PHSC 412 Final

Charitable emergency food programs •Food bank •Food pantries , meal programs

(200) are the wholesale operations; take in large volumes of food and distribute to other agencies. Donations from govt and industry. •Food pantries - (60,000) provide groceries directly to clients for preparation in clients home •Food Banks and food pantries are feeding 46.5 million people each year (2014) Meal programs/soup kitchens - (4,500) offer meals to clients who do not reside on the premise Emergency shelters (3,600) include homeless shelters and transitional shelters

Child Nutrition Programs •Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) •Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants and Children (WIC) •National School Lunch Program (NSLP)

Child Nutrition Programs - Reach •Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) •73.7 million children under 18 •1 in 5 children in US •Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants and Children (WIC) •Half of all infants born in US •National School Lunch Program (NSLP) •30.4 million children in 100,000+ schools WIC) • Provides nutrition services and food packages to low- income pregnant and post-partum women, infants (up to one year) and children (up to their fifth birthday) • Participants income is less than 185% of the federal poverty standard •Can potentially participate in other relief programs •Must be at nutritional risk •Discretionary (non-entitlement program): spending levels are determined in annual appropriations legislation •Almost always fully funded • Benefits based on level of breastfeeding (full, partial, or full formula) •Provides specific foods/ beverages to enhance intake of particular nutrients, fruits, veggies and whole grains •Also provides nutrition services, education •WIC makes up large share of infant formula market Public health outcomes: •Positive effect on infant birthweights •Other outcomes mixed or difficult to research National School Lunch Program • All US school-aged children may participate in the school meals program •Serves 30.4 million children in 100,000 schools •Program costs $13.6 billion •Per-meal reimbursement rate varies according to a child's household income •Paid •Reduced Price •Free National School Lunch Program •Do meals meet dietary guidelines? •How to improve healthfulness of school meals? • Competitive foods • Food waste

Organic Controversies

Constant fight on what's in and what's out •Large food companies buying up organic companies -Increased market share, but also increased pressure to weaken standards •Cost and time for certification •Hydroponic produce - no soil so is it organic? •Organic aquaculture - not currently, but USDA developing standards •Fraud - dairy, imports •Studies differ (link) •Nutritional quality not that different •No difference in foodborne pathogens risk •Pesticide residues are less, though still low If organic is more expensive, people may eat less F/V •What should we tell people to do? •What's the public health goal?

GE Regulatory System

Coordinated Framework for Regulation of Biotechnology (1986) Identified federal agencies with oversight of GE products •Encourages coordination among agencies •Ensure safety for humans, animals, environment •Determined that existing laws/regs were sufficient to address GE products Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS/USDA) - Reviews GE organisms that could pose a risk to plant health •Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) -Regulates safety of pesticides in GE plants •Food and Drug Administration (FDA) -Reviews safety of GE food products for humans and animals • APHIS ensures that growing GE crops will not adversely impact U.S. agriculture or the environment - APHIS has a notification and permitting process for field trials with GE crops that developers must comply with before planting most GE crops on open fields - APHIS also has a regulatory process that allows developers to petition the agency to deregulate their GE plants, allowing crops to be grown commercially without any regulatory restrictions or requirements -Over 25,000 field trials have gone through the USDA's regulatory process and over 95 crops have been deregulated (not all have been commercialized) • EPA reviews and approves the safety of that crop or at least the effects of the added pesticide - EPA performs a risk assessment to determine the benefits and risks to the environment from the biological pesticide -EPA can impose any conditions needed to minimize or eliminate any potential harm to the environment -EPA also assesses the safety to humans and animals if they eat the pesticidal compound -EPA establishes a safe tolerance level below which the pesticide is considered safe to eat in food consumed by humans FDA regulates safety of GE food and feed crops for human and animal health •Notification/consultation process -Developer of GE crop submits summary of data to FDA showing GE crop is substantially equivalent to traditionally bred crop and does not pose any novel health risk -FDA reviews data and alerts developer to any concerns with food safety assessment -VOLUNTARY process, but all companies submit info •FDA does not have clear legal authority to formally approve GE crops before they are commercialized

