 10 points, name this French philosopher who declared in his Meditations on First Philosophy that "I think, therefore I am."

Rene Descartes

Answer these questions about philosophers who questioned the existence of everything as we perceive it. [5] This French author of Meditations on First Philosophy and Discourse on Method resolved his doubts with the proposition "I think, therefore I am." He also invented coordinate graphing.

Stoicism

Antipater of Tarsus, who succeeded Diogenes of Babylon as head of this school, was so timid in debates with Carneades of the Academy that he only wrote, and was nicknamed "Pen-noise." Cleanthes, another scholarch of this school, wrote that "Fate guides the willing, but drags the unwilling," and his successor claimed that divination was real and that free will and fate were compatible. That man was Chrysippus, and a later writer of this school thanked his grandfather for "a kindly disposition." For 10 points, name this philosophical school founded on a porch by Zeno of Citium, whose members included the author of the Meditations, Marcus Aurelius.

John Locke

As an Oxford student, this man collaborated with Robert Boyle to study the nature of human blood. He rebuked theologians who engaged in bitter debates over abstruse issues in his The Reasonableness of Christianity and advocated an end to persecution of Catholics in his Letter Concerning Toleration. This author of a "fundamental constitution" for the (*) Carolina colonies said that property rights derive from "mixing labor" with the land and advocated the protection of those rights with a social contract in the second part of his response to Robert Filmer's argument for the divine right of kings. For 10 points, name this author of Two Treatises on Government whose individual rights philosophy greatly influenced the American Founding Fathers.

Thomas Aquinas

As part of this man's disagreement with Siger of Brabant, this thinker wrote "On the Unicity of Intellect", a tract criticizing Averroes (AV-err-OH-ess). Despite not being Jewish, he wrote a critique of Christian heresies titled Contra Gentiles (jen-TEEL-ace), or Against the Gentiles (this time, pronounced as in English). The Second Vatican Council called this man the "Perpetual Philosopher." This student of Albertus Magnus divided his major work into sections on Ethics, Christ, and Theology. For 10 points, name this Scholastic medieval theologian, the author of Summa Theologica.

Athens

At the end of Oedipus at Colonus, Oedipus blesses this city by dying at its outskirts. Aristophanes (ar-uhs-TAH-foe-neez) often attacked Cleon, a politician from this city, in his plays set here, such as The Knights. Another Aristophanes play set here, The Clouds, satirized Socrates as a Sophist, and may have helped spur Socrates' execution. For 10 points, name this Greek city where Euripides, Aeschylus, and Sophocles invented classical tragedy.

Immanuel Kant

Because of a printing error, many readers originally believed a work by Johann Fichte [FEEK-tuh] was actually written by this person. Part Two of Arthur Schopenhauer's On the Basis of Morality is a criticism of this writer's basis of ethics. That basis, which included the statement that humanity should be treated as an end rather than a mean, is outlined in his Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals. This person stated that people should act in a way that they can will to be universal law, which is his categorical imperative. Name this philosopher who wrote Critiques of Pure Reason and of Practical Reason.

relativism

Before becoming Pope Benedict the Sixteenth, Cardinal Ratzinger labeled this belief the central problem for faith today. The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis supports the linguistic form of this belief. Franz Boas encouraged the cultural form of this approach, believing that the actions of people in a culture should be judged from within that culture. Baruch Spinoza is viewed as a supporter to the ethical form of this approach, since he believed that nothing was intrinsically good or bad. Name this denial of objective truth that is often contrasted with absolutism.

Common Sense

Benjamin Rush, who pushed this document to printers, is responsible for convincing Robert Bell to publish its first edition, which reported its author only to be "an Englishman." In the second printing, the author donated his royalties to Washington's Continental Army "for mittens", though more famously, the author comments on the absurdity of a continent being governed by an island. First published in 1776, this is, for 10 points, what incendiary pamphlet urging colonial separation from England, written by Thomas Paine?

happiness

Bertrand Russell describes two types of this concept as "plain" and "fancy" in a book titled The Conquest of this concept, and in his study of this phenomena, Mihály Csíkszentmihályi [Cheek-sent-me-ha-yee] proposed that people are most subject to it if they are in a mental state of "flow". In Freudian psychoanalysis, the id is driven by a (*) "principle" named for this state of being, which seeks to avoid pain to satisfy one's needs. For ten points, name this emotional state of being which the Declaration of Independence states the pursuit of is an unalienable right, along with Life and Liberty.

Ethics

Cognitivism and non-cognitivism are views in this field's "meta" variety. Some naturalistic theories in this field are called fallacious in a 1903 work in this field. Alasdair MacIntyre's book After Virtue helped revived one theory in this field in which G.E. wrote a Principia. A Panopticon is discussed by Jeremy(*) Bentham who created this field's utilitarian branch. The terms substance, attribute, and mode are redefined by Baruch Spinoza in a work named for this study. For 10 points, name this philosophical subfield, that says what is right and wrong.

utilitarianism

Derek Parfit's "repugnant conclusion" argues against this school of thought by showing that it implies the need to populate the earth with as many humans as physically possible. One of the originators of this philosophy explained it using the "felicific calculus" in An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation. It was later expanded upon in a namesake book of John Stuart Mill. For 20 points, name this school of thought whose originator, Jeremy Bentham, explained it as advocating "the greatest good for the greatest number."

Zeno (of Elea)'s Paradoxes

Description acceptable. A modern variant of one of these situations is called Thomson's lamp. Aristotle concluded one of these thought experiments implies half of a given time equals twice that time. The third of these statements concerns the sound made by falling millet seeds, while another of them centers on "moving rows." One philosopher disproved these statements by walking away from their formulator, who was from the (*) Eleatic school of Parmenides. That formulator names a quantum effect that parallels one of these thought experiments, which proposes that an arrow is at rest at every moment. For 10 points, name these thought experiments "proving" the impossibility of motion, including "Achilles and the Tortoise."

existence of God (accept anything that describes an argument/proof for the existence of a higher being; prompt on just God, I guess; prompt on statements like "religion is right" or "believing in religion"; anti-prompt

Description acceptable. The concept of "transworld depravity" is used in a "defense" of this idea by Alvin Plantinga. The arguments from contingency and degree are among the "Five Ways" concerning this statement by (*) Thomas Aquinas, and Russell's teapot shifts the burden of proof for it. St. Anselm conceived of the ontological argument for this statement, and there exist teleological arguments for it. Believing in this statement and being wrong is infinitely better than the alternative according to Pascal's wager, and one argument for it asserts there must have been some "first" being. For 10 points, name this general statement that atheists do not agree with.

Plato

Edmund Gettier credited this author with the "justified true belief" theory of knowledge. In one of this thinker's writings, the lengths of a sides of a square are related to the square's area by a slave, showing that all knowledge is recollection. He also had a character relate how humans once had two heads, before the gods split them apart to make them long for their other half. This author of Meno wrote a multi-person drunken discourse on the nature of love, and advanced his theory of Forms with the allegory of the cave in a discussion of the ideal society. For 10 points, name this Greek author whose philosophical dialogues, including the Symposium and Republic, feature his master Socrates.

evolution

Georges Cuvier was an early opponent of this theory, one proponent of which was Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire. Arguments used against this theory include William Dembski's concept of specified complexity and Michael Behe's irreducible complexity, which argues that this theory cannot explain how the eye developed. This theory was developed by Alfred Russell Wallace independently of the man most associated with it. For 10 points, name this theory presented in Darwin's On the Origin of Species.

David Hume

G. E. Moore's naturalistic fallacy and open question argument closely resemble this thinker's "guillotine." This thinker distinguished between matters of fact and relations of ideas using his namesake "fork," and he warned against deriving what (*) "ought" to be from what "is." This thinker argued that a posteriori knowledge is unreliable because the laws of physics aren't guaranteed to be constant, an analysis of the problem of induction found in An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding. For 10 points, name this Scottish philosopher who studied empiricism.

Ethics

G.E. Moore wrote a book on the principles of this subject, in which he described the naturalistic fallacy. Spinoza's book on this philosophical subject is divided according to a "geometric" scheme. Aristotle's book on this describes the highest aim in life as happiness, and is named after his son Nicomachus. For 10 points, name this subject within philosophy which is concerned with questions of morality.

political parties

Giovanni Sartori invented a method for classifying systems of these entities based on number and degree of fragmentation, while Maurice Duverger distinguished between "cadre" and "mass" ones and devised a namesake "law" about how a first-past-the-post structure would lead to having two of them. Edmund Burke was among the first to formally define these entities, which George Washington openly distrusted and refused to join. Examples of them include the Egyptian Wafd, the Taiwanese Guomindang, the Israeli Likud and Kadima, the Syrian Ba'th, and the Indian BJP. For 10 points, identify these political organizations that run candidates in elections, such as the Whig and Democratic ones.

truth

Gottlob Frege [FRAY-guh] wrote that attributing this property to a statement does not add value to the statement, which is a deflationary approach to this. Alfred Tarski believed sentences could be judged for this quality and set out criteria for doing so. Like Kurt Gödel [GUR-dul], Tarski also wrote that some sentences with this property could not be proved. This quality is sometimes considered equivalent to the number one in Boolean algebra, and this is sometimes confused with validity. Name this concept that in some approaches is used to describe statements that match reality, in contrast to falsehood.

The Republic

Hans-Georg Gadamer claimed that large parts of this work were meant to be read ironically and serve as an example of what happens with an idea taken too far. This work discusses the importance of those who have encountered the Agathon, and also contains a section which addresses the Problem of the Universals by conducting a thought experiment which illustrates its author's Theory of Forms with shadows dancing on the wall of a cave. The society envisioned by this work consists of three castes, including guardians and philosopher-kings. For ten points, identify this work which discusses how to make men the most happy through society, a dialogue by Plato.

David Hume

He argued that belief in miracles is logically impossible in his "On Miracles," and he claimed that a certain act "may be free of imputation of guilt and blame" in On Suicide. His characters Philo and Cleanthes discuss arguments from design in a work where Demea claims there are a priori arguments for God. He wrote of "Liberty and Necessity" and "Reason of Animals" in a reworking of his Treatise of Human Nature. For 10 points, name this author of Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion and An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding.

Pierre Abelard or Peter Abelard or Petrus Abaelardus, I guess

He argued that sin lies in intentions, not actions, in Know Thyself, and also wrote Dialogue Between a Philosopher, a Jew, and a Christian. He disagreed with Roscelin of Compiegne and Guillaume de Champeaux by saying that language is incapable of demonstrating the truth of physical objects. He went to study under Anselm of Laon but hated it, despite the fact that both are today considered major writers of Scholasticism. His autobiography, History of My Troubles, (*) describes his famous love affair, which produced a son named Astrolabe, while his best-known work as a logician is Sic et non. FTP name this medieval French philosopher castrated for his love affair with Heloise.

Karl Marx

He asserted that "history repeats itself, first as tragedy, second as farce" in his discussion of France's 1851 coup d'etat, and another work took the form of a letter to the Eisenbach political party. In addition to The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Napoleon and Critique of the Gotha Program he argued in one work that social relationships were being replaced with commodity fetishism and another begins with the line, "A (*) spectre is haunting Europe" and was co-written with Friedrich Engels. FTP, name this philosopher who penned Das Kapital and The Communist Manifesto.

Baruch Spinoza (accept Benedictus Spinoza)

He claimed that the three heads of Good that men pursue are riches, fame, and pleasure in a work examining the differences between false, fictitious, and doubtful ideas, On the Improvement of Understanding. He argued that prophets are not necessarily intelligent but simply imaginative and emphasized that religion should stay out of politics in Tractatus Theologico-Politicus, but his only work published under his name was about his contemporary, Descartes. His definition of God as Being with infinitely many attributes appeared in a work in "geometric order" and reflects his pantheism. For 10 points, name this Dutch Jew who wrote Ethics.

Bertrand Russell

He delivered the first Reith Lecture, which was converted into the book Authority and the Individual. In an essay of his he proposed the concept of a tiny celestial teapot that is floating between Mars and the Earth in an attempt to demonstrate that God is a fairy tale like Santa Claus. His most famous work on Religion was Why I am Not (*) A Christian, while criticisms of his most important work involve the axiom of infinity and his namesake paradox, which involves the set of all sets that are not members of themselves. Co-writer of an influential 3-volume work in logic with Alfred North Whitehead this is FTP what British winner of the 1950 Nobel Prize in Literature who helped write Principia Mathemtica.

Niccolo Machiavelli

He developed his ideas while working for the magistrate Piero Soderini; for example, he prevailed on Soderini to use a local militia instead of mercenaries for defense. One of his theoretical works shares a title with a similar book by Sun Tzu, The Art of War, and he also advocated the harsh defense of republican government in his Discourses in Livy. His magnum opus ends with a directive to free Italy from foreign troops, advises reliance on "virtu," and suggests that it is better to be feared than loved. For 10 points, name this author of The Prince.

John Rawls

He discussed "The Role of Civil Disobedience" in the "Duty and Obligation" section of his most famous work and studied allocations of economic goods to theorize that inequalities are justified only when they benefit the most disadvantaged, which he termed the "difference principle." He reasoned that society would agree on this principle if no one knew his social status, a thought experiment he called "original position." His work was criticized in Anarchy, State, and Utopia by his Harvard colleague Robert Nozick. FTP, name this author of A Theory of Justice.

George Berkeley

He praised tar-water in his last work, Siris, while he attacked Newton's theory of fluxions in The Analyst. He wrote a discussion between a figure who represents John Locke and another figure whose name translates to "lover of spirit" in one work, while in A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge features his famous axiom "esse est percipi." FTP, name this Idealist philosopher who wrote Three Dialogues Between Hylas and Philonus and who is the namesake of a university town in California.

George Berkeley

He praised tar-water in his last work, Siris, while he attacked Newton's theory of fluxions in The Analyst. He wrote a discussion between a figure who represents John Locke and another figure whose name translates to lover of spirit in one work, while in A Treatise Concerning (*) the Principles of Human Knowledge features his famous axiom esse est percipi. FTP, name this Idealist philosopher who wrote Three Dialogues Between Hylas and Philonus and who is the namesake of a university town in California.

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel

He summarized his beliefs in the Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences. He wrote about the doctrine of being and doctrine of essence in The Science of Logic. He set out his political philosophy in Elements of the Philosophy of Right. He postulated that the tension between a thesis and its antithesis results in a synthesis in his namesake dialectic. For 10 points, name this German Enlightenment philosopher who wrote Phenomenology of Spirit.

Saint Augustine of Hippo

He wrote that visible signs or sacraments were the only means to provide religious unity in his Retractions. He also wrote a book which asserts that Scripture must be interpreted reflecting charity and love, advocates memorizing Scripture, and discusses the role of allegory in On Christian Doctrine. After Rome was sacked, he described the relationship between the title entity, the church, and potentially malevolent pagan forces in The City of God. A Manichaean convert influenced by Saint Ambrose, for 10 points, identify this author of Confessions.

John Stuart Mill

He's not Malthus or Ricardo, but this man claimed some interventions in free markets was justified in the textbook Principles of Political Economy. He championed inductive reasoning as freeing the empirical sciences by use of syllogisms in his A System of Logic. He served in Parliament from Westminster and his wife, Harriet Taylor, is referenced is his The [*] Subjection of Women. His most famous work mentions the "tyranny of the majority" and argues for people's right to actions not infringing on that right in others. For 10 points, name this 19th century Classical liberal thinker, the author of Utilitarianism and On Liberty.

mind or mental states

Hilary Putnam argued that identical states of this phenomenon can be triggered by different physical triggers in the multiple realizability thesis. Gilbert Ryle compares this phenomenon to a "ghost in the machine" in his work The Concept of this phenomenon. In an argument about the independence of this phenomenon, one philosopher points out that candle wax can be both solid and liquid, and that while he can doubt the existence of the exterior world, he can't doubt the existence of this phenomenon. For 10 points, name this philosophical phenomenon, said by Descartes to be located in the pineal gland, and contrasted with the body in a namesake problem of dualism.

Freidrich Nietzsche

His first book criticized the rationality of Euripedes' works, preferring the contrast between Apollonian and Dionysian in Aeschylus and Sophocles. This writer critiqued Christianity as a slave morality in works such as Beyond Good And Evil, and included a chapter entitled "Why I Write Such Good Books" in his autobiography Ecce Homo. For 10 points, name this German philosopher who declared "God is dead" in The Gay Science and imagined an "Ubermensch" in Also Sprach Zarathustra.

G.W. F. Hegel

His graduation speech at the Gymnasium was titled "On the Abortive State of Art and Scholarship in Turkey". This philosopher's first work examined the differences in the systems of philosophy conceived by Friedrich Schelling and Johann Fichte. He wrote about being, essence, and concept in his Science of Logic. This author of Philosophy of Right posited a state he called absolute knowledge in a more famous work For 10 points, name this influential German philosopher who developed his concept of "dialectic" in his Phenomenology of Spirit.

the social contract

Hugo Grotius' theory of the natural right of individuals was a precursor to this philosophical concept. Proudhon proposed an anarchist version of this concept, which another philosopher described in a work that explains how every individual's opinion in isolation will together produce the best decision for the state, otherwise known as the "general will." That work argues that voluntarily entering into a state of slavery is illogical and begins "man is born free but everywhere he is in chains." For 10 points, name this philosophical concept in which individuals improve upon the state of nature by surrendering certain rights, the title of a work by Jean-Jacques Rousseau.

pragmatism (accept word forms)

Ideas from this movement were used to attack the logical positivists by William Quine, while its namesake "maxim" describes how one should approach philosophy. One paper from this school distinguishes between "tender" and "tough" types of people, and criticizes an argument over whether a (*) squirrel is running around a tree; that paper is "A New Name for Some Old Ways of Thinking." The founder of this philosophy wrote the essay "How to Make Our Ideas Clear." Along with Charles Sanders Peirce ["purse"], John Dewey and William James were members of this school. For 10 points, name this school of philosophy arguing for a focus on problems with practical consequences.

parables

Ignacy Krasicki wrote a number of fables in addition to writing this type of story. One story of this type tells about a man who loses one of his one hundred sheep, and that story appears before one about a lost coin. Another one is about the Friend at Night, and yet another is about the Good Samaritan. They are distinguished from fables in that they typically feature human characters. Plato's Republic contains one about a cave. For 10 points, name these stories, examples of which include one about the Prodigal Son.

Bertrand Arthur William Russell, 3rd Earl Russell of Kingston Russell, Viscount Amberley of

In "The Doctrine of Types," this man explained that he had discovered that the set of sets which are not members of themselves must both belong to and not belong to itself, his namesake "paradox." Two years after co-writing a manifesto with Albert Einstein against nuclear testing, this man organized the first Pugwash Conference. He had earlier collaborated with Alfred North Whitehead on Principia Mathematica. For 10 points, name this mathematician, philosopher, and pacifist activist, who wrote the one-volume History of Western Philosophy.

John Stuart Mill

In 1823, this man was spent two days in jail for distributing a pamphlet advocating for the legal use of contraceptives by married women. He was a great friend of Thomas Carlyle, even after his housemaid burned the only manuscript of Carlyle's book on the French Revolution. His wife Harriet Taylor is credited with co-authoring his 1869 treatise arguing for the legal and intellectual equality of half the population, The Subjection of Women. That book utilizes the philosophy of his mentor, Jeremy Bentham, as did his book Utilitarianism. For 10 points, name this British utilitarian author of On Liberty.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

In Discourse on the Arts and Sciences, he questioned the value and virtue of science and art, claiming their benefits accrue only to the powerful and their progress has corrupted humanity. He proposed an educational philosophy centering on moral development and experiencing the consequences of one's actions in what he considered his most important work, the novel Emile, or On Education. He was an early supporter of direct democracy, or "popular sovereignty". For 10 points, name this French Enlightenment philosopher, often considered the forefather of modern liberalism, the author of Discourse on Inequality and The Social Contract.

John Dewey

In Knowing and the Known, this man differentiated between self-action, interaction, and transaction. He argued for by extending voting rights and that communication between citizens and politicians was instrumental to democracy. In Democracy and Education this man argued that the purposes of education include self-realization and social reform, and helped to found the progressive New School on these theories. In "The Reflex Arc Concept of Psychology" he argued against traditional notions of stimulus and response. For 10 points, name this American philosopher and psychologist associated with pragmatism and credited with founding functional psychology.

John Locke

In a letter to this man, William Molyneux questioned whether a blind man given sight could recognize touched items. That letter responded to this man's work on Boyle's idea of primary and secondary qualities. He defended his religion in The Reasonableness of Christianity, but argued against persecuting dissenters in his Letter Concerning Toleration. This empiricist advanced a natural rights theory of the social contract and formulated the tabula (TAH boo lah) rasa. For 10 points, name this Englishman who influenced the U.S. Founding Fathers with his Two Treatises on Government.

David Hume

In a posthumously published work of this philosopher, a skeptic named Philo discusses the nature of God. This philosopher was so loathed in his day for his near-atheism that a woman once refused to pull him out of a bog, in which he was drowning, until he recited the Lord's Prayer. This author of (*) Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion put forth his opinion on miracles in a reworking of the first book of his Treatise of Human Nature, entitled the Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding. For 10 points, name this Scottish empiricist of the eighteenth century.

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel

In a series of lectures, this thinker argued that "Reason is the substance of the universe" and examined the "consciousness of freedom" throughout history beginning with the Greeks. This man introduced the idea of "aufheben" or sublation, the transformation from "Becoming" to "Determinate Being," in a work examining the objective and subjective types of the title concept. In addition to writing The Science of Logic, this philosopher discussed the meeting of two self-conscious beings resulting in submission and domination with his master-slave dialectic. For 10 points, name this German idealist philosopher, the author of The Phenomenology of Spirit.

John Stuart Mill

In a speech before Parliament, this philosopher argued that the natural revulsion to death and a rapid execution makes capital punishment an effective deterrent and a humane punishment. He recognized restrictions of liberty as those of offense, paternalism, moralism, or the harm principle. This man argued that anyone who has read poetry and played push-pin would judge the former as a more fulfilling and valuable pursuit. He invoked a hierarchy of pleasures to counter the "swine philosophy" of Jeremy Bentham, who had proposed a more simplistic greatest-happiness principle. For 10 points, name this British philosopher, the author of On Liberty and Utilitarianism.

Plato

In a text by this thinker, he argues against the idea that holiness comes from prosecuting blasphemy, or from what the gods approve. Aristophanes ["Air-ess-TOFF-oh-nees"] describes how Zeus split people into two to explain love's origins in one of this man's(*) dialogues. In one of this man's texts, he states that the soul is made of three parts. This Greek philosopher describes a ring that turns its user invisible, and a government led by philosopher-kings in his work The Republic. For 10 points, name this student of Socrates and teacher of Aristotle.

Ludwig Wittgenstein

In a work compiled by his student G. E. M. Anscombe, this philosopher argued that some statements had to be exempt from doubt, like hinges on a door. This author who analyzed G.E. Moore's "here is one hand" statement in On Certainty described a series of overlapping similarities as a "family resemblance". He wrote about a "builder's language" in an explanation of why it was unnecessary to strictly define terms to make meaningful statements. This philosopher who popularized the use of truth tables wrote about a "beetle in a box" and a "duck-rabbit" in Philosophical Investigations. For 10 points, name this philosopher of language who wrote Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus.

pragmatism

In an essay on the "Intersection of [this concept] and Feminism," Jane Duran notes that it ignores generalities in favor of analysis of particulars and their relations. One founder of this branch of philosophy elucidated its central maxim in the essay "How to Make Our Ideas Clear," while another described it as a reconciliation between empiricism and religion. For 10 points, name this branch of philosophy associated with Charles Sanders Peirce and William James, which focuses on a hypothesis' practical consequences.

Free will

In an essay titled for this concept, Schopenhauer ["Sho-pen-how-er"] uses Kant's idea that cause and effect relationships exist in the realm of experience. Alvin Plantinga invoked this concept in a defense against the problem of evil, and David Hume considered this topic the "most contentious question of metaphysics." Views regarding this concept include the James-inspired(*) compatibilism, which attempts to reconcile the existence of this idea with determinism. For 10 points, name this philosophical concept that typically refers to the ability to make genuine decisions.

Justice

In chapter five of Utilitarianism, J.S. Mill examined many definitions of this concept. One theorist used reflective equilibrium to refine the understanding of it, and his work states that a foundation in the "original position" and the [*] difference principle are necessary to this concept. Cephalus claims that it consists of truth, and Thrasymachus argues that it is the advantage of the stronger, before they are refuted by Socrates in Book One of Plato's Republic. John Rawls wrote A Theory of, for 10 points, what concept of moral rightness, often represented by a blind-folded woman with a sword and a scale?

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

In his first important work, this philosopher noted that Egypt fell after philosophy flourished and praised Sparta for banishing artists and scientists. In addition to "Discourse on the Sciences and Arts," this author of Reveries of a Solitary Walker wrote about Saint-Preux who desperately loves the "New Heloise" in Julie. This contributor of music articles to Diderot's Encyclopedia asserted the importance of teaching self-worth in education in Emile. His most famous work, which states that "Man was born free but everywhere he is in chains," examines how society controls people through the "general will." For 10 points, name this author of The Social Contract.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

In his first notable work, this man argued that the sciences were born out of human vices, corrupting natural morals. In another work by this man, a Savoyard vicar professes his faith to the title child, claiming that God is beyond reason. This man examines political domination resulting from amour-propre in his Discourse on Inequality, and in another work, argues that sovereignty is derived from the general will. That work opens with the lines "man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains." For 10 points, name this French philosopher, the author of Emile, or On Education and The Social Contract.

anarchy

In international relations, this term refers to the absence of a universal leader in the world political system. As an ideology, this term refers to a political theory espoused by Peter Kropotkin and Mikhail Bakunin in the nineteenth century. Emma Goldman founded the magazine Mother Earth to promote this theory in the United States. Contemporary supporters of this political theory often use the symbols of a black flag and the letter A surrounded by a circle. For 10 points, name this political theory that argues for a stateless society.

relative

In music theory, a pair of major and minor scales, sharing the same notes but with the minor starting on the sixth note of the major, are known as this kind of scales. In grammar, it describes pronouns such as "which" and "who." In meteorology, the actual vapor density over the saturation vapor density is known as this kind of humidity. For 10 points, give this word, which can also describe members of one's kinship group or something defined in terms of another thing.

Saint Augustine of Hippo

In old age this philosopher reviewed his writings and pointed out what he no longer agreed with in a work titled Reconsiderations. In one work, he describes the superiority of the soul over the body. This author of The Measure of the Soul wrote that Christianity had not led to the fall of (*) Rome in another work. This philosopher relates how his sinful friends lead him to steal some pears in a work in which he also converts from Manichaeism to the Christianity of his mother Monica. City of God is a work by, for 10 points, what early Christian philosopher and theologian who wrote Confessions, a saint from Hippo?

