Philosophy

Anselm of Canterbury (1033-1109 AD)

"The Father of Scholasticism" -Italian priest -was a Benedictine monk who, seeking to defend faith by reasoning, created the first ontological argument to prove the existence of God. -Ontological Argument; fact that we have an idea of God proves that God exists. Imagined God cant be greater than existing one -Proslogion

George Berkeley (1685-1753)

"The only reality is in the mind" Nothing exists if it is not perceived. Physical qualities projected on environment. Ideas are the only things we experience directly and are therefore the only things we can be sure of. -Anything that stops being observed ceases to exist. No reality beyond the idea that we have -Unlike Locke, he thought we do perceive the world directly. That's because the world consists of nothing but ideas. -World and everything exist in the mind -"Esse est percipi"- to be (or exist) is to be perceived -example of bent oar in water -promoted "tar water"

Lucius Annaeus Seneca (4 BC- 65 AD)

(often known simply as Seneca, or Seneca the Younger) a Roman Stoic philosopher, statesman, dramatist, and in one work humorist, of the Silver Age of Latin literature. Wrote: Hercules Furens (The Madness of Hercules); Troades (The Trojan Women); Medea -"We have entered the kingdom of Fortune, whose rule is harsh and unconquerable, and at her whim we will endure suffering; deserved and undeserved" -"Do you bury friendship along with a friend?" -It's not about short time, but how we use it. Life is long enough to get plenty done -Becoming preoccupied with trivial work to avoid truth of what we failed to do -He urged readers to remove themselves from the crowd and avoid hiding from themselves by being busy -Spend your time reading philosophy. -Nero made him commit suicide

Thomas Reid (1710-1796)

-Had an idea that showed weakness in Locke's view -If old soldier remembered himself as brave young officer, and officer remembered childhood, then old soldier same as the child (if A= B, and B=C, then A-C)

Epictetus (55 AD-135 AD)

-Started out as slave, limp from a beating -Our thoughts are up to us. -Fighter pilot James Stockdale used this philosophy in Vietnam to survive

Plato (430-347 BCE)

-Was a disciple of Socrates whose cornerstone of thought was his theory of Forms, in which there was another world of perfection. -The world is not at all what it seems. Appearance vs. Reality -Shadows against cave walls example -Theory of Forms...idea of perfect circle is the Form of a circle -Concentration on Form rather than what you see (ex. Form of goodness, not examples) -The Republic: Philosophers at the top, soldiers, then workers on bottom. -He would have banned art as being a false representation of reality

Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677)

A Dutch-Jewish lens grinder who questioned tenets of Judaism and Christianity, which helped undermine religious authority in Europe. Although Spinoza personally believed in God, he rejected the concept of miracles, the religious supernatural, and the idea that the Bible was divinely inspired. Rather, he believed that ethics determined by rational thought were more important as a guide to conduct than was religion. -An excommunicated Jew -God is the world. God and Nature. It's like geometry -"Ethics" -Rationalism; There is an underlying structural logic to the world, nothing by chance; purpose and principle to it all -Liked being alone; modest living -If God is infinite, then cant be anything that isn't God -His version of God was impersonal and didn't care about stuff -You can and should love God, but don't expect anything back -He was a Determinist (every human action is a result of earlier action). We should let our emotions emerge from our actions rather than external events

Rene Descartes (1596-1650)

A French philosopher of rationalism who advocated for doubting all sources of truth in order to develop a more rational understanding of reality -A devout Christian; invented Cartesian coordinates from watching a fly on ceiling -"Meditations" and "Discourse on Method" -Didn't like to believe anything without examining why he believed it. Liked asking awkward questions. The Method of Cartesian Doubt -Don't accept anything as true if slightest possibility it isn't -Was he sure he wasn't dreaming? Can't wholly trust our senses -Fiendish demon messing with us -"I think, therefore I am"; Cartesian Dualism (mind separate from body and interacts with it". -Was more certain about existence of mind than the body. -Ontological and Trademark Arguments- show God exists