Other food consumption outlets

25% of food consumed away from home is purchased from other outlets: - Institutions such as prisons, schools, nursing homes etc. account for a lot of this - Hotels, pools, movie theatres, sporting events

FOODBORNE ILLNESS and Food Borne outbreak

Bacterial - Listeria monocytogenes - most dangerous for pregnant women and unborn children - Escherichia coli - E. coli O157:H7 is well-known strain - Salmonella - prone to large outbreaks - Campylobacter - rarely linked to outbreaks, but causes sporadic illness • Viral - Norovirus - likely leading cause of foodborne illness; contagious -Hepatitis A - often result of food handler illness • Parasites - Toxoplasma gondii - often linked to uncooked, contaminated meat 48 million Americans sickened annually 128,000 hospitalized 3,000 deaths each year Most at risk: Children, elderly, immune- compromised • Most foodborne illness occurs about 24-48 hours (sometimes days or weeks) after you eat contaminated food and lasts for a few days • Upset stomach, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, fever • But in some cases, it can cause severe, life-threatening illness and even death $77 billion/year Recalls, consumer confidence, loss of sales We want people to eat more fruits and vegetables but if that is going to improve their health, the products also have to be safe. They have to be grown safely, processed safely, handled and prepared safely. OUTBREAK? 2+ people get the same illness from the same contaminated food (CDC) OUTBREAK INVESTIGATION CHALLENGES Linking illness to foods Identifying multistate outbreaks Tracing food through the supply chain Outbreak investigations 1) detect a possible outbreak 2) Define and find cases 3) Generate a hypothesis 4) test hypothesis 5) find the point of contamination and source of the food 6) control an outbreak by recalling product, remove soucre of contamination, and revise production process Recalls Once a food product has been linked to an outbreak, the product must be removed from the marketplace - recall Recalls are classified based on their potential for harm Class I - serious health problem or death Most recalls are voluntary - in company's best interest to recall products Consumers can discard product or get refund from retailer Mandatory recall authority - FDA only, not USDA Public health alerts - agencies know a problem exists, but lack specifics 7. Decide if the outbreak is over Largest federal food assistance program • Budget: $68 billion (2018) - farm bill • Reach: 40 million Americans • Mandatory/entitlement program •Federal government provides benefits for all eligible applicants •Federal government pays full cost of administration of program + 50% of administration by states •Plus 50% of nutrition education costs of states •Size of program expands/contracts with economy• Who is eligible for SNAP benefits? • Income less than 130% of federal poverty standard ($33,480/yr for family of 4) •Limit on financial assets (value of home does not count) •Able-bodied adults w/o dependents - 3 month participation limit in 3 year period (unless working or participating in job training program) •Undocumented immigrants NOT eligible

Obesity •Why do people eat more food?

-Innate desire for highly tasty foods, usually with large amounts of energy dense fats •Prehistoric drive -Food marketing changes •Food is ubiquitous *•Fast food is everywhere •Fruits and vegetables not heavily marketed

What policies could create a healthier food environment?

-Make healthy foods more affordable -Increase availability of healthy foods -Marketing healthy foods -Agriculture subsidies for fruits and vegetables -Taxation •Concerns about taxes-Regressive in nature - hurt the poorest consumers the most-"Healthy" or "nutritious" is very subjective-Political ramifications of more taxes Behavioral economics - Utilization of heuristics or rules of thumb •People are influenced by default offerings, fruit vs fries, milk vs soda •People make less conscious choices when they are distracted (fast food atmosphere or sports bar) •People make less rational decisions while hungry -Make the healthy choice the easy choice!

How is Federal Dietary Guidance Created?