Socrates

In one account, this thinker is said to have suggested that he pay a fine of 30 mina; in another account he refuses to suggest any such compromise. This thinker advanced what has been called the Theory of Recollection, which states that our souls remember their previous lives. He referred to himself as "a gadfly" to his fellow citizens and frequently praised the virtues of Sparta. This philosopher told the Athenians that the Delphic Oracle had declared him the wisest man alive, but they convicted him of corrupting the youth anyway. For 10 points, name this Greek philosopher whose death by hemlock was described by authors like Xenophon and Plato.

Ludwig Wittgenstein

In one book this thinker considered a "Robinson Crusoe" type figure who had been isolated from birth, and in the same book he claimed that if a lion learned how to speak, humans would not be able to understand it. Lectures by this thinker were compiled in the (*) Blue and Brown Books, and he articulated the "picture theory of language." This thinker conceived the "beetle in a box" thought experiment to reject private languages. For 10 points, name this philosopher who considered "language games" in books like Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus and Philosophical Investigations.

The Apology of Socrates

In one episode of this work, the protagonist states that Aristophanes' comedic plays are mostly responsible for his undoing and that his reputation as an annoying busybody stems from the duty assigned to him by the gods. This work by the author of Euthyphroe continues the monologue of its main character, claiming that he is the wisest through knowing nothing, and is the gadfly sent to spur the horse of Athens. Despite the content of this work, the Athenian democracy sentenced its central figure to suicide by hemlock for poisoning the Athenian youth through his questioning authority. For 10 points, name this Platonic dialogue about the redress of Socrates during his trial.

Immanuel Kant

In one essay, this philosopher argued that revolution cannot reform a people's manner of thinking and only substitutes new prejudices for the old. That work declares religious contracts which make doctrines unalterable, regardless of who ratifies them, to be crimes against human nature because they restrict future generations from public use of their power of reason. This philosopher also theorized that a moral maxim is valid only if one could wish it to be made a universal law. For 10 points, name this German Enlightenment philosopher who formulated the categorical imperative.

Martin Heidegger

In one lecture he discussed the Greek origin of the word hymn in relation to Holderlin's poem Der Ister, while he argued that each new work of art inherently changes the meaning of existence in his essay Origin of the Work of Art that appears in his collection Off the Beaten Track. In his most famous work he asserted the need for escaping from the hermeneutic circle and discussed the concept of Aletheia and Dasein, which was heavily influenced by his teacher Edmund (*) Husserl. FTP, name this German philosopher who wrote Being and Time.

William James

In one lecture, this thinker described his resolution of a debate about a man chasing a squirrel around a tree. This man wrote an essay that describes a reasonable way to think something is true without proper evidence called "The Will to Believe." This man contracted to write a textbook that resulted in his writing the two-volume work, (*) The Principles of Psychology. For 10 points, name this American philosopher who used the work of Charles Sanders Peirce ("purse") to develop the philosophy of pragmatism.

Soren Kierkegaard

In one of his works, this thinker argues that God is indistinguishable from man, his absolute paradox. He called money an abstraction in one of his early works, which was titled Two Ages. In one work, he contrasted the knight of infinite resignation with the knight of faith. That work sought to disprove Hegel's claim that Christianity can be explained by philosophy and discussed Abraham's sacrifice of Isaac. In another work he contrasted the aesthetic and ethical stages of life. For 10 points, name this Danish father of existentialism, the author of Fear and Trembling and Either/Or.

Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche

In one of his works, this thinker attributes his wisdom to his sensitivity to people's health. That work's last section bases its conclusion on the power of his ideas to overturn a sick morality. His first tract reinterpreted ancient Greek culture and was called The Birth of Tragedy. His autobiography was subtitled "How One Becomes What One Is" and included several chapters like "Why I Write Such Good Books", "Why I Am So Wise", and "Why I Am So Clever". Other chapters are named after this writer's other works, such as Thus Spoke Zarathustra and a book that included hundreds of aphorisms, Beyond Good and Evil. Name this philosopher whose The Gay Science stated that "God is dead", the German author of Ecce Homo.

David Hume

In one of this man's works, he argued that the design argument was flawed due to an incomplete analogy and lack of experience of multiple universes. In contrast to the rationalists who preceded him, he stated in one of his works that "Reason is, and ought only to be the slave of the passions." In that work, A Treatise of Human Nature, he also argued against causality, denying that one can ever perceive cause and effect. In another work, he discusses the idea that only through prior experience can causal relationships be found. For 10 points, name the author of An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding.

Immanuel Kant

In one of this thinker's works, he used the term sensus communis to define an ability all people use to reflect on actions. This man wrote an essay which included a provision for removing all standing armies and which influenced democratic peace theory. Lying would be considered immoral by this author of "Perpetual Peace" because, according to him, the morality of an action depends on whether or not it is a universal law. This thinker described synthetic knowledge that is a priori, and introduced the categorical imperative in Groundworks on the Metaphysics of Morals. For 10 points, name this German Enlightenment author of Critiques on Judgment and Pure Reason.

Summa Theologica

In one section of this work, the author argues that our life can only result in imperfect happiness, and that all our good actions are working toward the ultimate goal of perfect happiness in the afterlife. This work lists sovereign authority, right intention, and righteous cause as the three major components of a just war. In its most famous section, its author argued that it is impossible for everything to be contingent, therefore God must exist. Other arguments include one borrowed from Aristotle, the "Unmoved Mover," as well as the teleological argument. For 10 points, name this work, which lists the quinquae viae as proofs for God, the magnum opus of St. Thomas Aquinas.

water

In one thought experiment, this substance has a different chemical formula from, but the exact same empirical properties as, the substance XYZ; that is Hillary Putnam's Twin Earth argument. In Plato's Timaeus, Socrates equates particles of this substance with icoashedra, and it was proposed as the first principle by a pre-Socratic philosopher from Miletus named Thales. The phlegmatic humor is associated with this element. For 10 points, name this member of the four classical elements into which, according to Socrates, Atlantis sank.

John Locke

In one treatise, this thinker suggests that children be exposed to harsh elements, in order to inure them in the future and in another work, he explains that all ideas are derived from sensation and reflection, and proves the existence of an intelligent being. This thinker argued against atheism in A Letter [*] Concerning Toleration and he expanded on his idea that children's minds began without any preexisting ideas, or "tabula rasa", in his Some Thoughts Concerning Education. Advocating the right to "life, liberty, and property," for 10 points, name this philosopher who wrote Two Treatises of Government and An Essay Concerning Human Understanding.

Michel Foucault

In one work by this philosopher, the reforms of the Tuke brothers and Philippe Pinel are partially blamed for a new theory of the central concept based on opposing reason. In another work, Bentham's panopticon is used to interpret the modern prison system. That earlier work analyzes the modern psychiatrist as a method for secluding in silence people with the titular malady, and he wrote The Will to Knowledge as the first volume of his The History of Sexuality. For 10 points, name this French philosopher who wrote Discipline and Punish and Madness and Civilization.

Baron de Montesquieu

In one work by this philosopher, virtue, honor, and fear are identified as the guiding principles of republics, monarchies, and despotisms, respectively. In that work, he theorizes that Asia is naturally suited to large, despotic empires and that republics naturally control small territories while analyzing the influence of climate on form of government. Notably influencing America's Founding Fathers by advocating the separation of powers between executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government, for 10 points, name this French Enlightenment philosopher who wrote The Spirit of the Laws.

Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche

In one work's preface, this man wrote that the reader must have "Strength which prefers questions for which no one today is sufficiently daring". In another work, this man wrote about how the ressentiment ("ruh-SAHN-tee-mahn") of people causes the creation of a distinction between right and wrong. This author of The Antichrist and On the Genealogy of Morality wrote a work in which he described [*] eternal recurrence as horrifying and paralyzing in addition to saying "God is dead." Author of The Gay Science, for 10 points, name this philosopher who wrote about the Ubermensch in his Also Sprach Zarathustra.

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz

In one work, the alter ego of this man attacks the empiricist position of Philalethes, arguing in favor of innatism. That alterego, Theophilus, rejects the "tabula rasa" in a work meant to rebut Locke, New Essays on Human Understanding. He also proposed that there is no physical causation; rather God designed everything to occur the way it does and created "pre-established harmony." This author of Theodicy and Monadology also believed in "sufficient reason," a concept for which he was satirized in Candide as Dr. Pangloss, a character who maintains the faith that he lives in the best of all worlds. For 10 points, name this rationalist who invented calculus independently of Newton.

David Hume

In one work, this man argued through his Copy Principle that all simple ideas originate from simple impressions, only to provide a counter-example by describing a missing shade of blue. In that same work by this philosopher, the phrase "a violation of the laws of nature" is used to define a concept in the chapter "Of (*) Miracles." For 10 points, name this Scottish philosopher who supported the philosophy of empiricism in his works, which included A Treatise of Human Nature and An Enquiry concerning Human Understanding.

Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche

In one work, this man claimed that "There is no such thing as moral phenomena, but only a moral interpretation of phenomena." This man argued that the ruled create a morality to make their suffering bearable, and he included the chapter "Why I Am a Destiny" in Ecce Homo. He discussed the Apollonian and Dionysian views of art in The Birth of Tragedy, and he wrote about a Persian prophet who claims that humanity must embrace the indifferent universe and become the Ãœbermensch. For 10 points, name this German philosopher who claimed that "God is dead," the author of Thus Spoke Zarathustra.

Ludwig Wittgenstein

In one work, this man criticized G. E. Moore's assertion that "here is a hand." Another work spurns philosophers' "craving for generality." Along with On Certainty and The Blue and Brown Books, this man wrote about the "beetle in a box" to advance his private language argument in a work discussing "language games." Another work proposes that "The world is everything that is the case" and "What we cannot speak of we must pass over in silence." For 10 points, name this author of Philosophical Investigations and Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus.

Friedrich Nietzsche

In one work, this philosopher calls Judaism the "Tschandala religion" and uses the untouchable caste to demonstrate a "breeding" of morality. This philosopher, who referred to the driving force in humans as the "will to power", dichotomized morality based on whether it weighed good and bad consequences or intentions into (*) master and slave types. To avoid a descent into Platonic idealism, the title Persian prophet of another of this man's works urges humanity to become the Ubermensch. For 10 points, name this German philosopher of On the Genealogy of Morals who in proclaimed "God is dead" in The Gay Science.

Plato

In one work, this philosopher claims that poets must be divinely possessed, and compared reciters of poetry to metal rings at the end of a magnetic chain. He cited a woman's speech on ascending a metaphorical staircase to absolute Beauty, in a work that includes the story of then role-reversal when a young man in love began to chase an older man. That work by this philosopher presents the (*) myth that humans were once double-people who have been cut in half. He claimed that poets should be expelled from an ideal city ruled by philosopher-kings, in a dialogue that includes the "Allegory of the Cave." For 10 points, name this author of Symposium and Republic.

John Dewey

In one work, this philosopher emphasized the aesthetic value of man's passage from disturbance to harmony and the unification of action, feeling, and meaning, and another work by this philosopher refuted the critiques of Walter Lippmann. While discussing a system he associated with "social intelligence", he argued that freedom's importance lies in one's ability to be an individualized self, through which one can contribute to social consultations aimed at addressing public problems. For 10 points, name this pragmatist philosopher who wrote Freedom and Culture and Democracy and Education.

Soren Kierkegaard

In one work, this philosopher equated the Christian concept of sin with human despair, and in another, he introduced the "knight of infinite resignation" while elaborating variations on the story of Abraham's sacrifice of Isaac. In addition to The Sickness Unto Death and Fear and Trembling, he wrote a work including the diary of Johannes the Seducer compiled by Victor Eremita which contrasts the ethical and aesthetic ways of life. For 10 points, name this existentialist Danish philosopher who wrote Either/Or.

George Santayana

In one work, this philosopher identified matter, essence, spirit, and truth as the four characteristics of knowledge, and in another work, he argued that one title concept leads to the conclusion that a single instant of awareness is empty of concepts and that the other title concept is the irrational basis for knowledge claims. For 10 points, name this naturalist Spanish-American philosopher who wrote The Realms of Being and Skepticism and Animal Faith and is known for the saying "Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it."

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

In one work, this philosopher notes that people who fence off land are the founders of "civil society." Another of his works was censured for its inclusion of the "Profession of the Savoyard Priest" and for its mention of Sophie, the title character's bride-to-be. His best known work describes the relinquishing of sovereignty in the title (*) agreement and proclaims "Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains." For 10 points, identify this French philosopher who penned Discourse on Inequality, Emile, and The Social Contract.

Soren Aabye Kierkegaard

In one work, this philosopher tells a story about one man leaving his lover in order to preserve the idealized recollections of the past. In another work, this man argues that to become a true self, humans must be conscious of the self and also of the alignment with a higher power. This author of Repetition and [*] The Sickness Unto Death wrote a work in which he claimed the final level of individual existence was the "knight of faith." This writer of Fear and Trembling also wrote about the first two levels of existence using the pseudonyms of A and Judge Vilhelm. For 10 points, name this Danish philosopher who wrote Either/Or.

Francis Bacon

In one work, this philosopher theorized an early form of the modern research institute describing a utopia dedicated to scientific discovery called Solomon's House. In another work, he criticized the distinction between proof and invention in Aristotle's syllogistic logic and suggested observation or experience as the first step in an inductive method which laid the groundwork of the scientific method. For 10 points, name this English philosopher who wrote The Advancement of Learning, The New Atlantis, and Novum Organum.

Friedrich Nietzsche

In one work, this philosopher uses the analogy of lambs and eagles to compare blame exchanged between strong and weak humans and attributes ascetic ideals to the "slave" version of the titular concept. In another work, he equates life with the "will to power". In addition to On the Genealogy of Morals and Beyond Good and Evil, the concepts of "eternal recurrence" and the Ãœbermensch are presented by the titular Persian prophet in another work by this philosopher. For 10 points, name this German philosopher who declared "God is dead" and wrote Thus Spoke Zarathustra.

Walter Benjamin

In one work, this thinker analyzes the development of the Trauerspiel genre of drama. This author of The Origin of German Tragic Drama and Theses on the Philosophy of History spent years unsuccessfully trying to complete his analysis of certain structures in Paris that were key to the culture of the flaneur or "stroller." This author of The Arcades Project wrote an essay describing how mass culture shattered the "aura" ritualistically associated with unique pieces of art. For 10 points, name this French philosopher from the Frankfurt School, the author of The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction.

Karl Marx

In one work, this thinker divided the economic and cultural aspects of a society into the "base" and "superstructure." He described the inevitable alienation that occurs when people are separated from the products of their labor, and labeled the practice of adding superficial value to goods as "commodity fetishism." This German philosopher described the "history of all hitherto existing society" as "the history of (*) class struggles." For 10 points, name this collaborator with Fredreich Engels on Das Kapital and The Communist Manifesto.

Aristotle

In one work, this thinker uses Odysseus's "lament in Scylla" as an example of "character indecorous and inappropriate." In that work, this man wrote of the necessity of space-time unity and gave the term for a character's self-discovery, anagnorisis (an-uh-gnoh-REE-sis). He also defined peripeteia (pay-ree-puh-TAY-uh) as a turning point and hamartia (huh-MAR-tee-uh) as a character's flaw in ancient Greek tragedy, which he felt should produce a purging of emotion called catharsis. For 10 points, name this philosopher who wrote Poetics and Nichomachean Ethics, a student of Plato.

The Social Contract, Or Principles of Political Right

In response to Grotius, this work defines "alienate" as "to give or sell" and holds that "force does not create right." It posits that population growth is the "surest mark" of a good government, and that monarchies are best suited to hot climates. Claiming that laws not ratified by the people are null and void, this work states that the Sovereign cannot alienate the general will. It begins by asserting that "Man is born free, but everywhere he is in chains," and holds that the only legitimate source of political authority is the title concept. For 10 points, name this treatise by Jean-Jacques Rousseau.

Thomas Aquinas

In response to Siger of Brabant, this man penned "On the Unicity of Intellect," in which he criticized Averroës,whom he called "the Commentator" in another work. In a work written to Pope Urban IV, this man put himself inopposition to the Eastern Church in Contra Errores Graecorum. This scholar described his idea of the "beatificvision" in one work, in which he also divides the spirit into two parts: rational and irrational, in opposition to Plato.This author of Summa Contra Gentiles used the "argument of degree" and "argument of the first mover" in hisquinque viae to prove the existence of God. For 10 points, name this medieval Italian theologian, writer of SummaTheologica.

last wills

In terrorem clauses in these documents attempt to dissuade lawsuits about their validity. One process of resolving issues arising from these documents is referred to as ademption. A codicil is a document that amends small portions of these. Authors of these documents are called testators. For 10 points, name these documents that outline the distribution of one's property by an executor, which are often paired with testaments.

censorship

In the USSR this was done by Glavit and samizdat was one way to circumvent this occurrence. The word comes from the title of a Roman official whose duties included taking an accounting of the people and overseeing public views on morality. This is done on an internet-wide scale in the People's Republic of China. For 10 points, name this practice of regulating books and other forms of expression and communication to suppress ideas harmful to the public or government such as banning inappropriate words from television.

Leviathan the Matter, Form, and Power of a Commonwealth Ecclesiastic and Civil

In the third section of this work, the author divides the title concept into that of a redeemer, pastor, and prophet in "On the Office of our Blessed Saviour". That Third Book, "Of a Christian Commonwealth", discusses the "World to Come, and Redemption". It's not An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, but it contains a chapter entitled "On Miracles and their Use". Another section which restates the definition of inertia, "Of Man", declares a "war of all against all" which can only be averted by an absolute ruler. Famously stating that the life of a man is "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short", for 10 points, identify this work named after a Biblical monster by Thomas Hobbes.

Stoicism

In this school of thought, the universe is equivalent to nature which in turn is split into two classes: the active and the passive. In this school of thought, prohairesis is the only thing that people are fully able to control, and suicide is considered a rejection of one's social duty, only being permissible if a person is sick or in severe pain. Principles of this school are explained in the (*) Discourses of Epictetus. This school teaches that a sage is a person of "moral and intellectual perfection" who would not be subject to destructive emotions. For 10 points, name this school of philosophy founded by Zeno of Citium whose followers included Marcus Aurelius.

The Republic

In this work, one character considers the "business of fighting" as an art and profession, comparing it to the work of a cobbler. The act of returning weapons to a mad friend refutes Cephalus' definition of justice in this work, which also considers a man's unjust actions as a result of obtaining the ring of a Lydian king. This work argues that the "Form of the Good" is the source of being and knowledge, comparing it to the sun's illumination. This work that describes the Ring of Gyges presents a case in which prisoners look at moving shadows on a wall, known as the Allegory of the Cave. For 10 points, name this philosophical work written by Plato.

Ethics

In this work, reason is differentiated from random experience as a source of knowledge, and actions and passions, which are the two varieties of affects, are attributed to changes in one's striving for perseverance, or conatus. This work argues that the same nature can be analyzed physically or non-physically in terms of extension and thought, respectively. This work's concept of the Natura naturata is predicated by God, who is the one substance of the universe, a position later termed pantheism. For 10 points, name philosophical tract by Baruch Spinoza.

Baruch Spinoza

Louis Jacobs summarized this man's belief about gods as "God is not 'outside' or apart from Nature; He did not create nature but is nature." This writer stated that a mind could find joy by loving something eternal and infinite in his work On the Improvement of the Understanding. He also argued that religion could allow contrarian philosophizing without endangering the state in his Tractatus Theologico-Politicus, while his most famous book was called "a geometrical order". Excommunicated in 1656 by the Jewish community, name this Dutch philosopher who wrote Ethics.

utilitarianism

It was paired with institutions and justice in a work by James Wood Bailey, while the forms and limits of this concept were detailed by David Lyons. Advocated in The Methods of Ethics by Henry Sidgwick, it was given an evolutionary basis in The Expanding Circle: Ethics and Sociobiology by Peter Singer. A method for utilizing this idea was developed in its formulator's Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation based on factors like "duration" or "certainty" known as the felicific calculus. Founded by Jeremy Bentham, for 10 points, name this idea in which the greatest happiness for the greatest number is promoted, also the namesake of a famous J.S. Mill treatise.

social contract

It's not God, but Chapter 4 of John Stuart Mill's On Liberty claims that no benefit is derived from imagining this entity. Pierre-Joseph Proudhon believed that the idea of it only served a purpose between individuals. Another work said the presence of this entity ends "a war of all against all", so long as people acknowledge the commonwealth. In contrast to Thomas Hobbes's Leviathan, John Locke believed that it protects natural rights and allows the people to dissolve government if they disrespect it. The general will leaves man "forced to be free" in another interpretation. For 10 points, what is this concept that lays out the individual's relation to society, an invisible document that titles a work by Jean-Jacques Rousseau?

aesthetics (accept word forms; prompt on philosophy of art or beauty; accept sublime after "Kant" is read; prompt on literature, drama, theater, or any other reasonable synonyms after "Nietzsche" is read, but the exact term aesthetics must be given)

It's not ethics, but Kierkegaard used this word to describe Abraham's justification for sacrificing Isaac in Fear and Trembling. In a book on this subject, Kant describes a term as the feeling of seeing a violent storm, and a work in this subfield by Aristotle defines terms such as (*) mimesis and peripeteia. Nietzsche wrote a book in this subfield prefaced with the essay "An Attempt at Self-Criticism" and that work delineates the Apollonian and Dionysian aspects of Greek tragedy. The Critique of Judgement, Poetics, and The Birth of Tragedy are all works in this subfield. For 10 points, name this field of philosophy concerning the study of art.

the Republic

Its final book contains a description of the afterlife known as the myth of Er, while its second book introduces an invisibility-granting ring discovered by Gyges of Lydia. More philosophically significant are its division of human understanding into (*) eikasia, pistis, dianoia, and noesis in the Image of the Line and an allegory in which a group of men know nothing of outside reality apart from shadows on a cave wall. Advancing the philosopher-king as the greatest of rulers, for 10 points, name this Platonic dialogue about the ideal form of government.

serfdom

John Maurice Clark wrote about An Alternative to this status. Another work argues that this concept is accompanied by "The End of Truth" and uses as examples Nazi Germany and Soviet Russia. That work argues that this concept arises because coercion becomes necessary to implement central planning, claiming that this condition is the result of government control of the economy. For 10 points, name this concept that Friedrich Hayek wrote about The Road to, and which describes the state of peasants in feudalism.

justice

Kai Nielsen wrote a work entitled Globalization and this concept. In the Chapter 5 of Utilitarianism, John Stuart Mill discusses the relationship between utility and this concept. In Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle broke this concept into the categories rectificatory and distributive. Another thinker posited using a "veil of ignorance" to decide on principles of this concept. That concept included in a book by John (*) Rawls entitled "A Theory of" this concept. In Book IV of The Republic, Plato defined this concept as "the having and doing what is one's own" and this concept is often equated with fairness. For 10 points, name this philosophical concept sometimes defined as people getting what they deserve.

utilitarianism

Karl Popper advocated for the negative version of the philosophy. Derek Parfit theorized an ethical conundrum in this philosophy known as the "mere addition paradox." A two-level form of this school created by R. M Hare attempts to unify the rightness of an action through both results and conformity to rules. The founder of the school of philosophy developed a method to (*) quantize the value of pleasure known as felicific calculus. For ten points name this philosophy defined as doing the most good for the greatest number of people which was supported by John Stuart Mill and Jeremy Bentham.

justice

Lawrence Kohlberg claimed that people used this type of operation to reach his highest stage. David Hume wrote that public utility is the sole origin of this concept and imagined societies where this concept is not necessary. Howard Zehr and Gerry Johnstone write about the restorative type of this. The distributive type of this is the subject of a theory by John Rawls, who built his conception of this concept on liberty and equality, equating this concept with fairness. Name this concept closely tied to the judicial system, being the name used for Supreme Court judges and the department headed by the Attorney General.

self-defense

Many jurisdictions allow the admissibility of expert testimony on battered woman syndrome to support this defense. The "retreat rule" is an exception to when this defense may be used. The "castle" doctrine is a subset of this defense. It can arise out of protection of others or of property. For 10 points, name this justification or excuse to violent offenses, which allows one to protect one's own person.

Semitic languages

Many languages in this group use a tri-consonantal root, in which vowels around and between consonants change to mark word inflection, but consonants within the word remain the same. Languages in this subfamily include Ge'ez, Amharic, and other tongues spoken in Ethiopia, as well as an ancient language likely spoken by Jesus and his contemporaries, Aramaic. For 10 points, identify this group within the Afro-Asiatic family that also includes the contemporary Middle Eastern languages Arabic and Hebrew.

Socrates

Many of the early works featuring this character are notably described as "aporetic." In one book, this character claims to have met a seer named Diotima who determined love must be a son of "resource and poverty," and in another book, this figure demonstrates his theory of recollection by (*) teaching a slave to double the area of a square. Within books written by this man's pupil, he delivers the Allegory of the Cave and defends himself against charges of corrupting the youth of Athens. For 10 points, name this figure prominently featured in Meno, The Symposium, and The Apology as the teacher of Plato.

"God is dead"

Martin Heidegger claimed that it referred to philosophy itself in an essay published in Holzwege. The "madman" gleefully suggests that the subject of this phrase "took an ocean voyage" or "lost his way like a little child" in the work it appears in, which later states of it that "there has never been a greater deed." The speaker of another work says of it that "this old saint in the forest has not yet heard anything of this." Originating in The Gay Science, for 10 points, name this phrase used by Friedrich Nietzsche to suggest that a certain deity is no longer useful as a moral source.

critiques

Marx wrote an 1859 book subtitled as a type of this work "for Political Economy," which sought to debunk the theories of Adam Smith and other prominent economists. A 1790 work of this type applies this technique to aesthetics and to teleological judgment. That work is often called the author's (*) third in this genre. That writer wrote a 1781 work of this in which the analytic-synthetic distinction to explain a priori and a posteriori knowledge first appears. Immanuel Kant famously wrote works of this type about judgment and pure reason. For 10 points, identify this method of discourse in which an author seeks to evaluate an idea, work, or person, often negatively.

machines

NOTE TO MODERATOR: read over the acceptable answer lines carefully. In adjective form, this term describes a process that accelerates the destruction of the "aura" of works of art according to Walter Benjamin [BEN-yah-meen]. The proposal of "animal spirits" which can stimulate the pineal gland allows for the analogy of the human body to one of these things, as was criticized in The Concept of Mind. They were analogized to a man in a closed room who uses a dictionary to create (*) translations in an argument by John Searle [SURL]. Gilbert Ryle parodied Cartesian dualism with the phrase "ghost in [this thing]." Descartes dismissed the idea that animals have souls, instead proposing that animals are basically these things. For 10 points, name these things which could possibly display artificial intelligence.

democracy

Nazi philosopher Carl Schmitt discussed the "Crisis" of this phenomenon, claiming that liberalism was incompatible with its "parliamentary" type. Another thinker claimed one example of it was full of culturally dull men with no appreciation for art, and advocated tempering its instincts with religion. Aristotle considered it a perversion of "polity," and it is third in a classical trio with oligarchy and monarchy. Written about with Education by Dewey, for 10 points, name this type of governance observed by an author who feared "tyranny of the majority", Alexis de Tocqueville, in America.