Boethius (475-525 AD)

A Roman scholar who devoted himself to the study of Plato and Aristotle and is most famous for his Neoplatonic text "The Consolation of Philosophy." He prepared a translation of Aristotelian logical texts known as the "Organon". -last of Roman philosophers; bridge/link to Ancient Greek philosophers and Christians -In prison, wrote Consolation of Philosophy. Story with "Philosophy" speaking to him; luck always changes; don't be surprised, it is fickle -The Wheel of Fortune turns; True happiness from inside (like Stoicism) -We have free will, but our lives aren't predestined -God is timeless, outside time altogether. God sees past, present and future as one

David Hume (1711-1776)

A central figure in Edinburgh, who emphasized civic morality and religious skepticism. He had a powerful impact at home and abroad. Building on Locke's teachings on learning, he argued that the human mind is really nothing but a bundle of impressions. These impressions originate only in sensory experiences and our habits of joining these experiences together. Since our ideas ultimately reflect only our sensory experiences, our reason cannot tell us anything about questions that cannot be verified by sensory experience (in the form of controlled experiments or mathematics), such as the origin of the universe or the existence of God. Paradoxically, his rationalistic inquiry ended up undermining the Enlightenment's faith in the power of reason. He also popularized ideas of race. -Set out to explain nature of humanity by reason -Knowledge comes from observation and experience -Believed the Design Argument (watch and watchmaker example) was bad logic -"Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding" -"Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion"- need evidence to tell -Attacked Argument from Miracles; skeptical. -Always more plausible explanations of what is going on -Never openly declared he was an atheist

Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-43 BC)

A philosopher, politician, and passionate defender of law who attacked men like Julius Caesar when the Roman Empire was declining -On Old Age: Four main problems: 1. Harder to work; 2. Body becomes weaker; 3. Joy in physical pleasure goes; 4. Death is close -Believed that the soul lived forever -Be positive

Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274)

A saint who was apart of the Council of Trent. He was an Italian theologian and Doctor of the Church who is remembered for his attempt to reconcile faith and reason in a comprehensive theology; presented philosophical proofs of the existence of God -Summa Theologically; Five ways that demonstrate God exists, the 2nd of these is the First Cause Argument

Socrates (470-399 BCE)

An Athenian philosopher who thought that human beings could lead honest lives and that honor was far more important than wealth, fame, or other superficial attributes. -Former soldier in the Peloponnesian wars against Spartans -Is being deceitful, moral? He would question people's assumptions -Didn't write anything down -"An unexamined life isn't worth living" -"Life only worth living if you think about what you are doing". -Platonic Dialogues -Was forced to drink hemlock; claim that he neglected Athenian gods

Stoicism

An ancient Greek philosophy that became popular amongst many notable Romans. Emphasis on ethics. They considered destructive emotions to be the result of errors in judgment, and that a wise person would repress emotions, especially negative ones and that "virtue is sufficient for happiness." They were also concerned with the conflict between free will and determinism. They were also non-dualists and naturalists. -Only worry about things we can change; don't get worked up by anything else -Calm state of mind; remain unmoved -Our attitude to what happens is wishing our control even though what happens often isn't -We are responsible for what we feel and think. We have a choice -Emotions cloud our judgement; we don't have to give into them.