1. Scientific research is conducted across the country 2. Scientists, food industry, public interest groups filter research 3. External Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee critically reviews and summarizes scientific evidence 4.Dietary Guidelines for Americans written by HHS/USDA -Policy document, applying research to make it actionable 5. Federal agencies develop educational materials USDA and DHHS officials take scientific review and develop DGAs document - Public meetings - Controversial issues: • Sodium intake • Physical activity • Fats • Meat intake • "Eat more" vs "Eat less" • Sustainability 2015 DGA Recommendations • Consume a healthy eating pattern • Include: - Variety of vegetables - Fruits - Grains (50% whole grains) - Fat-free or low-fat dairy - Variety of protein foods - seafood, lean meats, beans, eggs, nuts, seeds, soy 2015 DGA Recommendations • Consume a healthy eating pattern •Limit: -Saturated fats and trans fats •Less than 10% from saturated fats -Sugars •Less than 10% from added sugars - Sodium •Less than 2,300 mg per day - Alcohol in moderation •1 drink/day for women; 2 drinks/day for men 2015 DGA Recommendations •Is the language strong enough? • Can consumers follow the recommendations? • Eat foods but limit nutrients • What about packaged foods? To meet the fruit, vegetable, & whole-grain recs, domestic crop acreage would need to increase by 7.4 million harvested acres (1.7 percent of total U.S. cropland) • To meet the dairy guidelines, consumption of milk and milk products would have to increase by 66% - Would require an increase in # of dairy cows as well as increased feed grains and, possibly, increased acreage devoted to dairy production

FSIS (Food Safety and Inspection Service) vs FDA (Food, Drug, Administration)

Food Safety and Inspection Service Meat, poultry, egg products 6,400 domestic establishments (34 foreign countries) Slaughter - continuous inspection Processing - daily inspection All recalls are voluntary FY16 budget: ~$1,000,000,000 Food and Drug Administration Produce, fish/seafood, shell eggs, processed foods 173,000 domestic facilities + 286,000 foreign facilities (200 countries) High-risk - once every 3 years Non high-risk - once every 5 years Mandatory recall authority FY16 budget: ~$1,000,000,000 (food only)

GE Benefits and Risks

GE Benefits • Crop-specific •Reduction in poisonous insecticides (Bt corn) •Reduction in herbicides (?) •Crop varieties saved from extinction (Hawaiian GE papaya) GE Benefits •Potential consumer benefits - Golden rice - increased levels of beta-carotene to reduce blindness -Non-browning apples -Potatoes with reduced levels of acrylamide -Soybean oil with healthier fats •Products are not widely distributed so benefits are not widely distributed GE Risks •Crop-specific •Production of new allergens or toxins from new proteins in GE foods •Concerns about use of glyphosate -Could harm other species (Monarch butterfly) -Weed resistance - "super weeds" -Residues on food •No long-term studies on health effects (?) Public views on GE •Initial purpose and benefits directed to the farmer, not the consumer •Lack of transparency and public communication led to distrust, consumer concern, and opposition GE Controversies•Allergens•Regulatory process ---mandatory premarket approval vs voluntary consultation (crops) •Regulatory process - lack of "independent" review •Glyphosate •Labeling GE Controversies •Allergens •Regulatory process - mandatory premarket approval vs voluntary consultation (crops) •Regulatory process - lack of "independent" review•Glyphosate •Labeling Labeling•Previously FDA said GE crops are the same as conventional crops so no need to label (labeling is only to disclose differences)•Some companies wanted to label •2015 - FDA issued guidance on voluntary labeling

Changing food system = changing risks

Global food supply But a growing interest in local food Greater reliance on imported food •70% of seafood •50% fresh fruits •20% fresh veggies Eating habits have changed Consumers eating out more Consumers eating more fruits & vegetables Aging population Elderly, immune-compromised at greater risk Pathogens are evolving Antibiotic resistance concerns New pathogen/food combinations Surveillance and detection has improved •Whole genome sequencing Consumer Advocacy role in food safety •Coalition Building •Research and Reports •Victim Stories •Lobbying - Congress, Federal Agencies •Media Outreach •Persistence

Origins of Organic

Humus farming-Traditional farming methods to conserve and regenerate land-Commitment to sustainability-Crop rotation was essential•Builds soil and controls pests-Avoided synthetic fertilizers•Use of fertilizer reduces need for crop rotation, but depletes soil•Imbalanced soil led to plant malnourishment In the 1960s and 70s, organic farming became part of the wider environmental movement of the time - Silent Spring •Became part of the larger "foodie" movement -Environmentally sound farming -Alternative food distribution system -Focus on whole, fresh food - minimally processed and no artificial ingredients Organic farmers get price premiums -Organic foods more expensive to produce so farmers have to charge higher prices -Consumers willing to pay more for organic