Occam's Razor

Nicole D'Oresime used this idea to spurn Aristotelian cognitive species, and along with Dourand de Sainte-Pourcain, applied this law to defend hypotheses of the heavens, a stance Galileo borrowed. This statement is also called the principle of parsimony, and it was first stated as "Entia non sunt multiplicanda praeter necessitatem" or "Plurality should not be posited without necessity." For 10 points, name this idea of a Franciscan philosopher, who argued that, all else being equal, the simplest solution should be considered the truest.

Existentialism

Nikolai Berdyaev and Paul Tillich were Christian thinkers from this school of thought. The author of A Happy Death denied belonging to this philosophical school, but is still associated with it. One person associated with an early form of this movement used pseudonyms such as Judge(*) William, and described the dizziness of freedom in The Concept of Anxiety. The ideas of authenticity and existence preceding essence are important to this philosophical system. For 10 points, name this movement Jean-Paul Sartre ["SART"] described as "a humanism" in his Being and Nothingness.

Thomas Aquinas (prompt on Doctor Universalis)

Nineteenth century followers of this thinker included Gaetano Sanseverino and Giovanni Maria Cornoldi. The Papal Encyclical "Aeterni Patris" praised his philosophy, but his theories of active and passive intellect angered William of Ockham. This author of On the Principles of Nature also wrote "against the Averroists" in There Being Only One Intellect, but is more famous for writing "I answer that" after each question he posed. FTP, name this Dominican who proposed five arguments for the existence of God in Summa Theologica.

Baruch Spinoza

Note to moderator: emphasize "PERSON" in the first line of this question to avoid a potential confusion. This philosopher stated that a PERSON is always "prey to his passions" to the point that he is like a slave to them in Part IV of his most famous work. By viewing everything sub specie aeternitatis, or "from an eternal perspective," this thinker sought precision akin to that of Euclid's Elements. Contra Descartes' dualism, he was the first neutral monist of note. Wittgenstein used (*) "Tractatus" for a title to mirror this thinker's Tractatus Theologico-Politicus, and a later work by this man inspired Wittgenstein's use of numbered propositions with its layout "in geometrical order." For 10 points, name this thinker who equated God with Nature in his Ethics, a Jewish pantheist.

Imaginary

Objects with this quality, which also must have being, make up the population of Meinong's Jungle. Alexius Meinong also created an ontology in which beings with this quality are included in the least restrictive subset called absistence. In one of Bertrand Russell's paradoxes, this quality is attributed to the "present king of France," (*) since France is presently a republic. Objects with this quality exist in separate "universes of discourse" and do not have physical referents. For 10 points, identify this quality of all things that exist only in one's imagination.

The Prince

Occidental College professor Roger Boesche claimed this work was moderate compared to the Artha-shastra, a text from faraway India. It discusses three kinds of intellegence, including an understanding of what others can understand. This work also warns against flatterers, saying that all [*] advisers ought to speak truly. In its seventeenth chapter, this work holds that, if a ruler must pick only one, it is better to be feared than loved. Inspired by Cesare Borgia, for 10 points, name this political treatise, written for Lorenzo di Medici by Niccolo Machiavelli.

Freidrich Nietzsche

Often translated by Walter Kauffman, this man acknowledged his debt to Schopenhauer by including the essay "Schopenhauer as Educator" in his Untimely Meditations. In one work that begins "Suppose Truth is a woman, what then?" he criticizes anti-semitic interpretations of his work, before turning to religion, anticipating his later concept of master-slave morality. In another work, he claimed that man was only a bridge to the "Ubermensch." For 10 points, name this German philosopher, who famously stated "God is Dead" and wrote Beyond Good and Evil.

Stoicism

One adherent to this philosophy used the word "prohairesis" to describe the ability of a person to give or withhold assent to their impressions. "Prohairesis" was a key point in Enchiridion and Discourses, two works written by Epitectus, a proponent of this school of thought. The Late Era of this philosophy included Cleomedes and Seneca the Younger. One work of this philosophical school advises against self-indulgence. Zeno of Citium was the founder of, for 10 points, what movement whose philosophy was described by Marcus Aurelius in his Meditations and which encourages emotional restraint?

David Hume

One argument put forward by this man considers a man looking at every possible shade of a certain color and seeing a blank at one point. That idea of the "missing shade of blue" can be found in this man's "Of the Origins of Ideas." Another work by this man features Demea, Philo, and Cleanthes debating the existence of God. Immanuel (*) Kant credited this author of Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion for awakening him from a "dogmatic slumber."For 10 points name this Scottish philosopher and writer of An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding.

Karl Marx

One book by this philosopher begins with extensive comparisons of how a coat and 10 yards of linen are used and valued. This philosopher discussed the estrangement of people from objects they make, the act of making, from other people, and from their own "species-being" in his Paris Manuscripts. This philosopher "stood (*) Hegel on his head" by claiming that economic relations form a "base" and culture, politics, and society a "superstructure." This philosopher wrote about alienation, historical materialism, and the exploitation of the worker with Friedrich Engels. For 10 points, name this author of Das Kapital and the Communist Manifesto.

Michel Foucault

One book by this thinker contains a chapter on "The Perverse Implantation" that appears in a larger section rejecting the "repressive hypothesis." This thinker argued that epistemes are the foundation of epistemology in his The Archaeology of Knowledge. In one book, this thinker analyzed the gradual (*) ostracism of undesirables as a "Great Confinement," while in another book he examined the torture of Robert-François Damiens and the "unequal gaze" of Jeremy Bentham's Panopticon as part of the evolution of the prison system. For 10 points, name this 20th century French thinker who wrote Madness and Civilization as well as Discipline and Punish.

Friedrich (Wilhelm) Nietzsche

One book by this thinker discusses the Wisdom of Silenus, signaling this man's influence by Schopenhauer. Later editions of that book by this thinker contained the essay "An Attempt at Self-Criticism," and he vilified Euripides for diminishing the influence of the chorus. This man praised (*) Richard Wagner and contrasted the order and reason of one god with the chaotic artistry of another god in The Birth of Tragedy. This philosopher described a "will to power" in Beyond Good and Evil. For 10 points, name this German philosopher who proclaimed "God is dead" and created the concept of the Ubermensch.

Thus Spoke Zarathustra

One chapter in this work suggests that there is mastery to dying at the right time. Another chapter accuses priests of seeing life as a torment, and therefore wanting to make others suffer as well. Advocates of democracy are depicted as tarantulas who seek revenge on those unequal to them. A tightrope walker falls to the ground in one scene in this work, and he is told that there is no devil or hell. The camel, the lion, and the child are the three steps to becoming the Overman, or Ubermensch, according to this work. For 10 points, name this work about the founder of Zoroastrianism written by Friedrich Nietzsche.

The Republic

One character in this work claims that poets, like painters, are imitators who produce imitations without knowledge of the truth. A divided line in this book is used to describe the differences between the visible and the intelligible realms, within which the (*) Form of the Good exists. In another analogy in this work, men in chains facing a wall perceive flickering shadows to be the entirety of their reality. The Allegory of the Cave is discussed in, for 10 points, what Platonic dialogue in which Socrates and others discuss justice, the theory of forms, and the ideal state?

the Symposium

One character in this work speaks in place of another due to the latter's slow recovery from a spell of hiccups. Eryximachus claims that the central concept of this work governs gymnastics and astronomy, and another character in this work discusses how Zeus (*) chopped people in half then stitched up skin. In addition to featuring Aristophanes and the traitor Alcibiades, the question "is love somebody or nobody" is posed by Socrates. For 10 points, name this Platonic dialogue about love, titled after Agathon's drinking party.

No Exit

One character in this work used to work in a "black hole" of a newspaper office filled with men in shirt-sleeves, a state detested by another character who has a vision of Peter dancing with her sister Olga. In this work, a call-bell is broken, but a door opens when asked to, even though a man refuses to walk through it to prove he is not a coward. In this play, a woman who drowned her baby and another who was a [*] lesbian postal clerk are brought by a never-blinking valet to a hotel room with Second Empire furniture. Ending with Estelle stabbing Inez after Garcin proclaims, "hell is other people," for 10 points, name this existential play by Jean-Paul Sartre.

essay (prompt on "paper")

One collection of works of this type includes "Helen's Exile" and "Summer in Algiers." Albert Camus also wrote "The Myth of Sisyphus" in this format, which is also used in Baldassare Castiglione's Book of the Courtier. Another work in this form distinguishes primary and secondary qualities in order to argue that the mind begins as a (*) tabula rasa. The name of this format was coined from the French word "to try" by Michel de Montaigne. For 10 points, name this argumentative form of philosophical writing used by John Locke in his one "Concerning Human Understanding."

Paris

One document named for this city concluded the Albigensian Crusade. Another signed thirty years later relinquished Henry III's claim to Normandy and Anjou. One treaty named after this city ended the Crimean War. Under the conditions of another treaty with this name, Spain ceded Guam to the United States. A treaty with this name acknowledged the independence of the Thirteen Colonies. For 10 points, name this city that gave its name to treaties that ended both the Spanish-American and the Revolutionary Wars.

Immanuel Kant

One essay by this philosopher defines the title concept as "man's emergence from his self-imposed immaturity", and he advocated the dismantling of standing armies in an early formulation of democratic peace theory in another work. In addition to Perpetual Peace and What Is Enlightenment?, he theorized a priori truths as part of his "Transcendental Doctrine of Elements" and advised one to act on a maxim only if one could wish it to be a universal law, a concept known as the categorical imperative. For 10 points, name this German philosopher who wrote Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals and Critique of Pure Reason.

Confucianism

One follower of this school of thought argued that education and societal ritual were needed to create human goodness. This view caused a rift between that scholar, Xunzi, and another of this philosophy's disciples, Mencius. Followers of this school of thought aim to become "gentlemen," or junzi, and its founder laid out the five basic relationships. Other core concepts of this belief system include ren and filial piety, and prominent texts in this philosophy include the Analects. For 10 points, name this philosophy often combined with Buddhism, historically practiced in China.

Aristotle

One idea proposed by this theorist is the spectacle, or opsis. He also discussed the idea of simulated representation, which he referred to by a term later used to title a book by Erich Auerbach, mimesis (mim-EE-sis). He also identified the anagnorisis (aa-nag-nor-EE-sis), or moment of recognition, and the peripeteia (per-uh-pit-EY-uh), or reversal of circumstances, as elements of drama. Other elements include hamartia (hah-MARSH-uh), a character's tragic flaw, and catharsis. For 10 points, name this ancient Greek philosopher who analyzed drama in his Poetics.

Pragmatism

One member of this movement classified Wittgenstein and Heidegger as "abnormal" after defining normal discourse in Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature. Another member of this philosophy advocated for by Richard Rorty utilized the analogy of a man chasing a squirrel around a tree. Three universal categories are described by its founder in the essay "How to Make Our Ideas Clear," and another proponent of this philosophy founded by C. S. Peirce wrote Democracy and Education. For 10 points, name this school of thought that advocated practicality, whose members included John Dewey and William James.

Stoicism

One member of this school of philosophy named desire, action, and assent in his outline of the "three topics" one must study. That man, who studied under Musonius Rufus, wrote two books compiled by Flavius Arrian, The Discourses and The Handbook. Its key concept was pneuma, the breath of life that gives structure to life, and its minor adherents include Panaetius and Posidonius. The pupil of Cleanthes, Chyrsippus of Soli, is said to be the second founder of this school, named for the painted porch that its teachers taught from. For 10 points, Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius practiced what system of philosophy founded by Zeno of Citium?

fractals

One method of developing a landscape named for these objects is to employ the random midpoint displacement algorithm. One of their original developers applied them to modeling the coastline of Britain. They are characterized by having a topological dimension less than their Hausdorff dimension, and some of them are named for Moore, Julia, and Koch. They exhibit some form of self-similarity. One of the most famous examples of these involves removing the central equilateral triangle from each equilateral triangle in a figure repeatedly, named the Serpinski triangle. For 10 points, name these repeating geometric figures developed by Benoit Mandelbrot.

paradoxes (prompt on contradictions)

One of these things was described by Gustav Hempel and led to a critique by Rudolf Carnap using his theory of inductive probability. Lewis Carroll analyzed one of them to demonstrate a need for axioms that avoid infinite regress, and one of them involves observing black ravens. Banach and Tarski described one of them involving the (*) volume of a sphere, and a contradiction in Cantor's set theory results from one of these statements proposed by Bertrand Russell. One of these statements describes a race between Achilles and a tortoise and was formulated by Zeno of Elea. For 10 points, give these logical statements that are at first glance impossible to resolve.

John Locke

One of this author's works contains a chapter entitled "Of Slavery," which may be a justification for his involvement in writing the pro-slavery Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina. This writer equated subordination to "but the state of war continued" and examined the history of the world since the Bible to find no "heir of Adam," attacking Robert Filmer's Patriarcha. His An Essay Concerning Human Understanding describes the empiricist belief in the "tabula rasa," and his major political work disputes Thomas Hobbes. For 10 points, name this author of Two Treatises on Government.

Jean Jacques Rousseau

One of this man's books states that is better for children to be "unaware of divinity than to offend it." That book contains "The Profession of a Savoyard Priest," and was written by this author of Discourse on the Origin of Inequality. This fan of the "noble savage" wrote a didactic novel about an experimental method of education, (*) Emile, and emulated St. Augustine by titling his autobiography Confessions.For 10 points, name this philosopher who explained the concept of the "general will" and opined "Man is born free but everywhere he is in chains" in his major political work. The Social Contract .

Adam Smith

One of this man's discusses his psychological theories that individuals act to win the approval of the "impartial spectator," and included sections entitled "On the Propriety of Action" and "Of Sympathy". That work would act as a philosophical foundation to his other works, including A Treatise on Public Opulence and his Lectures on Jurisprudence. In addition to his Theory of Moral Sentiments, his best known work opens with an analysis of a pin factory to demonstrate the advantages of division of labor. For 10 points, name this Scottish economist who postulated the invisible hand, best known for his The Wealth of Nations.

Plato

One of this man's last works was a discourse between the title character and Protarchus, who contrasted the title character's ideas about hedonism with Sophist argumentation; that work was Philebus. This man is credited with being the first to write that knowledge is justified true belief in his Theaetetus. One of this philosopher's theories asserts that abstract idea, and not the materialistic world, is the most fundamental type of reality. This theory is called the Theory of Forms. For 10 points, name this student of Socrates who presented The Allegory of the Cave in his work The Republic.

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel

One of this man's works is divided into sections concerning being, essence, and concept; that work makes use of logical triads. He examined the title concept in the spheres of abstract right, morality, and ethical life in his Elements of the Philosophy of Right. He also outlined the objective and subjective forms of the title approach in his Science of Logic, and theorized the interaction of a thesis and an antithesis to produce a synthesis. For 10 points, name this German philosopher who developed a namesake dialectic and wrote The Phenomenology of Spirit.

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel

One of this philosopher's works contains books on the doctrines of being, essence, and notion. He claimed that the purpose of art was to make good ideas stick and wrote that "art is the sensuous presentation of ideas." A main idea of his work is that every era has wisdom to be gained from studying it and that parts of ourselves can be found in the past. His theory that progress requires (*) three stages is known as his "dialectic," which he introduced in the same work as his theory on the "struggle to the death" of the master-slave dialectic. For 10 points, name this German philosopher who wrote The Phenomenology of Spirit.

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel

One of this philosopher's works supposedly contains the origin of a namesake logical method, which he called "speculative triads." This thinker contrasted sublated qualities with an object's determinate being in his Science of Logic. This philosopher wrote a work, featuring the master-slave consciousness, about the attainment of "Absolute Knowledge." This author of The Philosophy of Right is best known for creating a concept that describes how thesis and antithesis clash to form a synthesis. For 10 points, name this German philosopher who wrote The Phenomenology of Spirit and pioneered the concept of dialectics.

John Locke

One of this thinker's books criticizes people for making up new words in the section "Abuse of Words." This thinker argued for a psychological account of personal identity that inspired the insanity defence, and he argued using the example of a pineapple that ideas must come solely from (*) experience. This philosopher espoused the empiricist principle of tabula rasa, and the Declaration of Independence borrowed from a work in which he argued people are endowed with natural rights including "life, liberty, and property." For 10 points, name this British philosopher who wrote An Essay Concerning Human Understanding and Two Treatises on Government.

Ludwig Josef Johann Wittgenstein

One of this thinker's works argues that a private language is not possible using a thought experiment about a beetle in a box. That work by this philosopher asserts that both games and languages have a family resemblance. Besides writing Philosophical (*) Investigations, he inspired the Vienna Circle with a short work of highly subdivided propositions numbered one to seven, concluding that "whereof one cannot speak, one must pass over in silence." For 10 points, name this German philosopher of Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus.

pragmatism

One philosopher in this school coined the term "soft determinism" in "The Dilemma of Determinism." That same man sought to "make the truth more supple" through the application of radical empiricism. In one book expanding on the ideas of Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Plato, one philosopher of this school espoused (*) "learning by doing". "Obscure conceptions" were discouraged in "How To Make Our Ideas Clear", authored by its founder, Charles Sanders Peirce. For 10 points, name this philosophical school that included philosophers such as John Dewey and William James.

pragmatism

One proponent of this philosophical tradition wrote that truth only expresses endorsement of beliefs. Inquiry is theprocess of changing an indeterminate situation into a determinate one according to another proponent of thisphilosophy, who also wrote that experience is shaped by habits of expectation. This philosophy's namesake maximholds that our conception of something is solely made of its practical effects. Another writer associated with thisphilosophy argued that it does not make a practical difference whether a man is actually going around a squirrelwhen chasing it around a tree. For 10 points, name this philosophy of John Dewey, Charles Sanders Peirce andWilliam James.

pragmatism

One proponent of this philosophy argued that other philosophies failed due to projecting the results of abstractions onto reality. A belief that truth is only a tag that people bestow upon claims in order to present their views was written by Richard Rorty, while another advocate of this philosophy discussed semiosis, or sign action, and the three basic elements that make up objects and their meanings in his work How to Make Our Ideas Clear. That man, [*] C. S. Peirce, founded this philosophy which was later expounded upon by John Dewey. For 10 points, name this philosophy that believes that thoughts are only true if they are practical, popularized by William James.

Leviathan or The Matter, Forme and Power of a Common Wealth Ecclesiasticall and Civil

One section in this work states that human action is based on the "passions," while another divides justice into "commutative" and "distributive" types. This work asserts that imagination is "nothing but decaying sense" and posits that a strong central government is needed to prevent disorder, which the author defined with the motto bellum omnium contra omnes. Containing sections titled "Of Man" and "Of Commonwealth," it states that life is "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short." For 10 points, name this work that favors an absolute monarchy, a work by Thomas Hobbes.

Das Kapital

One section of this text studies the transformation problem, the problem of the relationship between value and market prices. Another section of this text introduces the idea of "commodity fetishism." This work argues that people experience alienation when they do not own the product of their work. This text argues that industry creates (*) profit by forcing workers to perform surplus labor, a theory called the "labor theory of value." For 10 points, name this economic text in three volumes, written by Friedrich Engels and Karl Marx.

The Republic

One section of this work describes a shepherd named Gyges who commits unethical acts after he discovers a ring that grants him invisibility. This work describes the Sun as being the child of the Form of the Good in detailing an ideal society ruled by philosopher kings. One part of this work describes a group of men who watch the shadows a fire casts on a wall and mistakes them for reality. That section is known as the Allegory of the Cave. For 10 points, name this philosophical by Plato that describes the city state.

A Book for All and None

One section of this work features a murderer haunted by his crime, the pale criminal. The central character repeats the refrain "remain true to the earth" and describes a "dancer" before he witnesses a tightrope walker plummet to his death. This work describes a metamorphosis of the spirit, which becomes a camel, a lion, and, finally, a child. At its conclusion, a character holds a feast and embraces eternal recurrence. The title character, a herald of lightning and the Ubermensch, destroys himself by descending from the mountain to bring gifts to mankind. For 10 points, name this work featuring the title prophet, written by Friedrich Nietzsche.

Thus Spoke Zarathustra

One section of this work states that preachers of death wear yellow or black and eagerly wait for "little accidents that bring death." That section, "On the Preachers of Death," directly follows another section called "The Motley Cow." When a venomous snake bites the title figure of this work, the title figure responds, "When did a dragon ever die from a snake's poison?" (*) He also consoles a dying tightrope walker who had fallen as a result of a jester's sabotage. For 10 points, the title prophet periodically returns to solitude in the mountains in which work by Friedrich Nietzsche concerning the founder of Zoroastrianism?

Stoicism

One text from this school compares ideal behavior at a banquet to good behavior in life, and starts by distinguishing things inside and outside our control; that text of this school is the Handbook, or Enchiridion. Another author of this school thanked his grandfather Verus among many others who raised him to start off twelve books of Meditations. This school believed that virtue was the only good, and was adopted by emperor Marcus Aurelius centuries after its founding by Zeno of Citium on an Athenian porch. For 10 points, name this school of thought whose followers detached emotionally from the external world.

existentialism

One thinker associated with this concept wrote about the "seven modes of the encompassing," and another wrote about I-it and I-thou relationships. Associated with Karl Jaspers and Martin Buber, this school of philosophy has a "feminist" type espoused by the author of The Second Sex, Simone de Beauvoir. One thinker wrote about its concept of "bad faith" in Being and Nothingness. Its concept of Dasein was introduced in Being and Time, by Martin Heidegger. For 10 points, name this school of philosophy espoused by Jean-Paul Sartre, primarily concerned with the individual person's existence.

Existentialism

One thinker associated with this school of thought wrote the book The Phenomenology of Perception, and was named Maurice Merleau-Ponty. The author of Ideal and Difference and Being and Time, Martin Heidegger, was associated with this school of thought. The "Other" and the "Look" are two concepts associated with this school of thought, which is also associated with the author of The Rebel and The Myth of Sisyphus as well as the author of Being and Nothingness. For ten points, identify this school of thought that included Sartre and Camus, which claims that philosophical thought should focus on the realities of human existence.

Scotland

One thinker from this country wrote that the "sense of propriety" contains our "fellow-feeling" for other people's pain, which ought to conform to that of an "impartial spectator". Another thinker from here classified virtue and vice as "impressions" rather than "ideas," and gave a negative resolution to the "is-ought problem." That man from this country wrote that there is no rational basis for induction except in the case of a color gradient with a missing shade of blue. For 10 points, name this country where A Theory of Moral Sentiments and An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding were written by Adam Smith and David Hume.

Existentialism

One thinker of this philosophical tradition analyzed the "practico-inert", which limits human activity or "praxis", in his Critique of Dialectical Reason. Those two concepts can be identified with the "for-itself" and "in-itself" from an essay which introduced self-deception as "bad faith". Another thinker of this tradition defined suicide as an attempt to escape the absurdity of being, which he compared to eternally pushing a boulder up a hill. For 10 points, name this philosophy advocated by the authors of Being and Nothingness and The Myth of Sisyphus, Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert Camus.

pragmatism

One thinker of this school viewed philosophy as a clash between the tough-minded and the tender-minded and sought to answer "The Present Dilemma in Philosophy." Another founder described the method of tenacity, the method of authority, and the a-priori method to reduce the irritation of doubt in his essay "The [*] Fixation of Belief." An American who applied this philosophy to education was John Dewey, this school included C. S. Peirce [PURSE]. For 10 points, "A New Name for Some Old Ways of Thinking" is the name William James gave to what philosophy, which evaluates ideas based on their practical consequences?

prisons

One work about these institutions are characterized by an "unequal gaze" between two groups within them; that work also claims that they "cannot fail to produce delinquents," and that they create "disciplinary careers." A circular one in which observers can watch any of the inhabitants at any time without the inhabitants' knowledge was devised by Jeremy Bentham and dubbed the Panopticon. For 10 points, name these institutions whose "Birth" is chronicled in Michel Foucault's Discipline and Punish.

Ludwig Wittgenstein

One work about this thinker discusses his "skeptical solution" to the rule-following paradox and was written by Saul Kripke. This man once asked Karl Popper to state an example of a "moral law," to which Popper replied, "Not to threaten visiting lecturers with pokers." This thinker introduced the "beetle in a box" experiment and introduced a language with words like "pillar" and "slab." He put forth the "picture theory of language," and wrote about the private language argument and the language-game in his Philosophical Investigations. For 10 points, name this author of Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus.

Karl Heinrich Marx VII

One work by this author posits that history repeats itself "first as tragedy, then as farce," in The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Napoleon. This thinker distinguished humanity from animals through their ability to produce their own subsistence in one work. In another, this philosopher explained how the C-M-C pathway had been replaced with the M-C-M pathway. In addition to writing The German Ideology and [*] Das Kapital, he also wrote a work in which he gives ten short term demands to solve the class system. For 10 points, name this German philosopher who, with Engels, wrote The Communist Manifesto.

John Locke

One work by this philosopher argues that slavery is in reality a state of conflict between a conqueror with absolute power and the conquered. In a namesake proviso, this man argued that one gained rights over an object from putting labor into it, a precursor to the homestead principle. He proposed that we are born without innate ideas, since our minds are tabula rasa. This empiricist wrote An Essay Concerning Human Understanding and Two Treatises of Government. For 10 points, name this British philosopher who argued for the natural rights to life, liberty, and property.

William James

One work by this philosopher presents the metaphysical idea of "pure experience" making up both mind and matter. This author of Essays in Radical Empiricism also examined Walt Whitman as an individual with a soul of "sky-blue tint" and knowledge of "the goodness of life" in his work The Varieties of Religious Experience. This philosopher included the chapters "The Stream of Thought" and "The Consciousness of Self" in the textbook Principles of Psychology, and in another work, he discussed a man chasing a squirrel around a tree while advocating for the title school of thought. For 10 points, name this American philosopher who wrote Pragmatism.

Blaise Pascal

One work by this philosopher says that "All our reasoning reduces itself to yielding to feeling" and urges the reader to find truth through heart and feeling. That work, titled Pensées, which translates to "Thoughts," contains this philosopher's most significant argument, establishing a dichotomy between the infinite gain of eternity in heaven (*) and the finite loss of some luxuries. That argument was meant to explain why humans should believe in God, and it is called this philosopher's "wager." For 10 points, identify this French philosopher, who is also famous for his mathematically significant "triangle."