Aristotle (384-322 BC)

Believed sensory experience to be the basis of all knowledge, although the five senses and the common sense provided only the information from which knowledge could be derived. Aristotle also believed that everything in nature had within it an entelechy (purpose) that determined its potential. Active reason, which was considered the immortal part of the human soul, provided humans with their greatest potential, and therefore fully actualized humans engage in active reason. Because everything was thought to have a cause, Aristotle postulated an unmoved mover that caused everything in the world but was not itself caused. -"One swallow doesnt make a summer"- The Nicomacheien Ethics -He thought children couldnt be happy. True happiness required a longer life -He was fascinated by details around him. Examine everything -How should we live? Seek happiness. Eudaimonia -Power of Reason separates us from animals -Happiness is overall achievement in life; can be affected after your death -Doctrine of Golden Mean (ex. Bravery in wartime) _Live well with those around us. Develop virtues

Augustine of Hippo (354- 430 AD)

Bishop of Hippo who wrote Confessions and City of God, which formed the basis for the doctrine of man's salvation by divine grace for the church. -Why God allowed evil in world. Free will. Theodicy -From 5th to 1st century, philosophy and religion tightly interlinked -Plato with Christian twist -Converted to Christianity in his 30s. Had child with mistress; sexual desires -Was a Manichaeans (believed God wasn't supreme, powerful). Good vs Evil; Goodness from soul, evil from body. Augustine rejected this later in life -Original sin

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)

English political philosopher who wrote Leviathan. Viewed human beings as naturally self-centered and prone to violence. Feared the dangers of anarchy more than the dangers of tyranny. Argued that monarchs have absolute and unlimited political authority. -Early fitness fanatic; low view of humans, though was cheerful -Life outside society would be "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short" -put a sovereign in charge. Safety more important than freedom -He was a Materialist, believing no soul and that humans are just physical bodies

Blaise Pascal (1623-1662)

French mathematician and physicist who made significant contributions in both fields. He is best known for his work with hydrostatic forces and fluids and invented the hydraulic press and the syringe (the SI unit of pressure is named after him: Pascal). -Devout Catholic. Extremely bleak view of humanity. Pessimist. -Believed in "The Fall" -"Pensees" -converted from Jansenism (Predestination, no free will) -Different from Descartes in that he believed God with heart and faith, not just logic. -Pascal's Wager- Once you work out its in your best interest to believe in God, you need to find a way to convince yourself. Imitate others that believe

Voltaire (1694-1778)

French philosopher. He believed that freedom of speech was the best weapon against bad government. He also spoke out against the corruption of the French government, and the intolerance of the Catholic Church. -"We must cultivate the garden" -Do something useful for humanity rather than just talk about abstract philosophy and questions -Deeply suspicious of philosophical systems and believers with all the answers -might have said "I hate what you say, but defend to the death right to say it" -"Candide"- undermined kind of optimism of Pope and Leibniz; Dr. Pangloss/Cunegarde characters -He was rich, which was unusual for philosophers -Had no time for religion, but was a deist who believes there is visible evidence of God's existence and design in nature. -Looking up at night sky was all it took to prove Creator exists

Gottfried Leibniz (1646-1716)

German known for his independent invention of calculus and the ensuing priority dispute with Isaac Newton. Most modern calculus notation, including the integral sign and the use of d to indicate a differential, originated with Leibniz. He also invented binary numbers and did fundamental work in establishing boolean algebra and symbolic logic. -"Principle of Sufficient Reason" -Must be a logical explanation for everything. If God is perfect, must have excellent reason for universe the way it is. -Nothing is left to chance. The world has the least amount of evil to make it work. -No design would have produced more goodness using less evil

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)

German philosopher who thought that the mind comes into the world with certain inborn assumptions or predilections with which it molds experience. He wrote the Critique of Pure Reason and believed in uniting reason with experience, that the mind is a filter, that we experience things simply through our senses, and that reason is the source of morality; he was particularly prolific in the philosophy of ethics and metaphysics. He published a pamphlet in 1782 entitled What is Enlightenment? He answered, Sapere Aude [dare to know]! 'Have the courage to use your own understanding' is therefore the motto of enlightenment. He argued that if intellectuals were granted the freedom to exercise their reason publicly in print, enlightenment would almost surely follow. He was no revolutionary; he also insisted that in their private lives, individuals must obey all laws, not matter how unreasonable, and should be punished for "impertinent" criticism. He also tried to reconcile absolute monarchical authority and religious faith with a critical public sphere. He also popularized ideas of race and taught and wrote about "anthropology" and "geography." -Rose-tinted reality -Everyone understands world through a filter (human mind). We are stuck with it and without it would be unable to experience anything. All we can do is recognize its there and understand how it affects and colors our experience -He was logical and ordered; Meta physician (our relation to reality) -Particularly interested in limits of thought, what we can know and understand -"Critique of Pure Reason" -Can never learn anything directly about noumenal world (what lies behind appearances). We can know about phenomenal world (the world around us) -A Priori knowledge is knowledge independent of experience