Organic Standard Labeling

Labeling •Organic product must have at least 95% certified organic content - USDA organic seal may be used •"Made with" organic must have at least 70% certified organic content - USDA organic seal may not be used •Products containing less than 70% organic content may identify specific ingredients as organic in the ingredients list

Organic Foods Production Act

In 1980s, different organic standards and regulations in different states •Led to organic industry asking Congress to standardize definition •OFPA passed by Congress in 1990 to develop national standard for organic food production •Put USDA in charge of organic program Organic Foods Protection Act of 1990 -National Organic Program •Part of USDA - Agricultural Marketing Service -National Organic Standards Board •15 member panel with representatives from organic industry •Responsible for National List -Catalogs what is and is not allowed under organic labeling National Organic Program - Original National List met with outrage by organic community - Included: •Food irradiation •Sewage sludge as fertilizer •GMOs -Received 275,000 comments from farmers and consumers National Organic Program -Revised the list based on public comments -New list much less controversial -Final Rule published in 2002

What are the socioeconomic determinants of food insecurity?

Individual- age, income, nutritional status Sociocultural0 social support and social class Community- workplace Agricultural- land production Governmental- goverment-society structures Global- global food availability

What are some public health issues with the restaurant sector?

Most meals away from home are less healthy for you than meals prepared at home Portion control, calories, sodium/fat Meal deals that package high caloric foods at lower prices -Value meals, and all-you can eat buffets Advertising (especially targeted at children) -toys Restaurants are trying to address some of these health issues -Restaurants offering more healthy options•McDonalds, Disney put fruit and milk in kids meals -Natl Restaurant Assn created the Kids LiveWell Program that promotes healthy options in restaurants -But it might not be enough •Government policies: -Moratoriums on new fast food restaurants-Limited liquor licensesure -New California law requires milk/water to be default option in kids meals (link) -Food safety inspections -Mandatory calorie labeling Restaurant inspection -61% of foodbourne outbreaks are caused by restaurants •Conducted at the state and local level (link -FDA Food Code (inconsistent adoption) -Variability, frequency•Top safety issues: •Improper holding/cooling temps •Inadequate hand washing •Improper cooking •Contaminated food contact surfaces •Food from unsafe sources Scores on the Doors• Good for public health? •Los Angeles County example •NYC example•Potential problems? Menu labeling •Affordable Care Act required calorie labeling on menus/menu boards-Standard items, not specials-Other nutrition info available by request -Restaurants with 20+ locations•Why is this important? •Does it work? (link)

Food Safety Modernization Act

Shifts focus to PREVENTION Preventive process controls Produce safety standards Inspection mandate Traceability Import safety Mandatory recall authority

Fast food

Significant portion of food eaten away from home •Small, simple menus •Less specialized and less high paid employees •Chain establishments allow for cost sharing in areas like advertising •Fast Causal - hybrid • Private equity firms buying up food companies - JAB Holding Co (German firm) owns: • Pret A Manger • Au Bon Pain • Panera • Keurig Green Mountain • Caribou Coffee • Krispy Kreme • Peet's Coffee & Tea • Einstein Bros • Stumptown

slotting fees,Pay-to-stay fees, Display fees

Slotting fees- introduce a new product to store shelves Display fees- money to get premium placement in stores -Endcaps, flashy signage or unusual areas Pay-to-stay fees-ensure product will stay on store shelves. -Not always cash, can be discounted or free cases of food

Food Assistance Programs • Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) National School Lunch Program (NSLP) Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC)

Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) •Lifts people out of poverty •Targets families who need benefits the most •Reduces likelihood that families will have trouble affording food •Helps stabilize household budgets in times of economic downturns •Improves diets •Long-term benefits to children •Children who had access to SNAP healthier, more likely to graduate from high school •Women with children more economically self-sufficient poorer equates to more assistance, almost any grocery retailer accepts snap benefits as well as farmer markets Snap participants and non-SNAP