Michel Foucault

One work by this philosopher uses the example of a group of lepers and the image of the Ship of Fools to contrast the difference between old and new treatments of people with illnesses. This philosopher also describes how modern doctors dehumanize their patients with the "medical gaze" in his work The Birth of the Clinic. (*) This philosopher's The Order of Things opens with an analysis of the painting Las Meninas, and he describes an empathetic disconnect because of the decrease of public executions in his work Discipline and Punish. For 10 points, name this French philosopher who wrote The History of Sexuality and Madness and Civilization.

William James

One work by this philosopher was entitled "Remarks on Spencer's Definition of Mind as Correspondence." This philosopher stated, "Human beings, by changing their minds, can change the outer aspects of their lives," in "Great Men and Their Environment." This philosopher wrote Human Immortality and argued for a multi-verse in A Pluralistic Universe. This philosopher wrote The Meaning of Truth and argued for self-fulfilling prophecies in The Will to Believe. He also wrote Varieties of Religious Experiences. For 10 points, name this Harvard philosopher who wrote Principles of Psychology in addition to a work entitled Pragmatism.

John Stuart Mill

One work by this thinker argues for a system of "perfect equality" and posits that freedom good for men is also good for women. This man asserted that the individual is sovereign and insists that governments follow the "harm principle" in another work. This author of The (*) Subjection of Women argued that all ethical principles must stem from the "greatest happiness" principle. For 10 points, name this English philosopher who wrote On Liberty and Utilitarianism.

Friedrich (Wilhelm) Nietzsche

One work by this thinker originally contained a parody of Christ's speech to the thief on the cross, but that passage was censored. The titular character of one work by this man sees the ugliest man in the world after being warned of the sin of pity and delivers the parable of the tight-rope walker. This writer identifies Socrates and Euripides with two Greek gods in his analysis of drama, which differentiates between the Apollonian and Dionysian. That work is The Birth of Tragedy. In another work, this philosopher argued that man was just a transitional phase between ape and ubermensch. For 10 points, name this philosopher who declared that "God is dead" and wrote Thus Spake Zarathustra.

Plato(n)

One work written by this person includes a description of a chariot pulled by two horses, one that is noble and one that is not. Another work written by this person claims that people with true knowledge are treated as useless stargazers. This person wrote about a dinner party at which each person gives a speech about the nature of love, including a speech encouraging the guests to be lovers of wisdom. This author of Phaedrus also wrote Symposium and The Republic. Name this ancient Greek philosopher who taught Aristotle and whose dialogues often included his teacher, Socrates.

scholasticism

One writer associated with this intellectual movement was denounced to the Pope by Bernard of Clairvaux and described his forced castration in letters to his former wife Heloise. The law of parsimony was developed by one figure in this movement, and is better known as Ockham's Razor. The argument from prime motion is one of the (*) five proofs of God's existence in a work by one member of this theological movement; that work is Summa Theologica. Dialectical reasoning was emphasized in, for 10 points, what medieval theological movement which took its name from the schools where it was practiced?

paradoxes

Quine distinguished three types of them, including veridical and falsidical. Bell's theorem was a response to one of these named for Einstein, Podolsky and Rosen. The one named for Gibbs deals with an apparent violation of the second law of thermodynamics. One of these is concerned with a hotel with infinitely many rooms, and the one named for Russell is about the set of all sets that do not contain themselves. For 10 points, name these apparently contradictory statements.

conservatism

Roger Scruton wrote a 2014 book about how to be an adherent of this philosophical approach, arguing that one must reject materialism. The modern founder of this intellectual school mocked the deism of Lord Bolingbroke in a piece that satirically extended criticism of religion to other institutions. That work in this doctrine was the 1756 essay A Vindication of Natural Society. Another work in this tradition by the same author, (*) Reflections on the Revolution in France, argues that radical attempts at change ignore human nature. Edmund Burke is often considered the intellectual founder of the modern form of this philosophy. For 10 points, name this social and political ideology that is often contrasted with liberalism.

beauty

Roger Scruton wrote a documentary for the BBC titled Why [This Concept] Matters. An "iron maiden" created by this concept harms those who seek to embody it according to a book by Naomi Wolf on a "myth" surrounding it. Platonists up through the medieval era equated it with "the good." This concept is the alphabetically prior of the two "subjective universals" which are part of the four "reflective judgments" proposed in the (*) Critique of Judgment. Matthew Arnold called those who foremost despise this thing "philistines." Pythagoreans defined it in terms of perfect proportion. Edmund Burke contrasted this concept with the sublime. For 10 points, name this subject of aesthetics.

social contract

Ronald Dworkin argued that this concept's reliance on double hypothetical agreements does not accurately represent reality. The veil of ignorance is a component of the original position, a thought experiment on this concept in A Theory of Justice by John Rawls. It is invoked after leaving a state of nature, and David Hume argued that most governments did not follow this model in the essay "Of Civil Liberty." Discussed in Second Treatise on Government, this concept is the subject of a work that begins "man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains", written by Rousseau. For 10 points, name this political model in which individuals consent to surrender certain freedoms to their sovereigns.

Martin Heidegger

Some of this thinker's lesser known works include "What Are Poets For?" and "The Origin of the Work of Art." He succeeded Edmund Husserl as the chair of philosophy at Freiburg University, where he delivered the speech "What is Metaphysics?" His key idea consists of a person's existentiality, fallenness and thrownness, and is called (*) dasein. For 10 points, name this Nazi-sympathizing German philosopher who never finished his magnum opus Being and Time.

time

The "tensed" and "tenseless" A and B theories of this concept were posited in a paper on the "Unreality" of this concept by J.M.E. MacTaggart, and Albert Einstein and Henri Bergson engaged in a number of debates on it. It is the second concept in the title of a work that describes how a carpenter can lose recognition of hammering and discusses the idea of (*) Dasein. Martin Heidegger's most famous work is titled for Being and [this concept]. An open question analyzes the "arrow" of this concept, and moving unnaturally through it could set up the grandfather paradox. For 10 points, name this concept usually paired with space.

Summa Theologica

The 90th question in this work asks "What is the essence of law?" and is the first of its section Treatise on Law. One part of this text claims that "authority of the sovereign" and "the advancement of good, or the avoidance of evil" are necessary for adherence to jus ad bellum. This work, which simply refers to (*) Aristotle as "The Philosopher", omitted an ontological argument by Saint Anselm and instead included the Argument from Contingency and one of the Unmoved Mover in five arguments to prove God's existence. For 10 points, name this most important Scholastic treatise by St. Thomas Aquinas.

Intelligence Quotient

The increase in this attribute over time is known as the Flynn Effect. Hernstein and Murray argued that those with a high value of this attribute were forming an elite in The Bell Curve. Originally proposed by William Stern, it is measured by the Stanford-Binet test. Those in the ninety-eighth percentile for this quantity can join Mensa, while those with a value below seventy for this attribute are considered mentally retarded. For 10 points, name this quantity, which measures mental acumen.

Pragmatism

The last section of this work talks about the monistic and pluralistic ways of reading Whitman's poem To You, and earlier its author asserts that there are two types of people: tender-minded and tough-minded. The second section of this work discusses a man chasing a squirrel around a tree and posits the question Does the Man go round the squirrel or not Subtitled A New Name for Some Old Ways of Thinking this work was published after its author's previous works (*) Varieties of Religious Experience and Principles of Psychology. FTP, identify this work, which names the philosophical movement led by C. S. Peirce and John Dewey, written by William James.

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel

The lectures of Alexandre Kojeve revitalized this philosopher in Paris. The title concept of his most famous work, often compared to a bildungsroman, ultimately culminates in the "Absolute Knowledge"; it also describes a death struggle of consciousness, which then becomes master and slave. This author of Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences and The Science of Logic famously used history as an example of the thesis-antithesis-synthesis process, his namesake dialectic. For 10 points, name this author of The Phenomenology of Spirit.

Stoicism

The members of this philosophical tradition divided it into the branches of logic, physics, and ethics. The physics of this school built on Heraclitus by asserting that God, and therefore the entire world, was composed of a primordial fire. Chrysippus, a philosopher of this school of thought, held that wisdom could only be derived through (*) natural laws. A major book in this school was written during a military campaign and was titled Meditations. Believing that apathea, or "peace of mind" was a path to happiness, for 10 points name this school of thoughtthat includes such illustrious men as Zeno of Citium and Marcus Aurelius.

Confucianism

The modern "Boston" variety of this philosophy is promoted by Robert Neville, and this school encourages the education and spread of the "arts of peace." One work in this philosophy describes how "illustrious virtue" begins with the "investigation of things;" that work, Great Learning, is included the "Four Books" of this philosophy. Virtues of this philosophy are included in the Book of Rites, which describes the ideas of social etiquette and compassion, li and ren. Members of this school of thought include Mencius and Zhu Xi. For 10 points, name this Chinese school of thought whose founder's sayings make up the Analects.

crime

The theory that this phenomenon is a function of social structures is known as strain theory. James Q. Wilson and George Kelling theorized that it can be prevented by decreasing urban disorder, the so-called "broken windows" theory. Cesare Beccaria (say-ZAR-ay beck-CAR-ee-ah) and Jeremy Bentham advocated (*) punishment as a deterrent for it, but discouraged the death penalty. For 10 points, name this phenomenon in which laws are broken.

Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche

This author criticized how the Bible is taught in his early work Daybreak, and tackled veracity in On Truth and Lies in a Nonmoral Sense. He appended an "Attempt at Self-Criticism" to his first work, which divided the title concept into Apollonian and Dionysian aspects. This author of the The Birth of Tragedy claimed that "God is dead" in The Gay Science. For 10 points, name this German philosopher of Thus Spake Zarathustra and Beyond Good and Evil.

Amartya Sen

This author determined that the concept of rights ought to be replaced with a concept of capabilities in his essay "Equality of What," outlining some of his work with Martha Nussbaum. That approach also features prominently in his Inequality Reexamined. This author's liberal paradox suggested that requiring Pareto efficiency of voting schemes was irrational, and he offered relaxing transitivity to suggest voting systems almost good enough for Arrow's impossibility theorem. His best known work illustrates that food distribution mechanisms were often larger factors than food quantity in causing starvation. For 10 points, name this author of Poverty and Famines and Collective Choice and Social Welfare.

Bertrand Arthur William Russell

This author of "On Denoting" described the reasoning behind his atheism in the lecture "Why I Am Not a Christian." That a set containing all sets not members of themselves cannot be a member of itself is known as this man's paradox. For 10 points, name this English philosopher who collaborated with Alfred North Whitehead on the three volume Principia Mathematica.

Arthur Schopenhauer

This author of On the Freedom of the Will called the ontological argument a "charming joke." One of his works refutes the Kantian belief that noumena are independent of human awareness. He stated that all truths have an underlying reason in On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason. In one work he describes aesthetics as a short-lived escape from willing and argues that the human body is the representation of the two title concepts, which are respectively its internal and external aspects. For 10 points, name this German philosopher who authored The World as Will and Representation.

Michel Foucault

This author of The Archaeology of Knowledge turned to art criticism by describing "Las Meninas" in his The Order of Things and by writing about Magritte in This is not a Pipe. His multiple-volume History of Sexuality described the concept of "bio [*] power"; he also described doctors using the "clinical gaze". Another work of his described the Great Confinement while criticizing insanity, while he famously used the image of Jeremy Bentham's Panopticon to describe society as a prison. For 10 points, name this author of Madness and Civilization, The Birth of the Clinic, and Discipline and Punish, a French postmodernist philosopher.

Jacques

This author of an essay on J. L. Austin entitled "Signature Event Context" also engaged with Heidegger in his essay "The Ends of Man." This author's essay "Cogito and the History of Madness" was collected in a book that also includes a lecture he delivered about "Structure, Sign, and Play." His best known work introduces the "hinge," the result that there can be no full speech. The former book is Writing and Difference, and the latter sparked a new school of literary theory. For 10 points, name this French-Algerian philosopher who wrote Of Grammatology and founded deconstructionism.

Umberto Eco

This author wrote his PhD dissertation on The Aesthetics of Thomas Aquinas. Before he dies in a novel by this author, Malachi guards the Aedificium, a rare books library. Mentored by William of Ockham at Oxford, a character created by this author catches a man who believes that "laughter is the worst heresy;" that man poisons the pages of (*) Aristotle's treatise on comedy and is named Jorge of Burgos. In a novel by this author, Adso of Melk accompanies William of Baskerville as the latter investigates monastery murders. For 10 points, identify this semiotician who penned The Name of the Rose.

Rene Descartes

This believer in a human faculty called the "natural light" made an error of reasoning in accepting what he called "clear and distinct" truths; that error is his namesake "circle." He wrote in letters to Princess Elizabeth of Bohemia that the "seat of the soul" might be the pineal gland. This tutor to Princess Christina of Sweden proposed that a malicious demon might be altering all his sensory input, and argued that the mind interacts non-materially with the body, starting off his namesake "dualism." For 10 points, name this author of Discourse on Method, a Frenchman who invented a coordinate graphing system and said "I think, therefore I am."

Leviathan, or the Matter, Forme, and Power of a Common-Wealth Ecclesiastical and Civil

This book argues that because all men must sleep, the weak can frequently defeat the strong by catching them at vulnerable moments. It also argues that because miracles have ceased to occur, only the Bible can be trusted. Its sections on religion include the chapter "On the Kingdom of Darkness." This book's title figure is depicted as being composed of every resident of the Commonwealth. It describes a "war of all against all" that makes life "nasty, brutish, and short." For 10 points, name this book favoring absolute monarchy, a work of Thomas Hobbes.

Leviathan

This book criticized the term "incorporeal substance" as being a contradiction upon itself. It claimed that summum bonum, or the greatest good, is non-existent, since differences in defininf the "greatest good" results in civil war. Instead, the greatest evil, fear of (*) violent death, is the concept around which a political community should orient. This fear manifests itself in this book's description of the state of nature as "war of all against all" in which life is "nasty, brutish and short." For 10 points, name this book by Thomas Hobbes which is named after a biblical monster.

Or, the Matter, Forme, and Power of a Commonwealth Ecclesiastical and Civill

This book describes reason as addition and subtraction of thoughts, and defines two forms of endeavor called appetite and aversion, within its first twelve chapters. Its third part argues that scriptural interpretation is key in a Christian commonwealth. This work originated the "body politic" metaphor, and its title figure emerges when the people "authorize" a figure to be the "author" of all their actions by covenant. This book argues that the "right of nature," by which anyone can do anything, causes a "war of all against all" in which life is "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short." For 10 points, name this work arguing for an absolute sovereign, by Thomas Hobbes.

Summa Theologica

This book states that power is twofold, passive and active, in response to a question asking whether there is power in God. That statement follows four objections to the question, the first of which is that God is the first agent, and the statement is followed by replies to each objection. That is one of hundreds of questions in this work, which was written to educate Christian theology students. This work makes several references to the works of Peter Lombard, who lived about a century before it was written, and to Aristotle. Name this work central to scholasticism written in the 13th century by Saint Thomas Aquinas.

language

This concept partially titles an A.J. Ayer work that sought to eliminate metaphysics and proposed its verification principle. In the study of this concept, Saul Kripke proposed rigid designators, which designate the same thing in all possible worlds. A Bertrand Russell essay in the study of this concept argues that all names are definite descriptors. The beetle-in-a-box argument addresses its private type, which Ludwig Wittgenstein argued cannot exist. Persistent questions in the study of this concept include how it denotes meaning, and to what extent it is acquired or innate. For 10 points, name this structured form of spoken, written, or signed communication.

libertarianism

This concept was defended in Robert Nozick's Anarchy, State, and Utopia, which also propounds an entitlement theory influenced by a man who was a student of Ludwig von Mises, Friedrich Hayek. The school of economics that propounds this concept is opposed to Keynesianism, and is called the Austrian School. For 10 points, name this concept from political philosophy that emphasizes individual freedoms and is supported by politicians like Ron Paul.

France

This country twice banned the publication of a work that cross-referenced "the Eucharist" with "cannibalism". A thinker from this country wrote that people who put up fences are the founders of "civil society," and argued that children can only understand emotions like sympathy when they grow into adolescence. Salons hosted philosophical discourse in this country, which produced a work that describes people all forfeiting the same amount of individual rights to set up a political community. That work is the Social Contract. For 10 points, name this country, home to philosophes like Denis Diderot, Baron de Montesquieu, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau.

Utilitarianism

This doctrine was deemed compatible with intuitionism yet irreconcilable with egoism as a form of "universal hedonism" in The Methods of Ethics, by Henry Sidgwick. Another of this school's adherents was William Paley, while its founder sought to apply it to a universal code of law in works such as Introduction to the (*) Principles of Morals and Legislation. In addition to Jeremy Bentham, it was advocated by the man who wrote On Liberty, John Stuart Mill. For 10 points, name this school of ethics that seeks to achieve "the greatest good for the greatest number."

logic (prompt on "philosophy"; prompt on "mathematics" or "algebra"; accept specific types such as modal logic as long as they mention "logic")

This field of philosophy was worked on by Arthur Prior, who created its temporal branch. A paradox involving a sea battle was proposed by Aristotle in his Organaon, which consisted of six works in this field. Saul Kripke worked on the (*) modal branch of this field, while its simplest forms are its first-order and propositional branches. De Morgan's Laws are statements in this field, and George Boole studied a branch of this field in which operands are combined with "AND" or "OR" and can be only true or false. For 10 points, name this branch of philosophy focused on reasoning, such as in statements like "if p then q."

Blaise Pascal

This figure argued that finite man is the "very center-point" between nothingness and infinity. He ended one note with verse 16 of Psalm 119 and kept it sewn into his coat for life after seeing fire in a mystical experience. In eighteen anonymous documents, he defended Antoine Arnauld and argued against casuistry. This author wrote the anti-Jesuit Provinicial Letters after siding with Jansenism. This man's Pensées argued that the possibility of eternal hell makes it more reasonable to live as though there's a God via his namesake "wager". For 10 points, name this Frenchman who also experimented with fluid pressure.

Simone (Lucie Ernestine Marie Bertrand) de Beauvoir ("bo-VWAR")

This figure's novels included She Came to Stay and The Mandarins, but this author is better known for works of philosophy like The Ethics of Ambiguity. She discussed the importance of freedom from reproductive slavery in a volume of one work called "Facts and Myths," and in that same work she adapted Hegel's (*) Master-Slave dialectic into that of the Subject and the Other, the latter of which defines one half of all humanity. The sentence "One is not born, but rather, becomes, a woman" appears in, for 10 points, what French author and philosopher's treatise The Second Sex?

Utopia

This is the last word of the title of a work which claims that a minimal state is the best way to ensure the rights of the people, and was written as a critique of Rawls's Theory of Justice. This word was also used to describe socialists such as Charles Fourier who tried to establish Phalansteres, and was contrasted with "scientific socialism". For 10 points, identify this concept which also forms the title of a work wherein Peter Giles and the author discuss the society of the titular crescent shaped island as described by Thomas More.

Hebrew

This language's alphabet contains five letters that must appear in "sofit" form when they are at the end of a sentence. This language uses a series of diacritical marks that render as dots called niqqud. A writer given the title "book seller" was the first to use this language to describe everyday events in literature. The revival of this language coincides with the Second Aliyah, and it replaced languages like Ladino, Bukhori, and Yiddish. For 10 points, name this modern language revived by Eliezer Ben-Yehuda, spoken in Israel.

Martin Heidegger

This man argued that creation was a special type of participating in society in "On the Origins of the Work of Art," found in Poetry, Language, and Thought. Like Max Weber, he gave a noted address at Freiburg, though his was called "What is Metaphysics?" The most famous work of this teacher of Hannah Arendt argued that the three fundamental human features are factuality, existentiality, and fallenness. The author who articulated his idea of sein and dasein, for 10 points, name this Nazi- sympathizing philosopher who wrote Being and Time.

Immanuel Kant

This man argued that governments can be classified by "form of sovereignty" and "form of government" in his essay "Perpetual Peace." He answered the title question with mankind's emergence from self-imposed immaturity in "What is [*] Enlightenment?" This man outlined his aesthetic theory in Critique of Judgment. Also known for distinguishing between analytic and synthetic truths, one theory by this philosopher asserts that immoral acts are inherently irrational, as outlined in his Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals. For 10 points, name this creator of the categorical imperative, the German author of Critique of Pure Reason.

David Hume

This man argued that hope and fear result from the possibility of "any good or evil" in A Dissertation on the Passions. In another work, this man argued that the possibility of error in demonstrative reasoning leads to the degeneration of knowledge into probability. This man wrote that "it would be no crimeÂ...to divert the Nile" in "Of Suicide," pondered the missing shade of blue, and divided "matters of fact" from "relations of ideas" in a work with sections like "Of the Origin of Ideas" and "Of Miracles." For 10 points, name this Scottish philosopher who wrote A Treatise on Human Nature and An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding.

Baron de Montesquieu

This man argued that liberty was "tranquility of mind" caused by a feeling of safety, and he believed that females could be heads of state, but not the head of a family. He argued that republics rely on virtue to function while monarchies rely on honor, and also asserted that climate affects the nature of people and society. This thinker stated that two types of government exist: the sovereign and the administrative. In one work, he argued that government should be separated into legislative, executive, and judicial branches. For 10 points, name this French philosopher who advocated separation of powers, the author of The Spirit of the Laws.

Paul-Michel Foucault

This man argued that medical treatment of the insane is only an attempt to repress challenges against conventional morality. This author of The History of Madness described the use of the "medical gaze" by doctors to subtract patients' humanities from their bodies. In another work, this author of The Birth of the Clinic analyzed the transition from torture to the use of institutions idealized by Jeremy Bentham's panopticon to contain criminals. For 10 points, name this twentieth-century French thinker who wrote Discipline and Punish.

Confucius

This man argued that virtue is a better guide than punishment because those who avoid punishment have no sense of shame. One of this man's followers argued ethical intuitions come from the innate goodness of human beings; that man was Mencius ("MEN-shee-uss"). This man formulated the (*) Silver Rule, which says, do not do unto others which you would not wish done to yourself; it is the inverse of this man's Golden Rule. Ren, the good feeling that comes with being altruistic was described by, for 10 points, what ancient Chinese author of the Analects?

Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche

This man asked the sexist philosophers of his time "Supposing Truth is a woman—what then?" This thinker claimed that the shadow of God was impossible to overcome, which he analogized to the Buddha's shadow remaining on cave walls after the sage's death. In one work, this philosopher criticized Socrates for limiting the (*) Dionysian element, ultimately destroying Athenian drama. This man determined that the "will to power" drove all humans to action. His concept of "eternal recurrence" was first posited in his work Thus Spake Zarathustra. For 10 points, name this German philosopher, famous for his assertion that "God is dead."

Confucius

This man believed that naming and defining relationships must precede social order in a doctrine known as the "Rectification of Names." This man argued that Ruler to Subject, Father to Son, and Husband to Wife were among the five relationships subject to filial piety. This man's views were adapted by Mo and Mencius. This man is traditionally credited with authorship of The Spring and Autumn Annals, and his sayings are collected in his Analects. For 10 points each, name this fifth century BCE Chinese philosopher.

Immanuel Kant

This man cites overhanging cliffs and thunder clouds as examples of how nature is "dynamically sublime," arguing that "organized beings" are "natural ends" in one work. In addition to "On the Use of Teleological Principles in Philosophy", he introduced the notion of a maxim to supplement his idea of a priori basis for morality in Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals. This man also discussed the agreeable and the beautiful in The Critique of Judgment. For 10 points, name this philosopher who introduced the "categorical imperative" and authored The Critique of Pure Reason.

Søren Aabye Kierkegaard

This man claimed "subjectivity is truth, and truth subjectivity" in his Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments, and another work prescribies "reconciling the finite with the infinite." to resolve three types of despair; that book, written under the pseudonym Anti-Climacus, is The Sickness Unto Death.. He contrasted the knights of infinite resignation and of faith in a work analyzing Abraham's sacrifice of Isaac. For 10 points, name this early existentialist, a philosopher and author of Fear and Trembling and Either-Or who hailed from Denmark.

Soren Aabye Kierkegaard

This man claimed that "subjectivity is truth" in his attack on Hegelianism, the Concluding Unscientific Postscript, and equated despair with original sin. One of his works includes the section "Diary of a Seducer." This author of The Sickness Unto Death contrasted the "Knight of (*) Faith" and the "Knight of Infinite Resignation" in his discussion of Abraham's willingness to sacrifice Isaac. He also contrasted the aesthetic and ethical stages of life. For 10 points, name this existentialist who wrote Fear and Trembling and Either/Or.

Immanuel Kant

This man claimed that acting morally and acting logically are equivalent with the assertion "ought implies can." This man argued that public use of reasoning ought not be entirely free in a work that describes the title concept as "man's emergence from his self-incurred immaturity." In addition to the essay What is (*) Enlightenment?, this man wrote that he awoke from his "dogmatic slumber" after reading David Hume. This thinker formulated the idea of a universal moral law in his categorical imperative. For 10 points, name this German philosopher who discussed a priori truths in his book Critique of Pure Reason.

Rene Descartes

This man claimed that the cause of something must contain as much reality as the subject itself, which is the causal adequacy principle. He used an example of the changes in burning wax to describe how perception cannot accurately describe objects and theorized that all of perceived reality could just be a dream. He suggested that the pineal gland was the connection between the [*] body and the soul and the ability of both to affect each other was part of this man's namesake dualism. He created the trademark argument for the existence of God in his Meditations on First Philosophy. For 10 points, name this philosopher who wrote "cogito ergo sum" in his Discourse on Method.

Immanuel Kant

This man commented on Emmanuel Swedenborg in Dreams of a Spirit Seer and discussed ratiocination in The False Subtlety of the Four Syllogistic Figures. He proposed that the maxim Sapere aude is the answer to the title question, "What is Enlightenment?" Moreover, he asserted that humans should be treated as an end rather than a means to an end and that all people should act as universal legislators in Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals. He famously distinguished between synthetic-analytic and a priori-a posteriori and introduced the categorical imperative. For 10 points, name this German writer of The Critique of Pure Reason.

Friedrich Nietzsche

This man compares justified modes of living to "new suns" in a work whose preface describes his "convalescence;" that work by this man proposes a demon who tells people they must live their lives over and over, which he termed "eternal recurrence." He described how meekness became a virtue among Christians in The Genealogy of Morals, which discussed the "slave morality." One of his title characters comes down from a mountain to hail the rising of the übermensch. For 10 points, name this German philosopher who authored The Gay Science and Thus Spake Zarathustra, which both claimed "God is dead," before he went mad.