Epicurus (341-270 BC)

Greek philosopher who believed that the world is a random combination of atoms and that pleasure is the highest good -Fear of death is a waste of time and based on bad logic -The point of philosophy is to make life go better; find happiness; be practical -He ran a philosophy school "The Garden", which included women and slaves -Key to life is recognizing that we all seek pleasure and try to avoid pain -The best way to live is a very simple lifestyle; be kind to those around you and surround yourself with friends. -It's no good having an urge for a mansion when you cant afford one -He wrote a lot -Your death wont be something that happens to you -There was a time before your life and there will be a time after your life. We don't worry about the "before" -His epitaph reads: "I was not; I have been; I am not; I do not mind"

John Locke (1632-1704)

Political theorist who defended the Glorious Revolution with the argument that all people are born with certain natural rights to life, liberty, and property -Sock with patches; not same sock anymore since all replaced -Is an acorn the same plant as sapling; sapling the same as huge oak -His view of God-given right to life, freedom, happiness influenced Constitution -Mind of newborn is a blank slate. In what sense the same person today? -We are only responsible for what we can remember -"An Essay Concerning Human Understanding"- stimulated George Berkeley -Primary qualities (such as size and shape) and secondary qualities (such as "greyness of elephant) -Believed that there "is" a world out there, but we get it indirectly. The difficulty is knowing what the world is like

Machiavelli (1469-1527 AD)

Renaissance writer; formerly a politician, wrote The Prince, a work on ethics and government, describing how rulers maintain power by methods that ignore right or wrong; accepted the philosophy that "the end justifies the means." -An effective prince needs to "learn how not to be good" -Impressed by Cesare Borgia -Success depends a lot on good luck; 1/2 chance, 1/2 our choices -You can improve chances by acting bravely and swiftly -Better to be feared then loved. -Low view of human nature

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

Swiss thinker and Enlightenment philosopher who wrote a book called, The Social Contract, where he stated that people were basically good, and that society, and its unequal distribution of wealth, were the cause of most problems. Rousseau believed that government should be run according to the will of the majority, which he called the General Will. He claimed that the General Will would always act in the best interest of the people. -Believed true religion came from the heart and didn't need religious ceremonies -Friend to David Hume -"Man was born free and everywhere he is in chains" -Inspiring to Maximilian Robespierre- French Revolution leader -Humans are naturally good. Fine in nature, but go wrong in cities -Idea of The General Will; whatever is best for the whole community, the whole state; the opposite is "Will of All" (paying taxes example) -True freedom is being a part of a group doing what's in interest of community -"Forced to be free" as solution to opposing this view. Forced to conform (sort of sinister idea to force someone to be free)

Pyrrho (365-270 BC)

The founder of Skepticism who believed that because the universe is always changing, all knowledge is uncertain -Skepticism in Ancient Greece and later in Rome -Avoid holding firm opinions -Also didn't write things down —Can't trust your senses; his friends helped him avoid accidents -Stay indifferent during stressful situations -everything is a matter of opinion -3 Questions: 1. What are things really like (truth is beyond us); 2. What attitude should we adopt to them? Answer: don't commit to a view; 3. What will happen to someone who does adopt that attitude? Answer: eventually be free of worry. Unhappiness arises from not getting what you want