Describe the Walmart Conundrum

Walmart is the largest food retailer in the world. Grocery accounts for 55% of walmart U.S. net sales. The organization Walmart has various disadvantages and advantages . Some of the disadvantages of walmart are the low wages/benefits for workt ers. In addition, there are many stories about how walmart can squeeze suppliers because it is such a powerful supply chain actor. The last point is that smaller stores have a smaller stores have a hard time competing with walmart. The advantages of walmart are the low prices that are affordable food for consumers, which helps lift people out of poverty. In addition, it is a powerful supply chain actor that can drive positive change to increase organic sales, food safety and drive healthy choices.

Food security and Food insecurity compared to hunger

access at all times to enough food for an active, healthy, life 1. ready availability of nutritionally adequate and safe foods; 2. an assured ability to acquire acceptable foods in socially acceptable ways • Food insecurity - exists whenever the availability of nutritionally adequate and safe foods or the ability to acquire acceptable foods in socially acceptable ways is limited or uncertain Hunger - the uneasy or painful sensation caused by a lack of food; the recurrent and involuntary lack of food • The federal government no longer uses the word "hunger" in official stats. • Why? • The federal government no longer uses the word "hunger" in official stats. • Hunger is a broad term with multiple meanings • Food insecurity is a household-level economic and social condition of limited access to food, while hunger is an individual-level physiological condition that may result from food insecurity • See article

Healthy Hungry Free Kids Act (2010)

• Funds child nutrition programs and free lunch programs in schools (must be renewed every 5 years) •First major nutrition update to school meals in decades and offered schools new federal money if they went along with the changes •First time ever it mandated strict rules on all food sold in vending machines and in à la carte lines • Most schools able to implement new standards • But strong pushback from Congress, industry, School Nutrition Association in 2014 as bill was being implemented • 50% whole grains, reduced sodium, ½ cup fruits and veggies •Tomato sauce as a vegetable? • rump Administration rolled back standards - 2017 •Allow for flavored low fat milk (in addition to skim) •Relax of whole grain standard •Freeze sodium reduction efforts

Labeling

• USDA labeling rule: -Requires "bioengineered" or "BE" instead of "GMO" or "GE" -Food that is bioengineered or contains BE material •Exempts highly refined foods (sugars, oils) - Allows for different ways to provide info: •Text, symbol, electronic or digital link, and/or text message. Next Steps: Gene Editing •Allows for precise changes in DNA of plant, animal •Introduce new plant traits more quickly and precisely •Ex: CRISPR-Cas9 •How to regulate? -FDA asking for public comment - USDA says will not regulate gene editing in plants (b/c results are indistinguishable from traditional breeding methods) - Labeling??

Generally recognized as safe (gras)

• All foods are made up of chemicals • Regulators classify many naturally occurring chemicals in foods as Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) • Additionally, a list of other chemicals is classified as GRAS based on previous use and research •Examples: vinegar, baking powder, black pepper • Important b/c added substances must undergo premarket approval by FDA unless they are GRAS •FDA will review GRAS chemicals but this is VOLUNTARY •Companies can self-determine whether chemicals are GRAS or not •The GRAS list is ever-changing (online database) •Some chemicals have come off of the list because of newer studies (certain food colorings) •Interesting examples •Caffeinated alcoholic beverages •Table salt

Why Develop Food Safety Policy?

• Imperfect information - consumers can't tell whether food has been produced safely or not • Negative externalities - antibiotic use in animals • Right to safe food

Full Service Restaurants

•A wide range of price levels and menu options under this sector (diner to fine dining) •Employees are more specialized and paid more -Cooks, dishwashers, waiters, bartenders, etc. •Many variables affect the economic health of this sector - Labor, food prices, economy Changes in the restaurant sector • Changes in economy affect restaurants • Price increases - food, labor, fuel costs • People cooking at home, meal kits, prepared food from grocery stores, delivery • Netflix