Ludwig Wittgenstein

This man consigned metaphysics to the realm of unsinnig, or propositions that don't picture anything and have no Fregean sense. This man, who used the term "family resemblances" to describe overlapping word meanings, was a hero to the Vienna Circle. He feuded with G.E. Moore and argued for the impossibility of private languages in Philosophical Investigations. This thinker bookended one treatise with claims that "the world is everything that is the case" and "What we cannot speak about, we must pass over in silence." For 10 points, identify this 20th century Austrian philosopher of language who wrote Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus.

Saint Augustine of Hippo

This man debates the student Evodius in his dialogue On Free Choice of the Will, and refuted Pelagius by asking that monk to behold human genitals. He claimed that Lucretia's suicide was not justified since the mental virtue of chastity is untouched by rape and retold an interchange between Alexander the Great and a pirate in one work; in another, he is told "Take it and read" years after going on a mystic experience with his mom Monica, stealing pears from a garden, and witnessing sinful orgies in Carthage. That work retells his rejection of Neoplatonism and Manichaeism. For 10 points, name this author of City of God and Confessions, a 5th-century Catholic theologian from Hippo.

Paul-Michel Foucault

This man defined parrhesia in his lecture series Discourse and Truth, which was "an attempt to consider truth-telling as a specific activity." He began a book subtitled "An Archaeology of the Human Sciences" with a discussion of Las Meninas, then proceeded to outline his concept of the "episteme." This author of The History of Sexuality theorized the dehumanizing "medical gaze" in his The Birth of the Clinic, and he described the "unequal gaze" afforded by Jeremy Bentham's Panopticon. For 10 points, name this French philosopher who analyzed the prison system in Discipline and Punish.

René Descartes

This man described a tree of philosophy with metaphysics as the roots, physics as the trunk and other sciences asthe branches. He believed that the essence of mind is thought, while the essence of the body is extension. This manargued that sensations are involuntary to the mind and therefore must have an external source, and a world externalto the mind must exist. Since everything taken to be true is given by the senses, this philosopher began one work byrejecting everything in order to find true knowledge. For 10 points, name this author of Discourse on the Methodand Meditations on First Philosophy, a French philosopher who asserted, "I think, therefore I am."

Rene Descartes

This man discovered a method of determining the maximum number of positive and negative roots a polynomial can have, which is known as his namesake rule of signs. He is considered to have founded analytic geometry by publishing his La Geometrie, and created the x, y, z axis notation on the standard rectangular coordinate system, which is also sometimes named for him. For 10 points, name this French mathematician and philosopher who may be better known for the statement "I think, therefore I am."

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

This man discussed the "perfectibility" of man for a Dijon Academy essay contest, in which he claimed that the founder of civil society was the first man to say "this is mine" upon enclosing a plot of land. In one work he devised a girl named "Sophie," the title character's eventual wife, to make sexist arguments for raising women only to please men. This author of Discourse on Inequality argued that a people must legislate the "general will" to make society legitimate, and said "Man is born free, yet everywhere he is in chains." For 10 points, name this author of Emile: or On Education, a Swiss-born French Enlightenment philosophe who wrote The Social Contract.

Michel Foucault

This man discusses the "analytic of finitude" in a work which begins with a discussion of Las Meninas. In another work, he discusses the concept of episteme. In addition to The Order of Things and The Archeology of Knowledge, this philosopher wrote of the hypocrisy of modern psychiatry. He wrote about the "medical gaze" in Birth of the Clinic. This author of Madness and Civilization advocated the "unequal gaze" afforded by Bentham's Panopticon prison. For 10 points, name this French author of Discipline and Punish, who has a namesake pendulum.

Bertrand Arthur William Russell, 3rd Earl Russell

This man discusses the violation of the law of the excluded middle in the theories of Meinong and Frege in his "On Denoting." He recanted his earlier belief that one can arrive at a single elementary fact, a belief he explicated in "The Philosophy of Logical Atomism." In one essay, he answers the title religious inquiry by stating that it "has been and still is the principal enemy of moral progress in the world." Author of A History of Western Philosophy and "Why I Am Not a Christian," for 10 points, name this co-author of Principia Mathematica with Alfred Whitehead.

Rene Descartes

This man downplayed differences between Protestant and Catholic concepts of God in his Letter to Voetius. The four rules he used in all of his investigative work included dividing problems into simple parts and accepting only the self-evident as true; he codified his approach in Rules for the Direction of the Mind and Discourse on Method. He used that approach to write a religious text, the Meditations on First Philosophy. For 10 points, name this skeptical philosopher who started his investigations by declaring "Je pense, donc je suis" or "I think, therefore I am."

St. Thomas Aquinas

This man equated matter with potency and distinguished between essential and accidental existence in "On the Principles of Nature." In response to Siger of Brabant's support of Averroes, he also wrote "On There Being Only One Intellect." His best known work was completed by Reginald of Piperno, because he had died on his way to the Second Council of Lyons. That work, which referred to Peter Lombard as the Master, consists of a series objections followed by refutations beginning "I answer that." For 10 points, Summa contra Gentiles was the work of what scholastic student of Albertus Magnus, best known for Summa Theologica?

Jean-Paul Marat

This man gained renown for treatises on gonorrhea and eye disease, for which he was appointed court doctor. Some thought him responsible for the September Massacres, leading to his downfall. He began his rise to power in the 10th of August Revolt, though he was subsequently tried on Girondist orders. This voice behind the Patriotic Watch newspaper also wrote for L'ami du peuple and believed that Louis XVI should only be tried on crimes committed following his acceptance of the constitution. For 10 points, name this radical Jacobin who was assassinated by Charlotte Corday and died in a bathtub.

Rene Descartes

This man offered a proof for God in the third volume of a work which also suggests the existence of Innate, Fictitious, and Adventitious ideas. He demonstrated the fallibility of the senses with a melting piece of wax, known as his Wax Argument, and this man's final work was on emotions as the movement of spirits, which was titled "Passions of the Soul." This philosopher believed that the "seat of the soul" was in the pineal gland and is famous for his theory of mind-body dualism. For 10 points, name this French philosopher, the author of Discourse on Method, who famously stated that "I think, therefore I am."

George Berkeley

This man opposed the adoption of the sumptuary laws, and stated that spatial depth is by itself invisible in one essay. He countered Shaftesbury and other philosophers in the Alciphron, criticized Newton's philosophy in The Analyst, and put forth his theories of motion in De Motu. This man wrote the aforementioned Essay Towards a New Theory of Vision, and also coined the phrase "Esse et percipi," or "to be is to be perceived." For 10 points, name this Irish philosopher of Three Dialogues Between Hylas and Philonous.

Rene Descartes

This man posited that a person cannot fully trust his sense of determining reality with his "dream argument." He formulated an early version of the "brain in a vat" thought experiment with his conception of the "evil demon," and he argued against empiricism using the example of a melting piece of wax. He posited that the pineal gland was the intermediary between the mind and the body, and his treatises include Discourse on Method and Meditations on First Philosophy. For 10 points, name this French philosopher who famously stated, "Cogito, ergo sum," or, "I think, therefore I am."

Confucius

This man praises some ministers for remaining virtuous "when the state lacked the Way" in one text by this thinker who claimed he was a "a transmitter and not a maker". This man exclaimed, "Heaven has bereft me!" when his disciple Yan Hui died. This man stated that the "gentleman is not a vessel" and that goodness is rooted in(*) filial piety. This man formulated the Silver Rule and included ruler-to-subject relationships in his Five Relationships. For 10 points, name this Chinese philosopher whose thoughts were recorded in the Analects.

Georg Friedrich Wilhelm Hegel

This man proclaimed the end of art in his Lectures on Aesthetics. The "young" followers of this man applied his philosophy to criticize religious institutions. This man wrote that history proceeds through sublation to become rational unity. This man argued that history continuously proceeds toward increasing freedom in his (*) Elements of the Philosophy of Right. This man described a synthesis between a thesis and an antithesis and demonstrated the lack of full self-consciousness in the master-slave relationship with his namesake dialectic. For 10 points, name this German philosopher who wrote The Phenomenology of Spirit.

Thomas Hobbes

This man published a 1629 translation of Thucydides' History of the Peloponnesian War into English. This man's works De Corpore, De Homine, and De Cive were to be part of this man's Elements of Philosophy. He described the causes of civil war in his book Behemoth; or, The Long Parliament. In another of his works, he described fear of violence as the reason for creating a state and described the natural state of men's lives as (*) "nasty, brutish, and short." For 10 points, name this British philosopher who wrote Leviathan.

John Locke

This philosopher argued that people gain property rights over an object by mixing their labor with it. His major work coined the phrase "association of ideas" and distinguished between an object's primary qualities, which are independent of perception, and its secondary qualities, such as color, which are caused by perception. In that work, this author argued against innate ideas, holding that the mind is a (*) "tabula rasa," or blank slate. For 10 points, name this British empiricist who wrote Two Treatises on Government and An Essay Concerning Human Understanding.

John Stuart Mill

This man rejected Kant's "intuitionism" in favor of empirical observation in one work. He noted that it was "better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied" in arguing for the superiority of intellectual pleasures, like reading Wordsworth, over physical pleasures. This author of A System of Logic argued that the government should only take away a man's rights in order to prevent harm to another person in his On Liberty. He was influenced by the earlier work of Jeremy Bentham in formulating the "greatest-happiness principle." For 10 points, name this British Utilitarian philosopher.

Baruch Spinoza

This man rejected sensual pleasure, by which "the mind is enthralled to the extent of quiescence," when debating whether to change "the conduct and usual plan of [his] life" in order to write a work in which he defined the grades of knowledge; namely, opinion, reason, and intuition. This philosopher asserted that miracles come from ignorance and that Ezra wrote most of the New Testament, and defended biblical criticism in his Tractatus Theologico-Politicus. This man's "panentheism" was defined by the first section of a work whose fourth chapter is entitled "Of Human Bondage." For 10 points, name this rationalist author of Ethics, a Dutch Jew.

Martin Heidegger

This man rejected the scholastic interpretation of Aristotle's categories of subjects. He wrote about John Duns Scotus in his doctoral thesis, and later wrote an essay titled The Question of Technology. This philosopher believed that Western philosophy should be subject to "Destruktion," influencing Derrida's deconstructionism. This man rejected his influence on existentialism, and worked under Edmund Husserl at the University of Freiburg. In his most famous work, he used the term "Dasein" to posit his "question of being." For 10 points, name this German author of Being and Time, a fervent Nazi supporter.

Rene Descartes

This man served as an instructor to Queen Christina of Sweden and drew a wrote a code of regulations for the Swedish Academy of Sciences. This man also wrote a work that attempted to describe harmony in mathematical terms, his Compendium Musicae. The possibility that he was being constantly deceived by an evil genius is considered in this man's Meditations on First Philosophy. For 10 points, name this French philosopher who wrote Discourse on Method and posited, "I think, therefore I am."

John Locke

This man stated in one work that God exists with the second highest degree of certainty. After this man was appointed Censor of Moral Philosophy at Christ Church, he drafted a series of lectures known as Essays on the Laws of Nature. This man argued against atheism but believed in the separation of church and state, and he also drafted the Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina. This author of A Letter Concerning Toleration described the mind at birth as a blank slate, or "tabula rasa," in his Essay Concerning Human Understanding. For 10 points, name this English philosopher who claimed that men have the right to "life, liberty, and property."

David Hume

This man stated that Good is pleasure and Evil is pain in his essay Of the Passions. According to this philosopher, virtues are mental qualities agreeable to the self or others, and therefore celibacy and fasting are useless. This philosopher believed that many writers make claims about what should be based on evidence of what is, leading to the "is-ought" problem, which he attempted to explain with his namesake "fork." He argued that humans can generate ideas without being exposed to the necessary sensory experiences by describing a "Missing Shade of Blue." For 10 points, name this author of An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, a Scottish empiricist.

Arthur Schopenhauer

This man stated that egoism, malice, and compassion are the three fundamental incentives of human action. He claimed that compassion for animals is directly associated with the goodness of a person, and in one essay, claimed that women are stupid and dishonest. This man rejected the notion of free will, and stated that humans are motivated by their own will to live. This author of On the Fourfold Root of Sufficient Reason defined asceticism as the rejection of ideas. For 10 points, name this pessimistic German philosopher who wrote The World as Will and Representation.

Baruch Spinoza

This man stated that the essence of thought cannot be made clear by false or fictitious ideas in On the Improvement of the Understanding. In one work, he claimed that, as a political constitution of Israel, the Torah was no longer valid, and that Ezra wrote the Torah. That work, which argued for secular government, was Tractatus Theologico-Politicus. A critic of Descartes' mind-body dualism, he wrote about "God or nature" in a work presented in "geometric order," which reflects his pantheism. For 10 points, name this Dutch philosopher who wrote Ethics.

John Dewey

This man stated that the value of freedom was the presence of the "power to be an individualized self" in The Public and Its Problems. This man was cited as the last worthwhile American philosopher by Richard Rorty, largely due to the social commitment that this man demonstrated in a work that defines the goal of (*) schooling as socialization. For 10 points, name this philosopher who exerted enormous influence on contemporary theories of education by writing the book Democracy and Education.

Søren Aabye Kierkegaard

This man stated, "Doubt is conquered by faith, just as it is faith which brought doubt into the world." This man claims "subjectivity is truth" and its converse in Philosophical Fragments. He compared a biblical figure to Agamemnon, describing the difference in the way they feel about the sacrifice of loved ones. That figure, (*) Abraham, was unsure about the necessity to sacrifice his son Isaac, as described in this man's book while he wrote under the pseudonym Johannes de Silentio. For ten points, name this Danish existentialist philosopher, author of Fear and Trembling and Either/Or.

Baron de Montesquieu

This man suggested that since each historical event was driven by a principle movement, if Caesar and Pompey did not usurp the Republic, others would have done the same because of the ambition of man. He claimed that England could not form a republic after the Civil War because it lacked the requisite love of virtue. In his most famous work, he attributed the freer governments in western nations to their colder climates and said that women could lead a state but not a household. For 10 points, name this French enlightenment philosopher who advocated for the separation of powers into the judicial, legislative, and executive branches in his The Spirit of the Laws.

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel

This man was criticized for his essay "Difference", in which he supported fellow editor of The Critical Journal of Philosophy, Friedrich von Schelling. Another work by this man claims that "subjective" type of the title concept does a better job than "objective" type in his Science of Logic. This man believed that private property was an "embodiment of personality" and an "abstract right", and he also believed that humans were led by the idea of an "ethical life", ideas which he put in his work Philosophy of Right. The most famous work of this man claims that the highest level of consciousness is Absolute Knowledge. For 10 points, name this man who wrote Phenomenology of Spirit, a man most famous for his dialectic.

Socrates

This man was told to go to Phthia in three days' time by a white-clad woman in a dream. In one text, this man draws a diagonal line through a square and makes it the edge of a new square of twice the size. This man believed that his superior wisdom consisted only in knowing that he knew nothing. He described himself as a "gadfly of the state," and insisted on remaining in jail despite an escape offer from Crito. A few days after he spoke defending himself in court, this man's students gathered around him as he drank hemlock. For 10 points, name this inquisitive philosopher whose native Athens sentenced him to death.

Niccolo Machiavelli

This man wrote a biography of the Luccan ruler Castruccio Castracani and completed a seven chapter treatise on The Art of War. He asserted the primacy of the republic over other forms of government in his Discourses on Livy. Another work by this man notes that "armed prophets have been victorious, and all unarmed prophets have been destroyed" and warns that "it is much safer to be (*) feared than loved." For 10 points, name this Florentine historian and philosopher and author of The Prince.

Saint Thomas Aquinas

This man wrote a commentary on Peter Lombard's Sentences, and wrote about the difference between "the believer" and "the philosopher" in another work. He wrote On the Eternity of the World and On There Being Only One Intellect Against the Averroists. In another work he adopted the argument of God as the "first mover." His Quinque viae appear in his most famous work, in which he prefaced each point with the phrase "I answer that." This Dominican author of Summa Contra Gentiles attempted to reconcile Christian thought with Aristotle's philosophy. For 10 points, name this theologian who gave five proofs for the existence of God in his Summa Theologica.

Immanuel Kant

This man wrote about the necessary conditions for world peace, one of which was having a world of constitutional monarchies, in his Perpetual Peace. He described noumena as being objects of human cognition that could never be fully understood as opposed to phenomena, objects of the senses in his "Analytick of Principles." He created the idea of knowledge before [*] experience, called a priori knowledge, and his most famous idea includes that for ideas to be moral, they have to be universalizable. Formulator of the "categorical imperative," for 10 points, name this philosopher who authored the Critique of Pure Reason.

David Hume

This man wrote of a "cry of reproach, disapprobation, and even detestation" in the first of his six-volume History of England. This philosopher depicted Demea, Philo, and Clenches conversing in his Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion and stated that all ideas are repeated from an original impression in his (*) Copy Principle. This man posited a "missing shade of blue" in one work and separated "is" from "ought" in another. A section of his most famous text is titled "Of Miracles" and supposedly woke Immanuel Kant from his "dogmatic slumber." For ten points, name this Scottish thinker and author of An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding.

John Locke

This man wrote that "promises, covenants, and oathsÂ...can have no hold on an atheist" a year before he argued against the idea that rightful kings are direct descendants of Adam, refuting Robert Filmer. This man believed that money removed a natural limit on accumulation, and described man's mixture of his labor with nature as the basis of our entitlement to property. The Jeffersonian phrase "consent of the governed" echoes this man's view that government must secure "life, liberty, and estate." For 10 points, name this man who wrote Two Treatises of Government in 1690, a British social contract theorist.

Karl Heinrich Marx

This man wrote that "the point" is to change the way philosophers interpret the world, in his Theses on Feuerbach, and criticized Pierre-Joseph Proudhon in Poverty of Philosophy. This author of the Critique of the Gotha Program wrote about "use-value" versus "exchange value," and stated, "from each according to his ability, to each according to his needs." He claimed that exploitation of workers is the basis of capitalism in Das Kapital, while another work speaks of a "spectre ... haunting Europe." For 10 points, name this German philosopher who, along with Friedrich Engels, wrote The Communist Manifesto.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

This man's Tenth Walk, in Reveries of a Solitary Walker, is unfinished, and another work discusses federalizing The Government of Poland. One theory of his posits that monarchies should develop in warmer nations, and a discourse of his describes the first man to enclose a plot of land and declare "This is mine"; [*] that's On the Origins of Inequality in Mankind. This author of the Confessions wrote a tract on education called Emile, popularized the "noble savage", and said that the general will leaves man "forced to be free". For 10 points, name this Swiss-French philosopher and author of The Social Contract.

St. Augustine of Hippo

This man's namesake hypothesis concerns the chronological ordering of the Gospels of the New Testament. He wrote a text dealing with rhetoric and its religious uses in On Christian Doctrine, and argued against Donatism. He distinguished the difference between the "visible" and "invisible" churches, and he was inspired by the Visigoths' sack of Rome to write one of his works. In his most famous work, he described his experience as an adherent of Manichaeism. For 10 points, name this man who wrote The City of God and Confessions, a bishop from Hippo.

transcendentalism

This movement was influenced by the teachings of Emmanuel Swedenborg, and the Ripleys attempted to establish a community based on its beliefs as a joint-stock company. Its members discussed their ideas in The Dial, a newspaper edited by Margaret Fuller. It was influenced by the Vedas, and prominent members of this movement included Elizabeth Peabody, William Channing, and Amos Bronson Alcott. Its founder compared himself to a transparent floating eyeball to describe an experience of nature. For 10 points, name this American philosophical movement founded to counter English Romanticism by Henry David Thoreau and Ralph Waldo Emerson.

existentialism

This movement's treatment of the intersubjective self discussed lovers experiencing each other as ambiguous subjects and others, and the look that brings self-awareness of being-for-others. One of its early thinkers urged a leap to faith to overcome despair, a state of sin. Rejecting the Cartesian ego, a proponent of this movement described the authentic being-for-itself as a being who rejects bad faith and creates its own meaning in an absurd world through its own existence. That idea is expressed in this movement's maxim "existence precedes essence". For 10 points, name this philosophy espoused by Soren Kierkegaard, Simone de Beauvoir and Jean-Paul Sartre.

Confucius (accept Kong Qiu, K'ung Ch'iu; K'ung Chung-ni; K'ung-Fu-Tzu; K'ung-Tzu; Kongfuzi; Kongzi; Master Kung or Zhong Ni)

This person wrote that "one day's absence is as long as three years" in a poem concerning kudzu [KUD-zoo] vine. He described a poem as "the place to which one's preoccupations go" in the preface to his Book of Songs. This person's philosophical teachings espouse the concepts of the ideal person, the rules of propriety, and ideal relationships, also known as junzi [joon-zee], li, and ren. Name this author of the Analects, an ancient Chinese philosopher.

René Descartes

This person's attempts to explain bright spots in the sky led him to state that there is a giant ring of ice in the atmosphere, though he later correctly explained the phenomenon using ice crystals. One of his works explains that an intellect, as opposed to just senses or imagination, is required to understand what a piece of wax is. He wrote that he would not just accept what others had written, and his most famous statement is an attempt to say something that cannot be doubted. Name this philosopher who wrote Discourse on the Method and Meditations on First Philosophy, works which both claim, "I think, therefore I am."

John Locke

This philosopher advises autodidacts on rational thinking in Of the Conduct of the Understanding, and emphasizes psychosomatic connections and explains how to teach virtue and reason in Some Thoughts Concerning Education. This thinker argues that more religious groups prevent civil unrest in A Letter Concerning Toleration, while in his most famous work he rejects the divine-right theory, arguing for a civil government based on universal rights and the social contract. A proponent of the theory of tabula rasa, for 10 points, name this philosopher who wrote Two Treatises of Government and An Essay Concerning Human Understanding.

David Hume

This philosopher advocated defining a complex idea by breaking it down into simple ideas and tracing each of the simple ideas to the impressions from which they are derived, a method based on the "copy principle." One principle named for him divides statements into relations of ideas and matters of fact, and another states that you cannot get an "ought" from an "is." In addition to his namesake "law" or "guillotine" and "fork," he authored A Treatise of Human Nature. For 10 points, name this Scottish philosopher who wrote An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding.

David Hume

This philosopher alleged that man could conceive of a shade of blue he had never seen, and he also claimed that no miracle had ever been proven. His distinction between matters of fact and relations among ideas is known as his (*) "fork." He explored rational belief in a discussion between Cleanthes (clee-AN-theez), Philo, and Demea (DEH-mee-uh) in his Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion. His publication awoke Immanuel Kant from a "dogmatic slumber." For 10 points, name this Scottish thinker who wrote An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding.

John Locke

This philosopher argued complex ideas, such as modes, substances, and relations, are created by combining, comparing, or abstracting simple ideas. He claimed people have the natural right to objects they mix their labor with in his book outlining a theory of government's based on the protection of private property, his Second Treatise on Government. He distinguished between the primary and secondary qualities of objects in his Essay Concerning Human Understanding. For 10 points, name this British philosopher who argued that the mind was a tabula rasa, or blank slate.

John Locke

This philosopher argued that a large number of religious groups decreases civil unrest in A Letter Concerning Toleration. In the first part of another work, he attacks Robert Filmer's defense of a king's divine right. He also posited that the human mind at birth is a blank slate, or a (*) tabula rasa. For 10 points, name this English Enlightenment philosopher, the author of Two Treatises of Government and An Essay Concerning Human Understanding.

George Berkeley

This philosopher argued that a visible square and a tangible square have nothing more in common than do a man and his name in a work entitled An Essay Towards a New Theory of Vision. This philosopher argued that the existence of sensible objects is comparable to that of objects in dreams or hallucinations in a work entitled Three Dialogues Between Hylas and Philonous. In another work, this philosopher claimed Esse es percipi or to be is to be perceived. For 10 points, name this English philosopher who wrote A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge in addition to being the namesake of a large public university in California.

Jean-Paul Charles Aymard Sartre

This philosopher argued that an "authentic" subject will learn to live without the transcendental and empirical egos, and he discussed "the good and subjectivity" in Notebooks For an Ethics. This thinker asserted in one essay that the title concept "is a humanism" and also claimed that incidental objects are the objects of consciousness. In another work, this author of Transcendence of the Ego categorized the first title concept as "for-others," "for-itself," and "in-itself," and described denial of one's own freedom as "bad faith." For 10 points, name this existentialist author of Being and Nothingness.

Baruch Spinoza

This philosopher argued that our intuition about God was the only way we could have true, or "adequate," ideas. He divided nature into "substances," "attributes," and "modes" in a work that opens with fifteen axiomatic propositions. This philosopher argued that the Torah could not have been entirely written by Moses in his (*) Tractatus Theologico- Politicus. He called the control our passions have over us "bondage," and he claimed that God and Nature are the same thing, thus opposing the dualism of his contemporary Descartes. For 10 points, name philosopher who wrote a "geometrically ordered" Ethics and was kicked out of Dutch Jewish society.

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel

This philosopher argued that states themselves were eventually to be subsumed under the hierarchy of world history, but described the state as "The March of God through the world". He compared two philosophers in his The Difference Between Fichte's and Schelling's Systems of Philosophy. He also wrote The Science of Logic, and in his most famous work, he created sections on Reason, Spirit, and Religion, and discussed his famous triad composed of thesis, antithesis, and synthesis. Name this philosopher who popularized the dialectic and wrote The Philosophy of Right and The Phenomenology of Mind.

Charles-Louis de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu

This philosopher argued that the fertility of a country's soil affects its type of government, with barren soil leading to republics. His major work claims that differences in (*) climate lead to different national characteristics, and uses the Ottoman Empire as an example of a state ruled by fear. His theory that the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of government should be separated inspired America's founding fathers. For 10 points, name this French author of The Spirit of the Laws.

Confucius

This philosopher argued that virtue rather than punishment better instills a sense of shame, which is necessary to prevent crimes. In a famous story about this philosopher, he refused to ask about the horses after the stables were burnt. This philosopher said that "what you do not wish for yourself, do not do to others," his so-called "silver rule." Two important concepts in this man's philosophy are righteousness and ritual, referred to as yi and li. This philosopher served in the Lu state, and one follower founded a "neo-" version of this man's philosophy. For 10 points, name this teacher of Mencius and author of the Analects, a famous Chinese philosopher.

David Hume

This philosopher attacked Christianity in Of Natural Characters and inquired about the "disease of the learned" in A Kind of History of My Life. One of his works concerns conversations between Pamphilus and Cleanthes, Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion, and he wrote an authoritative text that was standard until the time of Macaulay, History of England. This author also wrote "Of Miracles" and a work influenced by Addison, Essays Moral and Political. The figure responsible for awaking Kant "from his dogmatic slumber," this is, FTP, what Scottish empiricist who wrote Treatise of Human Nature and An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding?

Bertrand Russell

This philosopher attacked Meinongian object theory with his idea of "definite descriptions." He argued that we call something "good" when we desire it, and "bad" when we have an aversion from it. This philosopher demonstrated that the proof of burden should be on (*) believers and not disbelievers in his teapot analogy. His attempts to formalize mathematics with axiomatic logic were refuted by Godel's incompleteness theorem. For 10 points, name this British philosopher who, along with Alfred Whitehead, wrote Principia Mathematica.

George Berkeley ("bark-lee")

This philosopher attacked the "free-thinkers" in works like Alciphon and The Analyst. He described what we see as just light and color, while in another work, he argued that since we perceive objects and all our perceptions are ideas, all objects are ideas. This author of An Essay Towards a New Theory of Vision stated "esse est percipi," or "to be is to be perceived". For 10 points, name this Irish idealist philosopher who outlined his theory of immaterialism in A Treatise Concerning Human Knowledge, which was adapted into Three Dialogues Between Hylas and Philonous.

St. Thomas Aquinas

This philosopher believed that the soul existed in both the spiritual and material worlds, and he advocated resurrection in his form of dualism. This man described proper authority, reasonable cause, and right intention as the three reasons to start a "just war," and he divided law into eternal, divine, natural, and human types. This man discussed the "unmoved mover" in his Quinque viae, which are his five proofs for the existence of God. For 10 points, name this Scholastic philosopher and the author of Summa Theologica.

Michel Foucault

This philosopher built upon the Greek idea of parrhesia in a series of lectures published as Fearless Speech and explained his "archaeological method" in The Archaeology of Knowledge. In one of this philosopher's seminal works he argued that the modern (*) legal system is barbaric for keeping things behind closed doors and thus discouraging resistance to state power. He also argued that mentally ill people were treated better during the Renaissance than in the modern age in his work Madness and Civilization. For 10 points, name this twentieth century French philosopher who wrote The Order of Things and Discipline and Punish.

Michel Foucault

This philosopher claimed that "philology," "biology," and "economics" did not exist before Kant in a work about the "Human Sciences." He called the basic intellectual assumptions of an era its episteme. This philosopher described his method as "archaeological." One of his books opens with an analysis of (*) Las Meninas, while another gorily describes the public torture of Robert-François Damiens. He called how nations control their subject's bodies "biopower," and he characterized repressive modern societies as a kind of Panopticon. For 10 points, name this 20th-century French philosopher, who wrote The History of Sexuality, The Order of Things, and Discipline and Punish.

Baruch Spinoza

This philosopher claimed that human emotions are governed by the same rules as natural occurrences, and that people must strive to become independent of their passions. "On Human Bondage" is part of a larger work in which he equated Nature with God, which is the only substance. He described modes that are "in" God, leading to the assertion that God is infinite, in a work named after the discipline that studies right conduct. For 10 points, name this rationalist philosopher and author of Ethics who was the subject of a cherem that banned him from the Jewish community.

David Hume

This philosopher claimed to be possessed by "the Disease of the Learned" in a letter to a physician entitled A Kind of History of My Life. This philosopher established critical facility as the source of judgment while in another essay features arguments between Demea, Philo, and Cleanthes on the nature of God. In addition to "Of the Standard of Taste" and Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion, this philosopher penned a work and a revision which detail the origins of ideas. He wrote the essay "On Miracles," for 10 points, name this Scottish philosopher who wrote A Treatise of Human Nature and An Enquiry concerning Human Understanding.

Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche

This philosopher collected short works such as "Schopenhauer as Educator" is his Untimely Meditations. He wrote about the concept of eternal recurrence in The Gay Science, and contrasted the Apollonian and Dionysian modes in The Birth of Tragedy. He wrote about the will to power and the Ubermensch in Thus Spoke Zarathustra. For 10 points, name this German philosopher, who wrote Beyond Good and Evil and Twilight of the Idols, and claimed that "God is dead."

Aristotle of Stagira

This philosopher conceived of science as proceeding from self-evident first principles via demonstrative syllogisms. His works are cited using Bekker numbers. He used the example of a doctor to distinguish between empirical "experience" and techne, or "art," in the first chapter of a work that postulates a (*) "prime mover." This man described virtues as means between extremes in a work that considers eudaimonia, or happiness, as the highest goal. This philosopher founded the Lyceum, and his lectures there were turned into the Organon and the Nicomachean Ethics. For 10 points, name this Greek philosopher who tutored Alexander the Great and studied with Plato.

Michele Foucault

This philosopher concluded that Enlightenment and Humanism are in a "state of tension rather than identity" in one work. This author of the essays "What is an Author?" wrote one work that begins by noting that leprosy had disappeared in the Western world by the middle ages. One work by this author of The Order of Things and The Archaeology of Knowledge centers on modern medicine, and is subtitled "An Archeology of Medical Perception," and this author of Madness and Civilization studied Bentham's Panopticon in one work. For 10 points, name this French philosopher of The Birth of the Clinic and Discipline and Punish.

Moses Maimonides

This philosopher controversially listed the eternity of God, the incorporeal nature of God, and the existence of resurrection among his thirteen articles of faith in one work. This philosopher also wrote a fourteen-volume work systematically compiling Jewish law and a work which rejects the kalam theory of creation and argues that God can only be described with negative terms. For 10 points, name this Jewish philosopher of Commentary on the Mishnah, Mishneh Torah, and Guide for the Perplexed.

Immanuel Kant

This philosopher created a table that used the headings of quantity, quality, modality, and relation to define different forms of judgment. One work by this man describes the impossibility of disproving two valid but contradictory claims called antinomies. This philosopher wrote that morals came out of a rationality called the categorical imperative in his work Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals. This thinker wrote multiple critiques, such as his Critique of Pure Reason. For 10 points, name this eighteenth-century German philosopher.

George Berkeley

This philosopher criticized infinitesimal calculus in The Analyst, and wrote that "Ideas can only resemble Ideas" in A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge. His most famous work is a dialogue in which one character represents John Locke, and which presents his belief that "to (*) be is to be perceived." For 10 points, name this philosopher who wrote Three Dialogues between Hylas and Philonous and shares his name with a California university.

Jeremy Bentham

This philosopher criticized the tendency for the court to employ "special jurors" in his Elements of the Art of Packing. This philosopher defended the right to loan money at interest rates in a series of letters to Adam Smith, collectively entitled Defense of Usury. This philosopher formulated felicific calculus, a system for determining one's level of pleasure, a topic discussed in his work, The Principles of Morals and Legislation. A proponent of the "greatest happiness principle," for 10 points, name this English teacher of John Stuart Mill and founder of utilitarianism.

Soren Aabye Kierkegaard

This philosopher criticizes the titular figure for claiming to have revelations from God in a work entitled The Book on Adler. This philosopher published a work under the pseudonym "Anti-Climacus" and discussed the threshold for when a human is "in despair" when not being aligned with God and takes its title from the Gospel of John. This philosopher is known for a book discussing the "teleological suspension of the ethical" on whether or not Abraham was justified in sacrificing Isaac. For 10 points, name this Danish philosopher who wrote The Sickness unto Death, Either/Or, and Fear and Trembling.

Arthur Schopenhauer

This philosopher defended homosexuality as preventing unnecessary children in his essay "Metaphysics of Sexual Love." This philosopher claimed that "woman is by nature meant to obey" in his essay "On Women." This philosopher collected several otherwise unpublished essays and fragments in his work Prarerga and Paralipomena. His essay On the Basis of Morality makes up a quarter of his most famous work. This philosopher outlined the necessary and sufficient characteristics of truth in his On the Fourfold Root of Sufficient Reason. In his most famous work, this philosopher sequentially addressed epistemology, ontology, aesthetics, and ethics. For ten points, identify this philosopher who wrote On the World as Will and Idea.

George Santayana

This philosopher defined one of the title concepts of one of his works as an irrational belief in the natural world. He claimed that philosophy must begin in medias res. This author wrote a five-volume work which treats the title concept "in science," "in art" and "in religion" and is titled The (*) Life of Reason. For 10 points, name this author of of Skepticism and Animal Faith, a Spanish-American philosopher who claimed that "those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it."

Immanuel Kant

This philosopher discussed the "unity of apperception" in a book where he used arguments based on unprovable facts about the mind, called transcendental deductions. He distinguished the unreachable noumenon from the sensible phenomenal world, and posited "man's emergence from self-imposed immaturity" in his essay "What is Enlightenment?" He forbid lying even to a murderer inquiring about one's best friend, discussed the beautiful and sublime in his aesthetic tract Critique of Judgment, and proved that synthetic a priori truths exist. For 10 points, name this formulator of the categorical imperative, a Prussian philosopher who wrote Critique of Pure Reason.

Ludwig Wittgenstein

This philosopher's rule-following paradox was elaborated on by Saul Kripke, and it occurs in a work featuring the "beetle-in-a-box" thought experiment and a discussion of the private language argument and duckrabbits. He published only one book in his lifetime, a set of seven propositions the final of which reads (*) "Whereof one cannot speak, thereof one must be silent". For 10 points, name this German philosopher influential in the development of logical positivism, who wrote Philosophical Investigations and Tratatus Logico-Philosophicus.

George Edward Moore

This philosopher discussed the impossibility of understanding interactions via what he called "sense data." In another work, this philosopher argued that it was a fallacy to suppose that goodness could be defined in terms of pleasure or evolutionary desire. This thinker invented the paradox "it's raining outside but I don't think it is," which Wittgenstein considered one of philosophy's most important statements. This philosopher raised both of his hands in order to prove the existence of the outside world, and invented the naturalistic fallacy. For 10 points, name this British philosopher of "A Defence of Common Sense" and Principia Ethica.

Immanuel Kant

This philosopher discussed the role of "communal sense" in reflective judgments, and coined the term Weltanschauung ​("VELT-ahn-show-ung"). This philosopher claimed to be most awed by "the starry sky above me and the moral law within me." He noted that we cannot think without notions of quantity, quality, relation, and modality. This philosopher argued that the way we perceive the world is what creates the constructs (*) "space" and "time." His most famous work attempts to prove that synthetic a priori propositions are possible. His moral philosophy centers on the "categorical imperative." For 10 points, name this German Idealist philosopher who wrote Critique of Pure Reason.

David Hume

This philosopher divided his first major work into sections examining passions, morals and understanding, and titled it A Treatise of Human Nature. In another work, he investigates the possibility of singular events contradicting laws of nature in a section title "Of Miracles," a work that Kant credited as waking him from his "dogmatic slumber." The author of An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, for 10 points, name this Scottish empiricist philosopher.

Sir Francis Bacon, Viscount Saint Alban

This philosopher explained the benefits of consuming opium in a work entitled Sylva Sylvarum. This philosopher argued that misconceptions of philosophy were due to false gods in the first part of a work entitled Instauratio Magna. The narrator of one of this philosopher's works meets a Jew named Joabin, who resides on an island containing Solomon's House. In another of his works, the marketplace, theater, cave, and tribe idols are mentioned as entities which handicapped men from studying nature. For 10 points, name this English philosopher who wrote The New Atlantis and Novum Organum in addition to claiming "knowledge is power."

Michel Foucault

This philosopher explored the experimental writing of Raymond Roussel in Death and the Labyrinth. An analysis of Las Meninas opens a work that describes the relationship between language and the "return of man" as well as his concept of épisteme. This author of The Order of Things began another work with a study of the treatment of lepers before tracing the evolution of the title relationship. His most notable work discusses the "spectacle of the scaffold" and Jeremy Bentham's Panopticon in its exploration of "the Birth of the Prison." For 10 points, name this philosopher who wrote Madness and Civilization and Discipline and Punish.

Confucius

This philosopher expressed his concern for the humans, not the horses, who survived a stable fire. This man claimed that reciprocity was the single best word to live by, thus formulating his Silver Rule. This compiler of the (*) Spring and Autumn Annals formulated the ideas later taught by Mencius. He described benevolence as li and created an ethics centered on ren. He advocated the "mandate of heaven," and collected his teachings in the Analects. For 10 points, name this Chinese thinker whose school opposed Daoism.

Aristotle

This philosopher identified impetuosity and weakness as the two forms of akrasia, a condition in which a person contradicts reason due to emotion. He examined the literary use of mimesis and peripeteia in one work, and he stressed the responsibility of science to encompass the logical asymmetry of causation, expanding on the deductive reasoning applied to endoxa represented by the syllogism, which he introduced as part of his dialectic. The author of Poetics, Physics, and Metaphysics, For 10 points, name this Greek philosopher and student of Plato.

René Descartes

This philosopher illustrated the limit of the senses to appearances with the wax argument in a work that includes six Objections and Replies. In another work, he described the pineal gland as "the seat of the soul". This author of Passions of the Soul also attempted to use an adaptation of ontological argument to circumvent the problem of solipsism raised by an "evil demon." For 10 points, name this philosopher who espoused his theory of mind-body dualism in Meditations on First Philosophy and stated "Cogito ergo sum," or "I think, therefore I am" in Discourse on Method.

Immanuel Kant

This philosopher imagined a "kingdom of ends" in which one of his concepts was always acted upon. He urged readers to "act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law" in his (*) Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals, which formulated his "categorical imperative." This thinker combined the categories of a priori and a posteriori with those of the analytic and synthetic. For 10 points, name this German philosopher who wrote the Critique of Pure Reason.

Bertrand

This philosopher introduced an analogy describing where the burden of proof should rest, which is called his "teapot." This thinker wrote a work that argues we can avoid the ramified theory of types by introducing the axiom of reducibility. In another work, he describes how a woman married to a syphilitic man would be told to avoid birth control by the Church. This thinker's namesake paradox refers to the set of all sets that do not contain themselves. This philosopher is best known for a three volume work describing the basic analysis derived from fundamental axioms. For 10 points, identify this author of

Michel Foucault

This philosopher noted that the exclusion of lepers eventually transitioned to other exclusion rituals in an analogy of a ship of fools. His genealogy of knowledge is a direct allusion to Nietzsche's genealogy of morality. This thinker developed the concept of the medical gaze in his The Birth of the Clinic and argued that the conditions of discourse changed over time in The (*) Order of Things. This man analyzed Bentham's Panopticon in work,.and he developed the theory of biopower in his The Will to Knowledge. For ten points, name this French philosopher and author of Discipline and Punish.

Jean-Paul Sartre

This philosopher offered an intersubjective definition of being Jewish in Anti-Semite and Jew. He refuted Gyorgy Lukacs's philosophy in Search for a Method, before describing the "practico-inert" and "praxis" in his Marxist theory of class in its unfinished sequel, Critique of Dialectical Reason. This Continental philosopher broke from phenomenology by characterizing the ego as an incidental object in Transcendence of the Ego, and described the creation of essence by the authentic being-for-itself in his most famous work. For 10 points, name this existentialist who described a case of bad faith in Being and Nothingness.

Søren (Aabye) Kierkegaard

This philosopher often criticized Hans Lassen Martensen, who was a supporter of Hegel [HAY-gul]. One of his works, which includes a section titled Diary of a Seducer, contrasts the thoughts of ethicist Judge Vilhelm with those of aesthete Victor Eremita. This person wrote about the simultaneous attraction and repulsion we feel when looking over a ledge and imagine falling in The Concept of Anxiety. Another work by this person, in which Johannes claims that loving one's neighbor is a duty to God, focuses on the decision by Abraham to sacrifice Isaac. Name this writer of Either/Or and Fear and Trembling, a 19th-century Danish philosopher.

George Santayana

This philosopher portrays Jesus Christ as a poetic figure in The Idea of Christ in the Gospels. The title entity of another of his works is related to the four qualities of matter, essence, spirit, and truth, in a system this man developed in The Realms of Being. He examined the "stages of human progress" in four different aspects of human society in The Life of Reason. His most famous work begins with the statement "Philosophy begins in medias res," and is titled Skepticism and Animal Faith. For 10 points, name this Spanish-American philosopher who said "those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it."

George Berkeley ("bark-lee")

This philosopher posited that natural phenomena constitute a divine universal language. This author of Alciphron attacked Locke's distinction between primary and secondary qualities in a work that uses the pleasure-pain argument to prove that pain cannot exist independently of the mind. That work argues that the mind cannot conceive of mind-independent objects via the master argument. He concluded that the causes of passive ideas cannot be matter and instead must be the mind of God. For 10 points, name this immaterialist philosopher who declared "to be is to be perceived" and wrote Three Dialogues between Hylas and Philonous and A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge.

George Santayana

This philosopher published one novel in his lifetime, which traces the entire life of a man named Oliver Alden. That book is The Last Puritan. This philosopher defined beauty as "pleasure objectified" in his major aesthetic work, The Sense of Beauty. Despite a personal lack of faith, this man is often associated with Catholic conservatism. (*) Skepticism and Animal Faith is this writer's primary work in the field of Epistemology. While this man's magnum opus may have been Realms of Being, The Life of Reason is arguably his most famous, and certainly his most quoted, work. For 10 points, identify this Spaniard who said, "Those who do not learn history are doomed to repeat it."

Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche

This philosopher questioned why people followed Socrates when it was well known that Socrates was ugly in an 1888 work.

Saint Thomas Aquinas

This philosopher refuted the errors of the Greek Orthodox Church in a treatise written to Pope Urban IV. This philosopher argued that the demonstrated truths of science do not contradict the revealed truths of the Christian faith in an apologetic work targeted at non-Christians, and in his most famous work, he included rightful intent, sovereign authority, and the motive of peace as features of a "just war." That work of his includes first cause and contingency among his quinque viae, five arguments in support of the existence of God. For 10 points, name this author of Summa Contra Gentiles, a scholastic philosopher who also wrote Summa Theologica.

Immanuel Kant

This philosopher stated that marriage is the union of a couple into a single moral entity in Observations on the Feelings of the Beautiful and Sublime, and he argues for moral relativism and defends the Three Maxims in another of his works. He synthesized rationalist and empiricist theories by defining a priori knowledge, which this author of the Metaphysics of Morals extended to the idea of sensus communis in his Critique of Judgment. In another work this thinker defines an ontological and a "watch-maker" proof of God's existence, and attacks the title concept's circular logic. For 10 points, name this German creator of the categorical imperative and author of Critique of Pure Reason.

Bertrand Russell

This philosopher stated that the mind can gain negative knowledge via perception, and attempted to resolve the problem of negative existentials with a theory of descriptions in On Denoting. He rejected the teleological and cosmological arguments in one work, and his namesake teapot illustrates the necessity to make scientifically unfalsifiable claims rather than to simply shift the burden of proof. In addition to A History of Western Philosophy, he wrote the aforementioned Why I Am Not a Christian, as well as Analysis of the Mind. For 10 points, name this man who collaborated with Alfred North Whitehead to write Principia Mathmathica.

Rene Descartes

This philosopher stated that the mind is a "thinking thing" separate from the brain, a concept expanded on in his work The Passions of the Soul. He popularized a style of thinking that eliminated all but basic, or foundational, beliefs, stating that humans could only believe that they were awake. This philosopher put forth a proof that God is real, which stated that if God were not real, he would not be able to think of God. That proof is found in this man's Meditations on First Philosophy. For 10 points, name this philosopher who wrote Discourse on Method, in which he stated "cogito ergo sum," or "I think, therefore I am."

Bertrand Arthur William Russell

This philosopher used the analogy of a postal directory to argue that the world is neither exclusively mental nor physical. He analyzed definite descriptions and examined the sentence "Scott is the author of Waverley" in his essay "On Denoting." This thinker criticized Christ in one work for believing in Hell, and the set of all sets that are not members of themselves is known as his namesake paradox. This author of "Why I Am Not a Christian" published a three part work on formal logic which he co-authored with Alfred North Whitehead. For 10 points, name this British philosopher and co-author of Principia Mathematica.

Ludwig Wittgenstein

This philosopher was accused of striking a student in the Haidbauer incident and during an argument with Karl Popper, this man allegedly waved a fireplace poker in Popper's face. This thinker devised an experiment in which several people with boxes all refer to the contents of that box as a "beetle." That beetle-in-a-box experiment was part of his refutation of private languages. "The world is everything that is the case" is one of seven numbered propositions this man put forward in a book that concludes "whereof one cannot speak, thereof one must be silent." For 10 points, name this Austrian philosopher and author of Philosophical Investigations and Tractatus Logico-Politicus.

Jean-Paul Charles Aymard Sartre

This philosopher was criticized by Raymond Aron for the attempted union he tried to make in his essay "Search for a Method." That essay of this thinker served as an introduction to a work continuing on a mold set by Kant, this philosopher's Critique of Dialectical Reason. This man coined a term for a form of (*) fakeness and self-deception called "bad faith." In one work, this thinker contrasted the being-for-others, for-itself, and in-itself. For 10 points, name this philosopher who wrote Being and Nothingness, who was a French existentialist.

Aristotleles

This philosopher was falsely attributed for writing the treatises entitled The Situations and Names of Winds and On Melissus, Xenophanes, Gorgias. This philosopher detailed his zoological observations in History of Animals. This philosopher mentioned the Predicables in Topics and introduced ten classifications in Categories, both of which comprise parts of a work entitled Organon. One of his works consists of ten books named after his son and in another work he reconciles the real world with his teacher's Theory of Forms. He wrote Nicomachean Ethics and Metaphysics. For 10 points, name this Peripatetic Greek philosopher taught by Plato.

Thomas Hobbes

This philosopher was influenced by Jean Bodin in his theory of indivisible sovereignty. In one work, this man argues that the only thing we can know about God is that He exists, prompting critics to label this man an atheist. This man produced his most famous work while in exile in the Netherlands during the (*) English Civil War, and argued for an absolute sovereign to govern based on a social contract. This philosopher characterized life in a state of nature as "war of all against all" and, most famously, "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short". For 10 points, name this English political philosopher and author of Leviathan.

Arthur Schopenhauer

This philosopher was very attached to his pet poodles, and he criticized Baruch Spinoza's belief that animals were merely means from which humans were to derive satisfaction. In Friedrich Nietzsche's work Untimely Meditations, this philosopher is described as an educator, (*) whose philosophic genius might revitalize German culture. This philosopher is also credited with defining the phrase "will to life." For 10 points, identify this pessimistic German author of The World as Will and Representation.

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel

This philosopher wrote The Positivity of the Christian Religion and argued that "the State is actually existing realized moral life" in his The Philosophy of History. His most notable work describes a collective social consciousness called the geist, as well as the development of self-consciousness out of two forces seeking dominance in the master-slave dialectic. His namesake dialectic describes the synthesis resolving the conflict between the inevitable antithesis and the pre-existing thesis. For 10 points, name this German philosopher, the founder of absolute idealism and author of The Phenomenology of Spirit.

Soren Kierkegaard

This philosopher wrote a work that opens with a dinner party where each attendee gives a demoralizing speech on love. This author of Stages on Life's Way discusses the parable of Agnes and the merman in a work that contemplates, "Is there a teleological suspension of the ethical?" as one of its four Problemata. He wrote a work that compares the paths of the Knight of Infinite Resignation and the Knight of Faith. This philosopher loved Regine Olsen and used the pseudonyms Johannes de Silentio and Victor Eremita. For 10 points, identify this Danish philosopher who wrote Fear and Trembling and Either-Or.

George Berkeley

This philosopher wrote about Newtonian dynamics and other science in De Motu. He argued that distance is determined by the viewer and that sight is really a process of thought in his Essay Towards a New Theory of Vision. One of his works is framed as conversations between one student who dislikes skeptics who deny a "material substance," and another who claims that all matter is relative, culminating in the statement that "to be is to be perceived". For 10 points, name this Irish bishop, an empiricist who wrote Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge and Three Dialogues between Hylas and Philonous.

John Locke

This philosopher wrote that "in the beginning, all the world was America," since people could just enclose land to own it. He argued that the use of money that doesn't naturally depreciate destroyed natural limits on accumulating wealth. This philosopher called labor added to natural resources the basis for property. He noted that the state of nature is more or less free and equal, in contrast to the pessimist (*) Hobbes. He argued that, when governments act against the interests of their citizens, revolution is justified, because the social contract has been broken. For 10 points, name this English philosopher who, in his Two Treatises of Government, wrote that people have the rights to life, liberty, and property.

Bertrand Russell

This philosopher wrote the works Authority and the Individual and New Hopes for a changing World. He advocated "Trial" and "companionship" marriages in a work that advocated premarital sex, Marriage and Morals. In another work, this philosopher gave the belief in eternal punishment as a reason for the titular state in Why I am Not a Christian. In another of this philosopher's works, he utilized symbolic logic to attempt to derive all mathematical truth through a system of types. For ten points, identify this philosopher who may collaborated with Whitehead on Principia Mathematica.

David Hume

This philosopher's essay On Miracles is frequently published separately from a longer work in which it appears. This philosopher wrote about the discussion of three fictional characters about faith in his Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion. Like Adam Smith, this philosopher advocated a sentimental theory of ethics, and he also described the problem of deriving an "ought" from an "is" in one work. FTP, identify this philosopher who wrote an attempt to introduce scientific reasoning into moral theory in his A Treatise of Human Nature, which was reworked partially into An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding.

George Santayana

This philosopher, though an atheist, advocates an understanding of religion while condemning those who interpret it literally in a work entitled The Life of Reason. In another work, this philosopher asserts that men do not live by idealism and claims to have found epistemological truths through doubt in a work entitled Skepticism and Animal Faith. Oliver Alden's discontent with his titular faith leads to his self-destruction in this philosopher's work entitled The Last Puritan. For 10 points, name this Spanish philosopher who said, "Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it."

pragmatism

This philosophy's theory of truth is advocated against the predominant correspondence theory in Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature, a work by Richard Rorty. A proponent of this school claimed that mystical experiences are ineffable and noetic, and that when faced with a momentous, living, and forced option, belief without adequate evidence is justified. "The Will to Believe" was written by a founder of this school, who judged ideas based on cash-value and introduced it as a "new way of thinking". Its members include Jane Addams, C.S. Peirce ("purse"), and William James. For 10 points, name this school of philosophy that emphasizes practical experience.

William Carlos Williams

This poet asked his wife for forgiveness in their old age in his three-volume work "Asphodel, That Greeny Flower." Another work of his personifies a city which "lives in the shadow of Passaic Falls." This author of Paterson claimed "no ideas but in things," a maxim borne out by poems which describe the title object "glazed with rainwater beside the white (*) chickens" and apologize for eating "the plums that were in the icebox." For 10 points, name this poet of "The Red Wheelbarrow" and "This Is Just To Say."

William James

This scholar contrasted dead choices with genuine choices, which are live, forced, and momentous, and he argued that some propositions must be accepted without prior evidence in "The Will to Believe." He rejected monism and proposed a multi-verse in A Pluralistic Universe. His most famous work questions whether a man chasing a squirrel around a tree is going around the squirrel, and his Gifford lectures were collected in his The Varieties of Religious Experience. For 10 points, name this American philosopher who coined the term "stream of consciousness" and wrote Pragmatism.