What is Organic

•Agricultural production system managed to address site-specific conditions -Integrates production practices with environment -Focuses on renewable resource use, ecological balance, biodiversity -Maintain soil health , biological control of pests/weeds, water conservation Organic farming is more labor-intensive • Organic farmers have to till more soil to kill weeds since they don't use herbicides -Releases carbon into the atmosphere -Increases soil erosion •Productivity (how well land is used) varies (link)-Fruit, legumes - same as conventional ag -Veggies, grains - less than conventional ag Began in Europe in early 1900s -In response to problems of: •Soil depletion •Decline in variety •Low quality food •Rural poverty - Health of agriculture (and the nation) is dependent on the health of the soil

Antibiotic use in food and agriculture

•Antibiotics critical for human and animal health •Antibiotic resistance occurs naturally but can also be accelerated by misuse Over-prescription of antibiotics - A third to half of use is unnecessary Patients not finishing the entire antibiotic course Spread of resistant strains from person-to-person Overuse in livestock and fish farming - 70% of all medically important antibiotics produced in US are used in agriculture (2011) •Antibiotic-resistant infections kill 23,000 Americans each year (CDC) •About 95 percent of antibiotics used in ag were sold for use in feed and water (2016 data) •Not used as treatment for individual animals •About 96 percent of antibiotics used in ag were sold over the counter, without any veterinary oversight or involvement (2016 data) •FDA policy has changed this •Policy solutions in food arena •Eliminate the use of medically-important antibiotics in food animals* •Use only under veterinary oversight and only to manage and treat infectious disease, not to promote growth* •Shift from over-the-counter availability to prescription only* •Pressure food companies to reduce use of antibiotic resistance (link) •Better tracking of resistance patterns (NARMS) •National public health surveillance system tracks changes in the antimicrobial susceptibility of enteric (intestinal) bacteria found in ill people (CDC), retail meats (FDA), and food animals (USDA) in the United States •Collect data on animal antibiotic sales and use (California - January 2018) •Research - developing new antibiotics

Obesity •Why the increase?

•Food environment has changed-Portion sizes-More food away from home-Sugary drink consumption •Access to unhealthy food has changed-Cheap food - healthier food costs more •More sedentary work •Diet in early years 50% of adults did not meet recommendations for aerobic physical activity. • More than 1 in 3 adults (about 92.1 million) have at least one type of cardiovascular disease. - About 90% of Americans aged 2 years or older consume too much sodium, which can increase their risk of high blood pressure. •More than 37% of adolescents and 40% of adults said they ate fruit less than once a day •39% of adolescents and 22% of adults said they ate vegetables less than once a day.

Why Develop Nutrition Policy?

•Imperfect Information -Consumers need information to make decisions •Nutrition labeling •Negative Externalities -The cost of unhealthy diets can impact others (i.e, health insurance programs) so policy could incentivize healthy behavior •Taxes, subsidies, nudges •Diet/nutrition has big impact on medical/healthcare costs -Food as Medicine •Children -Children are not rational decision makers -Govt may want to protect this vulnerable population

Low food security and very low food security

•Low food security—Households reduced the quality, variety, and desirability of their diets, but the quantity of food intake and normal eating patterns were not substantially disrupted.•Very low food security—At times during the year, eating patterns of one or more household members were disrupted and food intake reduced because the household lacked money and other resources for food. 11.1% of US households were food insecure at some point during the year • 4.3% of household respondents were hungry and could not afford to eat at some point We measure food insecurity through well defined survey questions

Organic Standard

•No prohibited substances applied to land for at least 3 years before the harvest of an organic crop •Soil fertility and crop nutrients are managed through tillage and cultivation practices, crop rotations, and cover crops, supplemented with animal and crop waste materials and allowed synthetic materials •Crop pests, weeds, and diseases are controlled primarily through management practices including physical, mechanical, and biological controls •Operations must use organic seeds •Genetic engineering, irradiation and sewage sludge is prohibited Organic does not mean pesticide-free! •Some synthetic pesticides allowed as well as natural ones (and all pesticides are toxic) •The National List ( link) Organic farmers have to try other methods first •Trade-offs: use a little of a non -organic pesticide or more of an organic pesticide? Livestock and poultry • Animals for slaughter must be raised under organic management • Feed must be 100% organic (vitamin and mineral supplements allowed) •Dairy animals must be managed organically for at least 12 months in order for milk or dairy products to be sold as organic •Preventive management practices must be used to keep animals healthy, though sick animals may be treated with approved substances •Cattle must be on pasture for entire grazing season (but not less than 120 days) and 30% of feed, must be from pasture •All livestock and poultry are required to have access to the outdoors year- round