David Hume

This scholar noted that philosophy serves as an antidote against false religion and superstition in a work often paired with "On the Immortality of the Soul," "On Suicide." In the third book of a work that "fell dead-born from the press," he argued that morality can not be explained by reason, and the copy principle is introduced in "Of the Understanding." He noted the circularity of inductive reasoning, and argued that constant conjunction of events does not mean causality. His namesake law relates to the is-ought problem, and Relations of Ideas and Matters of Fact form his namesake fork. For 10 points, name this Scottish skeptic philosopher of An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding.

Herbert Spencer

This scholar supported the Lamarckian view about the inheritance of acquired traits in his early paper, "The Developmental Hypothesis." Like William James, he wrote Principles of Psychology, although he collected it with works like Principles of Biology in his Synthetic Philosophy. The concept he is most associated with involved the movement both from simple to complex and from military to industrial, and his idea that society and organism are analogous appeared in Social Statics. For 10 points, what man who applied evolution to everything and coined the phrase "survival of the fittest" is the father of Social Darwinism?

The Analects

This text describes chaos as the result of situation in which propriety has decayed and music has collapsed. It describes the completion of music in its third book, which opens with a criticism about eight lines of dancers. Emphasizing the importance of love with distinctions and the rectification of names, this work compares the ideal ruler to the unmoving North Star and describes him as one that rules by example. This philosophical text parallels the ruler-subject relationship to the father-son relationship, another of the five relationships. It emphasizes the importance of li or ritual, ren or compassion, and filial piety. For 10 points, name this text that contains the sayings of Confucius.

Aristotle

This thinker added aether, the "divine" substance, to the four traditional elements. He laid out the four causes of change in his Physics and also claimed that the "hyle," or matter of an object, remained constant through change in his Metaphysics. This thinker proposed that humans should seek to achieve eudaimonia, or a state of happiness, in a work named for his son, and he discussed catharsis as a key element of tragedy in another work. For 10 points, name this philosopher who wrote Nicomachean Ethics and Poetics and was the founder of the Lyceum.

George Santayana

This thinker analyzed Lecretius, Dante, and Goethe in Three Philosophical Poets. In one work, he argues that consciousness is based in "instances of awareness." That work also argues that philosophy must begin in media res. Another of this man's works categorizes existence into matters of essence, matter, truth, and spirit. He wrote the bestselling novel (*) The Last Puritan, as well as Scepticism and the Animal Faith and The Realms of Being. For 10 points, name this philosopher whose Life of Reason asserts "those who cannot remember the past are doomed to repeat it."

Rene Descartes

This thinker argued against philosophical dependence on the senses by pointing out the changes a piece of wax undergoes when it melts. His formulation of the "mind-body problem" has led the influential idea of a separation between mental and physical properties to be known as this man's "dualism." This author of the Meditations on First Philosophy Declared "Je pense donc je suis" in his Discourse on Method. For 10 points, name this French philosopher who declared "I think therefore I am."

Herbert Spencer

This thinker argued against the liberal policies of Gladstone in The Man Versus the State. This thinker conceived of society as a living organism in his Principles of Sociology. This man posited the development of societies from military to complex and industrial and outlined "individuation" in Social Statics, which also introduced this man's interpretation of natural selection. For 10 points, name this British thinker who coined the term "survival of the fittest" and developed social darwinism.

Aristotles

This thinker argued that adherence to a "Doctrine of the Mean" between excess and deficiency was the ultimate expression of virtue in his Nichomachean Ethics. This thinker outlined the material, formal, efficient, and final causes of nature in one work. This man defined the genre of tragedy and stated that the aim of poetry and art is representation, or mimesis in another work. For 10 points, identify this ancient Greek philosopher, author of Metaphysics, Rhetoric, and Poetics, the most famous student of Plato.

Karl Marx

This thinker argued that capitalism resulted from primitive accumulation instead of original accumulation. This thinker labeled the idea that value exists in goods by themselves as "commodity fetishism." His book Critique of the (*) Gotha Program argues that an ideal society would follow the principle "from each, according to his ability; to each, according to his needs," although he felt that a more equal society could only be achieved through the dictatorship of the proletariat. For 10 points, name this author of Das Kapital, who cowrote The Communist Manifesto along with Friedrich Engels.

Ludwig Wittgenstein

This thinker argued that neither having the knowledge of everything that exists nor having the knowledge of that knowledge are possible, and so the knowledge of negative existentials is impossible. This thinker considered a thought experiment of a lion learning English, and he contrasted "seeing that" and "seeing as" using an (*) optical illusion. This thinker discussed the image of the duck-rabbit, and he used examples like the beetle-in-a-box to examine private languages. For 10 points, name this Austrian-British analytic philosopher known for his work on language games in Philosophical Investigations and Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus.

Immanuel Kant

This thinker argued that since geometry is knowable without experience, the idea of space cannot come from experience; that is his "Transcendental Argument for Space." This man used a "table of judgments" to contrast perception and his "categories of understanding," and he used the example of (*) "seven plus five equals twelve" to demonstrate a type of truth translated as "from the earlier." This man was awakened from his "dogmatic slumber" by David Hume, eventually inspiring him to prove the existence of synthetic a priori knowledge. For 10 points, name this German philosopher whose various "critiques" included his Critique of Pure Reason.

Immanuel Kant

This thinker argued that war had driven the Eskimos so far to the north in an essay advocating democratic peace. In another work by this thinker, he lists the four types of reflective judgments: the agreeable, beautiful, sublime, and good. This author of Perpetual Peace discusses noumenon and phenomenon in his most famous work, which asks how synthetic a priori truths are possible. In that work, he argues that one should make sure any moral action should be universally applicable, his categorical imperative. For 10 points, name this German Enlightenment philosopher and author of Critique of Judgment and Critique of Pure Reason.

Immanuel Kant

This thinker argues that society can foster moral behavior through an "invisible church" and that humans are essentially evil in his Religion within the Boundaries of Mere Reason. In another work he differentiates between the beautiful and sublime, and claims that aesthetic judgments have universal validity. He defined enlightenment as "Sapere aude," or "Dare to know," and this author of Groundwork on the Metaphysics of Morals differentiated between a priori and a posteriori truth. For 10 points, name this Prussian philosopher who developed the categorical imperative and wrote Critique of Pure Reason.

Friedrich Nietzsche

This thinker asserted that "without music, life would be a mistake" and that he imagines "God as a songster." This man argued that a character who thinks that he cannot affect the balance of the world is a Dionysian figure, which contrasts with an Apollonian figure in drama. This man wrote about slaves and (*) masters in On the Genealogy of Morals. He criticized dichotomous moral systems in Ecce Homo. This man described the Ubermensch and wrote Beyond Good and Evil. For ten points, identify this philosopher who claimed "God is dead" in The Gay Science and also wrote Thus Spake Zarathustra.

John Locke

This thinker attacked the "third principle of assent", enthusiasm, for its violation of the principles of reason, which must be clearly distinguished from faith in religious matters. This author of The Reasonableness of Christianity collaborated with the Earl of Shaftesbury on the Fundamental Constitutions of the Carolinas, and he distinguished between primary and secondary qualities and simple and complex ideas in a work which proposed a theory of the mind referred to as the "tabula rasa". FTP, name this English philosopher who wrote Two Treatises of Government, which enumerated the rights to life, liberty, and property.

Rene Descartes

This thinker carried a copy of the works of Fransisco Suarez at all times, despite challenging Scholasticism; Antoine Arnault wrote objections to one of his works; Arnault accuses this man's logic of a namesake "circle". He questioned why, after melting by fire, wax is still wax, and identified the soul's physical joining point as the pineal gland. This tutor of Swedish princess Christina found that God is no deceiver after positing that a "malicious demon" might reconfigure his sense perception. For 10 points, name this French mathematician and philosopher whose Discourse on Method argues for mind-body dualism, and whose Meditations on First Philosophy can be summarized "I think, therefore I am."

Francis Bacon

This thinker claimed that "deep knowledge of philosophy brings the mind around to religion" and collected other thoughts on religion in his work Certain Considerations Touching the Better Pacification and Edification of the Church of England. This philosopher wrote about a fictional institution called Solomon's House in describing an ideal society in his work The New Atlantis, while in another work, he advocated an improvement to syllogistic logic by the methods of agreement and difference. That work is entitled The New Instrument. FTP, identify this philosopher who claimed that "knowledge is power" and devised the scientific method.

Georg Wilhelm Frederic Hegel

This thinker claimed that Africa had no history in a series of his lectures; he discussed 'absolute difference' and 'sublation' in his The Science of Logic. This philosopher discussed the title concept in the three 'spheres' of the abstract, morality, and ethical life in Elements of the [*] Philosophy of Right. He described the process of Geist coming to know itself in another work, where he developed a law of progress from thesis and antithesis to synthesis. For 10 points, name this German idealist philosopher of The Phenomenology of Spirit, who inspired Marx with his idea of the dialectic.

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel

This thinker claimed that Africa had no movement or development, and therefore was not a "historical part of the World" in his Lectures on the Philosophy of History. He divided the title concept into "abstract right," "morality, and "ethical life" in his Elements of the Philosophy of Right. He developed a method later described with the terms "thesis," "antithesis," and "synthesis" that he used to analyze the master/slave relationship. For 10 points, name this German philosopher who theorized the dialectic and wrote The Phenomenology of Spirit.

Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche

This thinker claimed that all language is metaphor in "On Truth and Lies in a Non-Moral Sense." He critiqued the "herd mentality" of previous thinkers, and wrote a philosophical autobiography with chapters including "Why I Write Such Great Books" and "Why I am a Destiny". This author of Human, All Too Human and (*) Ecce Homo outlined the difference between Appolonian and Dionysian aesthetics in The Birth of Tragedy, and discussed the prophesy of the Ubermench in Also Sprach Zarathustra . For 10 points, name this German philosopher of Beyond Good and Evil, who claimed that "God is dead."

Francis Bacon

This thinker compared experimenters to ants and dogmatists to spiders, concluding that the true philosopher should emulate the bee. He wrote a novel about a group of Europeans who find the college Salomon's House on the island of Bensalem. This author of (*) The New Atlantis argued that thinkers should purge themselves of the "Idols of the Theater" in a book outlining the scientific method. For 10 points, name this 17th-century philosopher, who wrote the Novum Organum.

Immanuel Kant

This thinker compared rational religion to a naked body in Religion within the Bounds of Bare Reason, and discussed pure and mixed ratiocination in The False Subtlety of the Four Syllogistic Figures. He gave "emergence from self-incurred immaturity" as the answer to the title question in "What is Enlightenment?" This author of Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals distinguished between a priori and a posteriori knowledge. For 10 points, name this German formulator of the categorical imperative and author of Critique of Pure Reason.

Plato

This thinker compared the soul to a chariot with two horses representing the rational, spirited, and appetitive. He invented the third man argument. Porphyry [PORE-fur-ee] and Plotinus revived this man's ideas. This philosopher considered that all observable characteristics of objects are copies of ideal abstractions in an alternate world. This thinker used his theory of (*) Forms in a metaphor explaining that reality may really just be prisoners chained to the wall of a cave. He wrote about love at a drinking party, and, in a dialogue about justice, considered philosopher-kings who govern The Republic. For 10 points, name this student of Socrates.

Arthur Schopenhauer

This thinker compares the activity of the retina with Yin and Yang, in that it is composed of two separate parts that seek to reunite. One of this man's works supports works of Monism, such as the Upanishads, and this philosopher described three forms of freedom in his On the Freedom of the Will. This philosopher deduced that people perceive their bodies through [*] two concepts that differ due to alternate human perspectives and described aesthetics as appealing because it involves images occupying our mind, which in his doctrine, he defined as evil. For 10 points, name this philosopher who wrote On Vision and Colors and The World as Will and Representation.

John Locke

This thinker condemned religious persecution in "A Letter Concerning Toleration". This man believed that since knowledge was gained only through experience, the mind was, at birth, a blank slate or "tabula rasa" in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. For 10 points, identify this English philosopher who refuted the divine right of kings in "Two Treatises on Government" and stated that all men were entitled to life, liberty, and property.

Søren Kierkegaard

This thinker considered dread worse than the first title concept in one work because dread has no specific object and reflects the emptiness of the self. This thinker claimed that one must reconcile the "finite with the infinite" in order to eliminate despair. This author drew on his relationship with Regine Olsen to write the section "Diary of a Seducer" in a work that contrasts a (*) hedonistic lifestyle with an ethical one. He asked "Is there an Absolute Duty to God?" in regards to Abraham's willingness to sacrifice Isaac. For 10 points, name this Danish existentialist author of The Sickness Unto Death, Either/Or and Fear and Trembling.

Herbert Spencer

This thinker decried what he saw as a corruption of classical liberalism in a book that contains chapters such as "The New Toryism" and "The Great Political Superstition." That work by this man is his 1884 libertarian tract The Man Versus the State. This man's best known quote is drawn from his 1864 book (*) Principles of Biology, which was partially inspired by a book that describes natural selection in galapagos finches. This man tried to apply concepts from On the Origin of Species to human society. For 10 points, name this prominent English Social Darwinist who coined the term "survival of the fittest."

Bishop George Berkeley

This thinker defended Christianity against freethinkers in Alcipheron and attacked the notion of fluxions and their use in calculus in The Analyst. He argued that human knowledge exists of only ideas and spirits in one work and argued against the rational (*) materialism of Locke in another. He most famously claimed that esse est precipi or "to be is to be perceived". For 10 points, name this idealist English philosopher, the author of Three Dialogues Between Hylas and Philonous, and namesake of a university in California.

Søren Kierkegaard

This thinker denotes the title concepts of one of his works as the "oscillating balance wheel" of Christian life. This philosopher points out the "inverted dialectic" of Christianity, a "double vision" that quantifies Christian ideals via their negative counterparts. This man despised (*) Hegelianism for its belief in absolute knowledge with the science of logic. According to him, "subjectivity is truth, and truth subjectivity." He described despair as homologous sin in The Sickness Unto Death. For 10 points, name this Danish "Father of Existentialism," the author of Fear and Trembling and Either/Or.

David Hume

This thinker depicted a debate between Pamphilus, Cleanthes, and Philo in one work. He wrote a six-volume history of England, and this man provided a counterexample to his Copy Principle by proposing a "missing [*] shade of blue." Also known for separating "is" from "ought", in his most famous work, he defined moral philosophy as "the science of human nature;" that work supposedly woke Kant from his "dogmatic slumber." For 10 points, name this Scottish empiricist author of Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion and An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding.

Immanuel Kant

This thinker described the beautiful, agreeable, good, and sublime types of the titular action in one work. This man distinguished between analytic and synthetic propositions and put forth the possibility of a priori knowledge in his most famous work. This author of Critique of Judgement outlined an ethical rule based in duty that states that every moral question has an absolute answer that must be followed. For 10 points, name this German Idealist philosopher who wrote Critique of Pure Reason and formulated the Categorical Imperative.

Michel Foucault

This thinker developed an interest in neoliberalism toward the end of his career and believed it to be "much less disciplinarian" than communism or socialism. In one work, he distinguished between characterizations of a certain behavior in the Renaissance, "classical," and modern periods and described a "Great Confinement." This thinker considered the execution of the regicide (*) Robert-François Damiens as well as the "unequal gaze" of the panopticon in a book whose title contrasts the different purposes of penal systems. For 10 points, name this French post-structuralist thinker who wrote History of Madness and Discipline and Punish.

Immanuel Kant

This thinker differentiated duties which must always be followed from those that are contingent, calling them "perfect" and "imperfect." This philosopher's conception of duty requires one to be able to perform whatever they are morally obligated to, summarized by the phrase "ought implies can." Benjamin Constant triggered him to write that, even to save someone from a murderer, one should never (*) lie. His Metaphysics of Morals expands on the Groundwork for it he wrote earlier, which advises one to act according to what pure practical reason tells him can be made a universalizable maxim. For 10 points, what deontologist formulated the categorical imperative and wrote Critique of Pure Reason?

Soren Kierkegaard

This thinker discussed a Young Man who leaves his fiancee in one work and wrote a "Concluding Unscientific Postscript" to another. In addition to Repetition and Philosophical Fragments, this author discusses the raising of [*] Lazarus in his The Sickness unto Death, while another work contrasts the "Knight of infinite resignation" with an essential belief in the absurd and explains Abraham's sacrifice of Isaac four ways. For 10 points, give the real name of this pseudonym-using Danish philosopher, the Christian existentialist author of Fear and Trembling and Either-Or.

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (HAY-gul)

This thinker discussed his concept of Sittlichkeit (SIT-tlek-"kite"), or "ethical life," and criticized a work by Karl Ludwig von Hallerby in his Elements of the Philosophy of Right. During his time at the University of Heidelberg, he published his Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences, which includes a shortened version and some applications of his earlier The Science of Logic. This thinker is better known for another work that introduces the Master-Slave dialectic. For 10 points, name this German philosopher of The Phenomenology of Spirit.

William James

This thinker divided philosophers into "tough-minded" and "tender-minded" categories. In one essay, this man analyzed an argument over whether a man chasing a squirrel around a tree is going around the squirrel. This thinker defined truth as "what is useful" in a book subtitled, "A New Name for Some Old Ways of Thinking." For 10 points, name this American philosopher, the author of Pragmatism and The Principles of Psychology.

Thomas Aquinas

This thinker divided the passions into "irascible" and "concupiscible" categories. This author of Contra Errores Graecorum wrote one of his works to convert non-Christians by philosophical argument. Another work by this author of the Summa Contra Gentiles contains five arguments for the existence of God and unites Christian theology with an (*) Aristotelian worldview. For 10 points, name this Italian theologian who wrote the Summa Theologiae.

Søren Kierkegaard

This thinker engaged in a conflict with the satirical newspaper The Corsair and he stated that "truth is subjectivity." This philosopher proposed three stages of life including the aesthetic and religious, while one of his works contains the section "The Seducer's Diary." This philosopher examined the (*) teleological suspension of the ethical which allowed one person to become a knight of faith rather than infinite resignation; that example involves Abraham and Isaac. Johannes Climacus and Victor Eremita are among this thinker's pseudonyms. For 10 points, name this philosopher of the Danish golden age who wrote Either/Or andFear and Trembling.

Rene Descartes

This thinker examined seemingly contradictory statements with his namesake Theory of Fallacies, and in another work, he proposed examining a certain substance engulfed in flame in his "wax argument." He suggested the pineal gland is the interaction point between [*] mind and body, and, independently of Snell, formulated the law of reflection. Employing skepticism in his "Discourse on Method," for 10 points, name this 17th century French philosopher, who invented a namesake coordinate system and claimed "I think, therefore I am".

Rene

This thinker explained that God does not give humans the ability to err, but rather gives them only a limited ability to do right in his essay "Concerning the True and the False." This philosopher described a nervous system analogue called "animal spirits" in his Passions of the Soul. This philosopher wrote a work that offers four precepts of rightly conducted reason and three maxims to use the title subject to discover other truths. The appendix "La Geometrie" appears in this

Rene Descartes

This thinker hypothesized that the idea of the existence of God must be infinite, and have a cause that is infinite, which is God, in a circular argument. This thinker underwent a "metaphysical turn" and collected his metaphysics in a work allegedly spanning six days of meditation. This rationalist said that innate intellect, not the (*) senses, provided information about substance, since the senses could be betrayed by an evil demon. He answered the mind-body problem by proposing substance dualism. In his Discourse on Method, this thinker first used the cogito. For 10 points, name this French philosopher who said, "I think, therefore, I am."

Adam Smith

This thinker identified the "inner man" or "impartial spectator" with man's capacity for sympathy, which, together with self-preservation, contribute to the common good. This thinker also wrote a work in which he traced man's stages as a hunter-gatherer, nomadic agrarian, and feudal farmer. That work also formulated the basic labor theory of value and condemned mercantilism. The author of The Theory of Moral Sentiments, For 10 points, name this Scottish economist who wrote of an "invisible hand" guiding free markets in The Wealth of Nations.

Moses Maimonides or Moses ben Maimon or Rambam

This thinker invented the idea that it is better to acquit a thousand guilty persons than put a single innocent one to death. Influenced by neo-Platonists, he believed that it was only possible to describe God through what he was not, his so called negative theology. In this thinker's most famous work, he deals with the 613 laws of Moses, called the mitzvot, and argues against the anthropomorphism of God. That work was written in letter form to Rabbi Joseph Ben Judah. For 10 points, name this man who wrote commentaries on the Mishnah and The Guide for the Perplexed, a medieval Jewish philosopher.

Francis Bacon

This thinker invented the idols of the cave, tribe, theater, and marketplace to describe human misperception of reality, and he wrote about an ideal college on Bensalem named Salomon's House. This philosopher who criticized Aristotelian syllogism pioneered the inductive method in one work and described an island utopia in another. For 10 points, name this English philosopher, the creator of the scientific method and author of The New Atlantis and Novum Organum.

Socrates

This thinker made strides in the field of ethics with his elenchus (el-eng-khos), and he noticed that great men such as Pericles often did not produce sons of quality and thus questioned the Sophistic doctrine that arete (air-tee), or virtue, could be taught, as exemplified by his attempts to teach [*] Meno. This philosopher's paradoxes state that no man desires evil, and that virtue alone is sufficient for happiness. This man stated "I know that I know nothing." For 10 points, name this philosopher whose trial and subsequent death by hemlock was recorded in his student Plato's Apology.

Ludvig Wittgenstein

This thinker noted that there are overlapping features but no common one for games in describing "family resemblance." This philosopher who invented the picture theory of language wrote that "the world is everything that is the case" and "where one cannot (*) speak, one must be silent" as the first and last propositions of one of his early works. This thinker also created a "beetle in a box" thought experiment, and wrote about "language games" and "family resemblances" in the later Philosophical Investigations. For 10 points, identify this Austrian-British philosopher and author of Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus.

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel

This thinker observed that quantity is determined by a saturation of ones in a void. This man expressed that thought and being are equivalent and that thinking is only the Spirit expressing itself and only finished the first part of his proposed "System of Science." This author of Science of Logic and Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences described three spheres of rightness: abstract right, moral right, and ethical life which involves including morality in everyday life, in his [*] Elements of The Philosophy of Right. For 10 points, name this philosopher who discusses the master-slave dialectic in his The Phenomenology of Spirit.

Immanuel Kant

This thinker outlined a world government to prevent wars in his essay "Perpetual Peace." One of this philosopher's describes the beautiful, good, agreeable and sublime forms of the aesthetic. This thinker attempted to discern whether synthetic a priori knowledge was possible, and became a philosopher after reading Hume's challenge to induction. This author of (*) Critique of Judgement argued that an action was ethical only if it could be universally applied without contradicting itself. For 10 points, name this philosopher who devised the "categorical imperative" and wrote Critique of Pure Reason.

Soren Kierkegaard (don't mention this unless the player argues, but there are many pseudonyms for Kierkegaard; prompt on any correct pseudonym, which you can verify with a quick google)

This thinker potentially critiqued Hegel's prose by starting one of his works with a notoriously difficult to understand definition of self. This thinker likely used the example of Agnes and the Merman to reconcile his failed relationship with Regina Olsen, and he wrote (*) The Sickness Unto Death. This thinker described the teleological suspension of the ethical performed by the knight of faith, who is contrasted with the knight of infinite resignation. This philosopher analyzed Abraham's near sacrifice of his son Isaac in Fear and Trembling. For 10 points, name this early existentialist, a Danish philosopher who used lots of pseudonyms when writing Either/Or.

John Rawls

This thinker proposed a method of operating under the assumptions of ideal theory before attempting to reform the non-ideal world. People support the same laws for different reasons in his conception of "overlapping consensus", and an individual's specific judgments and general beliefs are completely coherent in his proposed state of reflective equilibrium. The attributes of citizens are hidden from their representatives behind a "veil of ignorance" in a work of his which theorizes the title concept "as fairness". For 10 points, name this liberal American philosopher who wrote A Theory of Justice.

Immanuel Kant

This thinker refers to ethical societies as "the church invisible" in his work Religion Within the Limits of Reason Alone. This man states that schemata ["skee-MAH-tah"] link pure concepts and sensory experiences in one text. In an essay, this man uses the phrase "man's emergence from his self-imposed immaturity" to characterize (*) Enlightenment. This thinker is notable for his ideas of "the thing in itself" and the categorical imperative. For 10 points, name this German author of the Critique of Pure Reason.

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel

This thinker rejected the objective form of the title concept for the subjective in The Science of Logic. This thinker argued that men like Caesar and Napoleon advanced the title concept and asserted that German society was the peak of human development in two of his works. In his most famous work, this author of Lectures on the Philosophy of (*) History and The Philosophy of Right described the evolution of consciousness towards "Absolute Knowledge" and the synthesis of the thesis and antithesis to form the "dialectic". For 10 points, name this German philosopher, author of The Phenomenology of Spirit.

Ludwig Wittgenstein

This thinker responded to the "hand" argument of G.E. Moore in his essay "On Certainty." In another philosophical work, he analyzes a shopping list of "five red apples" and considers the "beetle in a box" as an analogy for pain. His explanation that there can be no private language and that humans use "language games" appears in (*) Philosophical Investigations. Another of his works ends with the proposition, "What we cannot speak about we must pass over in silence." For 10 points, name the logical positivist author, who threatened Karl Popper with a fireplace poker several years after writing Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus.

Karl Marx

This thinker responded to the idea that the title group must give up their identity for political freedom in On the Jewish Question. He wrote a thorough critique of Hegel's Elements of the Philosophy of Right. This man worked on a treatise that criticized the title system for exploitation of the labor market. Another work cowritten by this thinker described the ideal triumph of the (*) proletariat over the bourgeoisie. For 10 points, name this German philosopher who with Friedrich Engels wrote Das Kapital and The Communist Manifesto.

Jean-Paul Sartre

This thinker used the example of a Jew failing a French poetry exam to contrast the views of the two title people in his work Anti-Semite and Jew. He broke from Husserl's description of the self in his The Transcendence of the Ego. In another of his works, historian Antoine Roquentin feels that inanimate objects encroach on his freedom and cause the title sensation. Another of his works describes "the history of negation" and "bad faith." For 10 points, name this existential philosopher of the novel Nausea and Being and Nothingness who also wrote plays like No Exit.

PPI is read "PP one", PPII is read "PP two"; PPIII is read "PP three." ZAMS is read "ZAMS".

This thinker used the example of picking an apple to claim that an individual earns property by putting labor into it, up to the spoilage condition. After an upflare in Catholicism, this philosopher wrote a letter insisting that a magistrate has no right to force religion on people. This man distinguished legislative, executive, and federative power in a text which argues that (*) people have the right to regress to the state of nature if it is preferable to tyranny. His insistence on natural rights of life, liberty, and property influenced Thomas Jefferson. For 10 points, name this English political philosopher who wrote Two Treatises of Government.

John Stuart Mill

This thinker used the example of the Spartans and the Amazons as reasoning against the title action in one work. In another of his works, this man posited five principles for inductive reasoning, known as his namesake "methods." Though not Malthus, this man wrote a textbook called Principles of Political Economy, and this author of A System of Logic was inspired by Jeremy Bentham for another work. This author of The Subjection of Women described actions made by democratic leaders that greatly oppress individuals to the point of despotism as the "tyranny of the majority" in his most famous work. For 10 points, name this philosopher of Utilitarianism and On Liberty.

David Hume

This thinker used the phrase "fell dead-born from the press" to describe the reception of his first philosophy book. He detailed attempts to reason from logical organization within nature to the existence of a God by Demea, Philo and Cleanthes in his Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion. This philosopher distinguished two types of knowledge via his namesake fork, gave a negative resolution to the "is-ought" problem, and objected to his own skepticism by bringing up the "missing shade of blue". For 10 points, name this author of An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, an 18th-century Scotsman.

Herbert Spencer

This thinker viewed society as a "superorganism" evolving towards a perfect equilibrium. This thinker's ideas were applied to American society by William Graham Sumner. In books such as (*) Social Statics, this thinker argued that regulations to help the poor interfered with natural selection. For 10 points, name this British social Darwinist who coined the phrase "survival of the fittest."

Aristotle

This thinker was succeeded by Theophrastus (THEE-oh-FRASS-tuss) as leader of his school. Commentaries on his work form the bulk of the philosophy of Averroes (AH-vuh-ROE-ess). He named his major work on ethics after his son, and he put forth the "impetus" theory of motion in his Physics. This leader of the Peripatetic school was a (*) tutor of Alexander the Great, and himself was a student of Plato. For 10 points, name this ancient Greek, whose Politics and Nichomachean Ethics are foundational texts of philosophy.

Soren Kierkegaard

This thinker was the sole writer and publisher of a magazine that criticized the government of his home nation, The Moment. One of his works defining Socratic wisdom is called Philosophical Fragments, while his The Seducer's Diary is a section of a work where Cornelia is wooed by the writer Johannes Climacus. That work in its entirety is written by four pseudonymous authors: Climacus, A, B, and "the judge," while it was compiled by Victor Eremita. The author of Sickness unto Death and Fear and Trembling, for 10 points, name this Danish philosopher who wrote Either/Or.

Soren Aabye Kierkegaard

This thinker was the subject of ridicule by the newspaper The Corsair, and near the end of his life he attacked the bishop H.L. Martensen in several letters. This author of The Concept of Anxiety presented three forms of despair in his Sickness unto Death, which he wrote under the pseudonym Anti-Climacus. He contrasts the aesthetic and ethical ways of life in his book Either/Or, while another work by him centers on Abraham's decision to sacrifice his son Isaac. For 10 points, name this Danish philosopher of Fear and Trembling.

Georg Hegel

This thinker who called Jakob Fries the "ringleader of the hosts of superficiality" was re-popularized by Wilhelm Dilthey. Being, Essence, and Comprehension form the basis for one of his works, while in another work he used his idea of sublation, or aufhebung, to explain the relationship between master and slave. Most famous for a work outlining the path from consciousness to absolute knowledge, this is, FTP, what German author of Lectures on the Philosophy of History, Science of Logic, and The Phenomenology of Spirit who discussed the dialectic?

David Hume

This thinker wrote a six volume history of Great Britain. He frequently used the his namesake school's wrecking ball to demolish the ideas of rationalists, and wrote a work in which Philo is the projection of himself, Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion. He argued against the title concept as widespread falsehoods in On Miracles, despite his thoughts on inherent lack of causation due to lack of formal knowledge. Harold Pritchard criticized his failure to address the problem of the "missing shade of blue" in one work. For 10 points, name this Scottish philosopher and proponent of empiricism, who wrote An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding.

Søren Aabye Kierkegaard

This thinker wrote about "infinite absolute negativity" in his university thesis, which contrasts many portrayals of Socrates and compares Socrates to Jesus. In another of his works, a series of letters from Judge William to "A" warn that a choice between the aesthetic and ethical stages must not become meaningless. This author of The Concept of Irony used the pseudonymous author Johannes de Silentio to describe "knights of faith," whose exemplar is Abraham in his willingness to sacrifice his son. For 10 points, name this Christian author of Either/Or and Fear and Trembling, a philosopher from Denmark.

Platon

This thinker wrote about a regime where honor or love of honor reigns supreme, called timarchy or timocracy. He also likened our desires to an orderly white horse and a wild dark horse pulling the chariot of the soul. This man wrote about a Lydian who can become invisible by turning a ring on his finger and group of people who see by the light of a fire behind them and try to identify shadows on the wall. This author of Phaedrus likened the soul to an ideal city in a ten-book work featuring his theory of Forms and the allegory of the cave. For 10 points, name this Greek philosopher whose Republic is a dialogue featuring his master Socrates.

Jean-Paul Sartre

This thinker wrote about a woman on a date, who pretends her hand doesn't exist when a man starts to hold it. This man preceded Laura Mulvey in using the example of spying through a keyhole to describe the objectifying "look" or "gaze" of the Other. This man correlated "facticity" and "transcendence" with the "in-itself" and the "for-itself." He used the example of a waiter in a café to illustrate "bad faith," and claimed in a lecture on his philosophy "as a Humanism" that "existence precedes essence," giving humans radical freedom to define themselves by choice. For 10 points, name this author of Being and Nothingness, a lover of Simone de Beauvoir and French existentialist.

Karl Marx

This thinker wrote that the point of philosophy is not to interpret the world but to change it in his Theses on Feuerbach. This author of The Critique of the Gotha Program claims that all history is the "history of class struggles" in a work that begins by stating that a "spectre is haunting Europe". For 10 points, name this German philosopher who exclaimed "workers of the world, unite!" in Das Kapital and, with Fredrick Engels, wrote The Communist Manifesto.

Bertrand Russell

This thinker's "no class" theory of classes addressed a problem arising from use of the unrestricted comprehension axiom and led to his formulation of type theory. In one work, this thinker interprets Lee Smolin's argument that the universe is perfect for sustaining black holes and maintains that the human brain is a handicap which God had no need to give mankind. In a collaboration with Alfred Whitehead, he attempted to work from a set of axioms to translate mathematical truths into symbolic logic. For 10 points, name this British philosopher who wrote Principia Mathematica.

Immanuel Kant

This thinker's Inaugural Essay distinguished between intellectual thought and sensible receptivity. He expanded on Swedenborg's nebular hypothesis of the formation of the solar system. In one work, this philosopher defined the Enlightenment by the phrase "Sapere aude," or "Dare to know," maintaining that one should think autonomously. this author of Groundwork on the Metaphysics of Morals, in which he introduced his categorical imperative, also wrote a work splitting synthetic and analytic judgments into a priori and a posteriori types. For 10 points, name this Prussian philosopher, author of Critique of Pure Reason.

Ludwig Wittgenstein

This thinker's best-known work ends with the line "What we cannot speak about we must pass over in silence." He used several examples of language games in his Blue and Brown Books, while another of his works uses the thought experiment of a "beetle-in-a-box" to argue against the idea of a private language. That work, Philosophical Investigations, expands on many of the ideas this philosopher introduced in a work with a three-word Latin title. For 10 points, name this 20th century philosopher of Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus.

Immanuel Kant

This thinker's comparison of pure concepts to those formed empirically through the categories of "schema" was criticized by Arthur Schopenhauer. He answered the title question as "Man's emergence from his self-incurred immaturity" in the essay "What is Enlightenment?", and claimed to have been awakened by David Hume from his (*) "dogmatic slumber." This philosopher identified a moral maxim in which one acts only when wishing something to be "universal law." This man analyzed synthetic a priori truths and formulated the concept of the categorical imperative. For 10 points, name this German philosopher who wrote the Critique of Pure Reason.

Martin Luther

This thinker's controversial ideas earned him excommunication in the papal bull Decet Romanum Pontificem, and another of his works prompted the papal bull Exsurge Domine. His work On the Freedom of a Christian theorized the doctrine of salvation by faith alone, and in another more political work, he condemned the sale of indulgences. For 10 points, name this philosopher and theologian who sparked the Protestant Reformation with the publication of his Ninety-Five Theses.

Rene Descartes

This thinker's last published work outlined his theory of emotions as the movements of spirits and was titled Passions of the Soul. This thinker also published his theory of light and the movements of corpuscules in the universe in a work often paired with The Man entitled The World. This thinker claimed that because sensory perceptions are involuntary, the external world must exist, and he also claimed that the mind and the body were entirely separate and interacted through the pineal gland, which is known as his namesake Dualism. FTP, identify this thinker who wrote Discourse on Method and a series of Meditations, and made the assertion "I think, therefore I am."

Francis Bacon, Viscount Saint Albans

This thinker's minor works include a History of Henry VII. Many of his philosophical works were penned for a Latin collection known as the Instauratio Magna, as with his De augmentis scientiarum. Better known are a work that describes Salamon's House and a utopian society on the island of Bensalem, as well as a work in which he outlines four (*) "idols of the mind" that oppose his empirical system. For 10 points, identify this English philosopher of The New Atlantis and the Novum Organum, who is often credited with formulating the scientific method.

The Republic

This work advocates the ostracism of artists who experiment with new forms of expression. One section of this work considers whether a just man would remain just had he no accountability in the story of the Ring of (*) Gyges. Another section of this work analogizes the concept of goodness to the sun, whose rays are necessary to illuminate the truth of the world. For 10 points, name this magnum opus of Plato that articulates a comprehensive political and metaphysical worldview.

Fear and Trembling

This work ends with a discussion of Heraclitus, while earlier the author discusses a "teleological suspension of the ethical" in one of three chapters entitled "Problema." Those chapters are used to explain the actions of a person who is contrasted with the knight of infinite resignation, the knight of faith. Written under the pseudonym John the Silent and published the same year as its author's Either/Or, this work centers on (*) Abraham's decision to sacrifice his son Isaac. For 10 points, name this philosophical text by Soren Kierkegaard.

The Prince

This work argues that prophets such as Moses succeeded in gaining influence only through success in armed conflict. One chapter in this work mentions several options for persons who conquer republican states, and a later chapter in this work suggests that its author's sponsor should use the power of the Papacy to conquer Italy. This work has been interpreted as satire, since its author argued for republicanism in the Discourses on Livy, and one passage from this work states that it is better to be feared than loved. For 10 points, name this political tract, the best-known work of Niccolo Machiavelli.

On Liberty

This work claims that "a state which dwarfs its men...will find that with small men no little thing can be accomplished." It claims that humans should aim for "individuality of power and development," and this work argues that truth does not always triumph. One section asks whether non-believers should be punished by a country's ban on eating pork. Chapter I warns against a "tyranny of the majority," and it asserts that society can only compel individuals to act when their actions affect others, an idea known as the "harm principle." Written by the author of Utilitarianism, For 10 points, name this essay "on" the title concept by John Stuart Mill.

Critique of Pure Reason

This work claims that it is impossible to derive that two lines cannot contain space from the definitions of a straight line and the number two. Its author believes that one can never know the empirical ego, since the mind can only experience itself through filtered perception, the transcendental ego. This work posits a phenomenal and a noumenal world, the latter of which is unknowable. It argues that the mind uses twelve categories, including causality, to interpret and impose order on the world, and claims that a priori knowledge can be either analytic or synthetic. For 10 points, name this work by Immanuel Kant, the first of his Critiques.

Or, the Matter, Forme, and Power of a Commonwealth Ecclesiastical and Civil

This work claims that the misinterpretation of scripture can result in an ignorant "confederacy of deceivers". Although this work affirms the fear of violent death, or summum malum, it rejects the opposing concept of the greatest good, or summum bonum. The first section of this work, "Of Man", posits the state of nature as a (*) "war of all against all", and the twelve principal rights of the sovereign are listed out in its section "Of Commonwealth". This work describes life as "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short". For ten points, name this philosophical book written in support of the absolute monarchy in England, a work of Thomas Hobbes.

Thus Spake Zarathustra (accept Also Sprach Zarathustra)

This work claims that the words "brotherly love" have led to "the best lying and dissembling" in its section "The Spirit of Gravity," and it called for the creation of new values in the section "Old and New Tables." The most famous quote from this work first appeared in its author's earlier tract The (*) Gay Science, and it discusses the ideas of the "superman" and the "the will to power" and was also the inspiration for a Richard Strauss tone poem. FTP, name this work, in which the title character, an ancient Persian mystic, asserts that "god is dead," written by Friedrich Nietzsche.

Leviathan or The Matter, Forme and Power of a Common Wealth Ecclesiasticall and Civil

This work compares the failure of society to the idea of "defectuous procreation," which can result from "supernatural inspiration" or self-interest. This work argues that failure to adhere to true Christian principles and doctrines leads to a "Kingdom of Darkness," and this work examines the relationship between civil law and natural law in a Christian commonwealth. This work's section "Of Man" argues the idea that the state of nature consists of total war of "every man against every man," and that life is "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short." For 10 points, name this work that argues for absolute monarchy, written by Thomas Hobbes.

A Prelude to a Philosophy of the Future

This work concludes with the wedding of Light and Dark in "the midday of life" in the aftersong "From High Mountains." It condemns Christianity as "Platonism for the 'people,'" and contrasts the dogmatism of philosophers past against the fearless "free spirits" who will replace them. It contains 296 aphorisms, including "If you look long into the abyss, the abyss will also gaze into you." The narrator asks "What is noble?" and "Supposing that Truth is a woman - what then?" For 10 points, name this work that precedes On the Genealogy of Morals and advocates rising above traditional morality, written by Friedrich Nietzsche.

Critique of Pure Reason

This work considers statements such as "the soul is simple" and "the soul is a substance" as the "paralogisms" of its title subject. This work's section "The Metaphysical Deduction" explains the evolution of pure concepts of understanding, which are called "categories." This work proposed that results from geometry and simple physics might be potential synthetic a priori truths. For 10 points, name this best-known work of Immanuel Kant followed by similarly titled examinations of "judgment" and "practical reason."

Utopia

This work describes communities that have festivals on the first and last day of every month in a location formerly known as Abraxa. The beginning of this work centers on a conversation with Peter Giles in Antwerp. This work describes a river called Anhydrus and a capital city called Amaurot and focuses on a crescent-shaped island located fifteen miles off the coast of South America. For 10 points, identify this novel in which Raphael Hythloday describes the title imaginary society, a work of Thomas More.

Common Sense

This work discusses a group stranded on an island and forced to form a government. This work recommends a ceremony in which a crown is used to demonstrate that "law is king." Titled by Benjamin Rush, this work mentions the absurdity of an island ruling a continent. This work suggests that government is a "necessary evil." Written by the author of The Rights of Man, for 10 points, name this pamphlet written in 1776 by Thomas Paine.

A Study in Magic and Religion

This work discusses the names of the dead as "Tabooed Words" and human sacrifice in fire-festivals. It discusses the "Killing of the Tree-Spirit" with reference to a ritual murder governing the succession of Nemi's priesthood of Diana. It includes a chapter on the Corn-spirit as various animals, and compares Attis and Adonis to Osiris. With a discussion of Christian imagery removed in later editions, it was titled after an object used to gain access to the underworld in the Aeneid. For 10 points, name this work of comparative religion and mythology by James Frazer.

Thus Spake Zarathustra

This work includes the metaphor of the tighrope walker and quotes its author's previous work in a discussion with the traditionalist Old Man. The title figure of this work converses with "the saint," and then addresses a crowd, urging them "not to believe those who speak to you of superearthly hopes," for they are "poisoners," while also asking what any of the crowd has done to "surpass man", a speech he makes after descending from the mountain. Also including discussion of eternal recurrence and the concept of the ubermensch, for 10 points, what is this "book for all and none", a text by Friedrich Nietzsche titled after a Persian religious founder?

A Room of One's Own

This work is based on a series of lectures given to Newnham and Girton Colleges. The first section of this work features a narrator who loses a "little fish" of an idea after being told to stay off the Oxbridge grass, and later on, this work discusses Life's Adventure by Mary Carmichael. Another section of this work describes the predicament of a hypothetical "Judith Shakespeare". For 10 points, name this essay which advocates for financial freedom and better education as means toward promoting more writing by women, by Virginia Woolf.

An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding

This work makes a distinction between chance and probability and describes how events that occur in the universe cannot be determined by chance, in "On Probability." This work's author dismissed the claim that ideas can arise without impressions, a problem raised by determining a missing shade of blue. This work critiques the possibility of a "violation of the laws of nature" in its section "Of Miracles." It differentiates between "relations of ideas" and "matters of fact," which leads the author to question whether we can trust scientific claims, which are based on inductive inferences. For 10 points, name this empiricist work written by David Hume.

The Leviathan or the Matter, Forme and Power of a Common Wealth Ecclesiasticall and Civil

This work notes the similarity between "one action of many men and the many actions of one multitude" in the section titled "Of the Difference of Manners." This work's fourth part considers scriptural misinterpretation, which can bring about the "Kingdom of Darkness." This work's posthumous follow-up consisted of a dialogue between A and B about the nature of rebellion. This work includes the phrase "bellum omnium contra omnes" and asserts that life is "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short." For 10 points, identify this book advocating an absolute monarchy by Thomas Hobbes.

Das Kapital

This work states that the old dialectic method "must be turned right side up again, if you would discover the rational kernel within the mystical shell." This work explains how the CMC pathway has been replaced by the MCM pathway. Karl Kautsky published this work's intended fourth volume entitled Theories of Surplus Value. In this work, the titular concept's "production begets, with the inexorability of a law of nature, its own negation." The free enterprise system exists as a contradiction, for 10 points, as described in this German economic work, co-written by Friedrich Engels and Karl Marx, which shares a name with cities such as London and Berlin.

The Prince

This work suggests that it is better to give citizens weapons freely rather than forcibly confiscate them. It asserts that it is better for one to have barons than servants, and mercenaries are declared to be both useless and disloyal in this work. This book warns against flatterers, and it personifies fortune as a woman that must be controlled. It praises Cesare Borgia and also advises rulers to be both a fox and a lion. This work declares that it is better to be feared than loved. For 10 points, name this political treatise written for one of the Medicis by Niccolo Machiavelli.

Leviathan

This work uses the term plenum to refer to the universe and dismisses demonology as erroneous in a section referring to a "Confederacy of Deceivers;" that section is "Of the Kingdom of Darkness." A crowned giant symbolizing this work's title concept appears on its (*) frontispiece, and its second section, Of Common-wealth, describes the twelve rights of the sovereign and judges monarchy superior to aristocracy and democracy. This book describes life in a state of nature as a "war of all against all," causing life to be "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short." For 10 points, name this political treatise named after a Biblical sea monster written by Thomas Hobbes.

The Republic

This work's end describes the Spindle of Necessity, and tells of a warrior who recounts his trip through the afterlife in the Myth of Er. In this work, Thrasymachus defines justice as "what is good for the stronger." It discusses the intelligible versus the visible world using the analogy of the divided line, and explains its author's Theory of Forms in a discussion of shackled prisoners who compete to identify shadows, the Allegory of the Cave. It claims that the ideal state should be governed by philosopher-kings. For 10 points, name this Greek philosophical work by Plato.

Leviathan, The Matter, Form and Power of a Commonwealth Ecclesiastical and Civil

This work's end discusses the "rule of cui bono" and the "confederacy of deceivers" contributing to the Kingdom of Darkness. It questions why the Ten Commandments are regarded as law in a section on "Christian commonwealths." The first section states that men are driven to conflict by competition, diffidence, and glory. It claims that there will be a "war of all against all" unless a strong sovereign prevents the state of nature, which makes life "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short." For 10 points, name this 1651 treatise by Thomas Hobbes.

Soren Kierkegaard

This writer opened one work with a description of a banquet entitled "In Vino Veritas." The "Diapsalmata" and "Diary Of A Seducer" are found in an earlier work which contrasted two spheres of existence, the aesthetic and ethical. Another work by this author of Stages On Life's Way used the "knight of faith" and (*) Abraham's sacrifice of Isaac to argue for a "teleological suspension of the ethical". For 10 points, name this Danish philosopher of Either/Or and Fear And Trembling.

Niccolò (di Bernardo dei) Machiavelli

This writer's best known work states that "There are three classes of intellects: one which comprehends by itself; another which appreciates what others comprehended; and a third which neither comprehends by itself nor by the showing of others." This person also wrote a work discussing the actions in another writer's book Ab urbe condita, a history of Rome. This person wrote it is safer to be feared than loved, and he described different ways for leaders to gain and maintain power. Name this thinker who worked for Piero Soderini, was fascinated by Cesare [chay-ZAR-ay] Borgia, and wrote a dedication to Lorenzo di Piero de' Medici in his book The Prince.

truth

Thomas Aquinas famously stated that Isaac Israeli defined this concept as the "equation of things and intellect." One theory of this concept argues that it is only a linguistic tool. Another argues that it is determined in groups. Those are the "deflationary" and "consensus" models of this concept, respectively. Aristotle defined this concept as "to say of what is that it is." The "correspondence" theory of this concept holds that this concept relies on thoughts matching the outside world. Tables named for this concept are used to test logical validity. For 10 points, name this philosophical condition, frequently contrasted with falsehood.

epicureanism

Thomas Jefferson wrote a letter to William Short saying that they belonged to this school of philosophy, which received some support in the Renaissance starting with Lorenzo Valla. In Oenoanda, which is in modern-day Turkey, its tenets were carved onto a large stone wall. One of its followers, who used the term clinamen to describe the unexplainable swerving of atoms, was Lucretius. Believers of this philosophy tried to attain ataraxia by denying the existence of an afterlife. Identify this ancient Greek school that met in The Garden and which is often contrasted with Stoicism.

Heraclitus

Though Pythagoras may have coined the word "kosmos", this man was the first to use it in any extant text, and he claimed the universe had a fundamental unity he termed "logos." He expressed the intrinsic similarity in being asleep and awake in his "unity of opposites" theory. Only one of this philosopher's works, "On Nature", survives, in which he argued that all existence was in flux, being constantly formed from or destroyed by fire, which he posited was the fundamental substance. For 10 points, name this ancient philosopher, known for positing that one cannot step into the same river twice.

utilitarianism

Torbjorn Tannsjo claimed that this concept is consistent with the "method of coherentism." It was defended in The Methods of Ethics by Henry Sidgwick, and outlined by its formulator in The Principles of Morals and Legislation. This philosophy holds that the moral worth of an action is determined by felicific calculus, and one work titled for it was published following its author's On Liberty. Founded by Jeremy Bentham, for 10 points, name this philosophy that strives for the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people, which also titles a treatise by J. S. Mill.

the Republic

Two "noble lies" discussed in this work are the "Myth of Metals" and a story about a man who witnesses divine judgement before coming back from the dead. This book criticizes democracy in an story where a boat's navigator is overpowered by an incompetent crew, the (*) "Ship of Fools." The visible and intelligible worlds are represented by segments on a "divided line" in this work which also contains a metaphor about people who only see shadows because they are trapped underground. For 10 points, name this philosophical text about government containing "The Allegory of the Cave" and written by Plato.

free will

Via the doctrine of incompatibilism, it has been stated that Laplace's demon is an argument against this concept. Philosopher Daniel Dennett defended this concept from that attack by arguing that rather than a concrete future there can only be expectations. William James defined a two stage model for this concept in which options are first determined and then each is evaluated. Famously rejected by Jean Calvin and opposed to the idea of predestination, this concept is defined as the ability of a rational actor to choose a course of action from among various alternatives. For 10 points, name this philosophical idea, the idea that our actions are not predetermined.

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel

Walter Kaufmann offered a "reinterpretation" of this thinker, whose works inspired an Alexander Kojeve book about "reading" him. This man claimed that the title concept progressed westward from Asia to Europe, bypassing Africa, in his Lectures on the Philosophy of History. He wrote the first volume of a planned "System of Science," which claims that all power relationships can be boiled down to the (*) dialectic. For 10 points, name this German idealist who wrote works like the Philosophy of Right and The Phenomenology of Spirit.

the existence of God

William Lane Craig championed a syllogism on this idea derived from kalam philosophy. Gaunilo of Marmoutiers imagined a "more excellent" island to refute an argument for this idea found in the Proslogion. The existence of contingent things and the concept of an "unmoved mover" are two of the (*) "Five Ways" that one man argued for this position. This position is supported by the teleological argument, which often uses the "watchmaker analogy," and by Anselm's ontological argument. This position is challenged by arguments based on the existence of evil. For 10 points, identify this idea that atheists oppose.

Utilitarianism

William Paley popularized a theological version of this philosophy, which was based on the earlier works of John Gay. Henry Sidgwick promoted this philosophy in The Methods of Ethics and The Elements of Politics. One early proponent of this philosophy created the hedonic calculus, which measures pleasure and pain based on variables such as intensity, duration, and extent, while that man's successor in this movement used it to argue for equality of the sexes in The Subjection of Women. For 10 points, name this philosophy pioneered by Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, which supports the greatest good for the greatest number of people.

evil

William Rowe imagined a fawn trapped in a forest fire in an essay defending this concept's evidential impact. JL Mackie's essay about this concept popularized the inconsistent triad, prompting Alvin Plantinga to formulate a defense of free will to explain this concept. Augustine's privation theory explains it as the absence of its counterpart. Hannah Arendt noticed the (*) "banality" of exponents of this concept. A theodicy explains the existence of this concept. The Epicurean paradox asks how this concept can co-exist with a benevolent God, which is called its namesake problem. For 10 points, name this concept, often contrasted with "good."

Adam Smith

Works by this thinker include Lectures on Jurisprudence and The Theory of Moral Sentiments, but this thinker's most famous work included a critique of mercantilism that was later used in Ricardo's theory of comparative advantage. That work attributed to the market an ability to manipulate prices, and introduced the term "invisible hand." For 10 points, name this thinker who wrote Wealth of Nations.

Greek tragedy

Works in this style required a chorus to sing a parodos and multiple stasima. This style may take its name from the goat skins worn by performers of dithyrambs. Book Six of Aristotle's Poetics defines it as "an imitation of an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude." In an annual contest, three of this type of play were presented along with a satyr play. For 10 points, name this style of Greek drama contrasted with comedy.

Marxism

Writers within this philosophical movement included the theorist of "reification" (RAY-if-ih-CAY-shun), Gyorgy Lukacs (jee-OR-jee LOO-kash). This school believes in a process that it calls "dialectical materialism." Another theorist of this movement stressed the need for a "vanguard" to bring about social change and wrote the article Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism. This school's concepts include the labor theory of value. For 10 points, name this political philosophy founded by the man who helped Frederich Engels write a certain Manifesto.