Pesticides

•Pesticides are used to control insects on crops (herbicides are used to control weeds) •Pesticides are (inherently) toxic •EPA regulates and registers all pesticides in the United States •EPA utilized risk assessments when evaluating pesticides •EPA sets tolerances on the amount of pesticide residue that is considered safe on food products •USDA Pesticide Data Program - assesses consumer exposure to pesticides in agricultural products -Most fruits and vegetables had some pesticide residue -99.5% of samples had pesticide resides well below EPA levels -22% had no detectable residue •Environmental Working Group (NGO) uses USDA data for its own reports •Found that avocados, sweet corn and most pineapples, papayas, asparagus, onions and cabbages had no pesticide residues •Organic foods also use pesticides, which have been approved for use in organic agriculture

Fresh Fruit and Vegetable Program

•Piloted in 2002 Farm Bill; expanded in 2004 Child Nutrition Act; expanded again in 2006 Ag Approps bill; made permanent in 2008 Farm Bill •Provides free fresh F&V to elementary students in all 50 states •Goal - increase F&V consumption and build healthy eating habits •Now other forms of F&V want into the program - frozen, canned, dried •Sen. Harkin, champion of the program, left the Senate in 2015 •Led to pilot project for canned, frozen, dried F&V •Article

Why is Nutrition Research Challenging?

•Randomized trials not practical •Observational studies/food surveys have lots of uncertainties •Self-reported information is often imprecise •People and their diets are diverse •Conflicts of interest in nutrition research - who funds the research? •SO: Consider all the research (not just one study), who funds the research and look at different studies on same topic. Look for convergence of research findings.

SNAP vs emergency food assistance programs

•SNAP offers larger, steadier resource for food purchases through normal retail channels •Emergency food system offers important resource for meeting unanticipated food needs (w/o paperwork)

What is Genetic Engineering and why is it useful?

•Scientists remove a gene from one organism and transfer it to another organism •Typically the new gene provides the organism with some useful trait •Different from traditional breeding which transfers genes within the same species •Scientists have used chemicals or radiation to cause DNA mutations •Pest resistance -GE corn and cotton contain genes from bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) which prevent pests from damaging crops •Herbicide tolerance -GE soybeans, corn, canola, sugar beets, cotton, and alfalfa contain bacterial genes that protect the crop from certain herbicides. •Allow herbicides to be applied to crop without harming it • Ex: glyphosate ("Roundup") • Animal food - Most GE soybeans and field corn are fed to cows, pigs and chickens • Human food -Other GE products go into processed food •GE corn meal and high-fructose corn syrup •GE soybean oil and soy lecithin (emulsifier in foods) •GE canola oil and cottonseed oil •GE sugar beets produce sugar used in many foods -Process of producing oil, sugar and HFCS eliminates all DNA and protein, including GE transgene GE Salmon •AquAdvantage Salmon - AquaBounty •Atlantic salmon that grows almost 2x fast as other farm-raised salmon •Scientists insert growth hormone gene from Chinook salmon and promoter sequence from ocean pout fish to "activate" growth Regulated under FDA process for "new animal drug" - mandatory pre-market approval, but secret process - Is gene safe for health of animal? Is GE animal safe to eat? Does gene do what it is intended to do? Are any new problems created (allergies)? - Environmental assessment (but not decisional) GE Salmon •FDA approved GE salmon in 2015, but with certain conditions -Salmon must be raised on land-based facilities (not ocean net pens) -Can only be raised at 2 facilities: Canada and Panama -Other physical barriers at facilities -All salmon are sterile so can't reproduce •Labeling controversy •Allowed to be sold in US but not on market yet