Physio 001 Exam 1

End products of Kreb's cycle

1 ATP 1 FADH2 3 NADH 2 CO2

The direction of force depends on what two factors?

1) Polarity of cell 2) Charge on the particle that is moving across the membrane Uncharged molecules are not unaffected

Cellular respiration steps

1. Glycolysis 2. Krebs Cycle 3. Electron Transport Chain

Electron Transport Chain reaction

10 NADH + 10 H+ +2 FADH2 + 28 ADP + 28Pi + 6 02 --> 10 NAD+ +2FAD + 6 H20 + 28 ATP

End products of glycolysis

2 pyruvate 2 NADH 2 ATP 2 H+

Exocrine gland

A gland that releases a secretion external to or at the surface of an organ by means of a canal or duct.

Ligand defintion

A molecule that specifically binds to proteins and has a weak interaction Substrate = ligand Enzyme = protein

Endergonic reaction

A non-spontaneous chemical reaction in which energy is absorbed

Negative Feedback definition

A type of homeostatic regulation that responds to a change in conditions by initiating responses that will counteract the change Maintains homeostasis

Positive feedback definition

A type of regulation that responds to a change in conditions by initiating responses that will amplify the change. Takes organism away from homeostasis yet external factor triggers shutdown

Primary active transport energy source

ATP

What are fatty acids catabolized into in beta-oxidation?

Acetyl CoA

Covalent regulation

Addition or removal of a chemical group that modifies the active site, thus altering its structure and function

Phosphorylation & Dephosphorylation

Addition/removal of phosphate groups (PO4) through the action of protein kinases/phosphatases

Redox Reaction

An oxidation reaction paired with a reduction reaction

Fermentation

Anaerobic Uses organic molecules as final electron acceptor Creates an organic byproduct Produces 1-2 ATP per glucose

Electrical driving force

Anions have an outward driving force Cations have an inward driving force Charge separation is the source of electrical driving force

Positive feedback example

Baby's head pushes against cervix (sensor) --> nerve impulses send signal to brain (input signal) --> brain signals release of oxytocin (integrating center) --> oxytocin increases contractions (output signal) --> stronger push on cervix from baby (effectors) External trigger shutdown = birth

Epithelial transport

Basolateral membrane Apical membrane

Nervous system (organs)

Brain Spinal cord Peripheral nerves

Gastrointestinal system (function)

Break down food and absorb nutrients

Catabolic reactions

Breakdown of larger molecules into smaller molecules Decomposition

Overall cellular respiration equation

C6H12O6 (glucose) + 6 O2 + 32 ADP + 32 Pi -> 6CO2 + 6H2O + 32 ATP

What is the magnitude if chemical & electrical forces act in the same direction?

Chemical force + electrical force

Intermediate between glycolysis and Kreb's cycle

CoA binds to pyruvate to create acetyl CoA, which then goes to Krebs cycle

Nervous system (function)

Communication between cells through electrical signals Release of neurotransmitters

Cyanide action (ETC)

Cyanide binds to Complex 4 of the ETC, inhibiting the transfer of electrons, ATP synthesis, and disrupts cellular respiration Complex 4 is responsible for transferring electrons to oxygen, the final electron acceptor in the chain

ATP --> ADP (rxn)

Dephosphorylation

Concentration gradient

Difference in particle concentration between the inside & outside of the cell Gradient pushes particles from higher to lower concentrations Chemical driving force

Primary active transport

Directly uses ATP (ATP then phosphorylated) Requires cell energy Involved a pump (membrane protein) EX: sodium-potassium pump

Nonpolar molecules

Easily transported across the membrane O2, CO2, fatty acids, & urea

Secondary active transport energy source

Electrochemical gradient

Secondary active transport

Energy is realized from ion diffusion 2 types: Cotransport and Countertransport

Induced fit model

Enzyme's active site is flexible and adjusts its shape to fit the substrate upon binding

Lock and Key model

Enzyme's active site is specifically shaped to fit a particular substrate

Urinary system (function)

Expel waste in the form of urine Filter blood to regulate acidity-blood volume and ion concentrations

Extracellular fluid

Fluid surrounding the cells (ISF) Fluid surrounding blood cells (plasma) 1/3 of TBW

Intracellular fluid

Fluid within the cell 2/3 of TBW

Gluconeogenesis

Formation of new glucose molecules from glycerol, lactate, amino acids, & pyruvate Occurs primarily in the liver

Reproductive system (function)

Generate offspring

Endocrine gland

Glands of the endocrine system that release hormones into the bloodstream

Cellular respiration redox reaction

Glucose: oxidized Oxygen: reduced

Glycogenolysis

Glycogen is broken down to glucose in starving conditions Glycogen becomes G-6-P through glycogenolysis and G-6-phosphatase converts it to glucose

Reproductive system (organs)

Gonads (ovaries/testes) Glands Reproductive tract

Cardiovascular system (organs)

Heart Blood vessels Blood

Types of metabolic reactions

Hydrolysis & Condensation Phosphorylation & Dephosphorylation Oxidation & Reduction

Hydrolysis & Condensation

Hydrolysis is the breakdown of molecules using water Condensation is the reaction between two molecules and form water.

Endocrine systen (organs)

Hypothalamus Thymus Pituitary gland Adrenal gland Thyroid gland Pancreas

Membrane potential

ICF is slightly negative ECF is slightly positive Measured as Vm

Where does glycolysis occur and what does it not require?

In the cytoplasm and does not require oxygen (anaerobic)

Where does the electron transport chain occur and what does it require?

Inner membrane of mitochondria and requires oxygen

Competitive inhibition

Ligand resembles the normal substrate and competes for the active site Binding to active site inhibits reaction

Respiratory system (organs)

Lung Trachea Pharynx

Immune system (organs)

Lymph nodes White blood cells Thymus Spleen Tonsils

Transytosis

Macromolecule transport across the cell Endocytosis at the apical end and exocytosis at the basolateral surface

Homeostasis (definiton)

Maintain a constant internal environment

Where does Kreb's cycle occur and what does it require?

Mitochondrial matrix and requires oxygen

Allosteric regulation

Modulator binds to regulatory site, changing the shape of the active site allowing for a new substrate to use the enzyme Can increase reaction rate (activator) or decrease reaction rate (inhibitor)

Gastrointestinal system (organs)

Mouth Esophagus Stomach Small intestine Large intestine Liver Pancreas Galbladder

Cofactor definition

Non-protein chemical compound, such as metal ions Assists in fitting the substrate to the enzyme's active site by stabilizing the conformation of the enzyme

Coenzyme definition

Non-protein chemical compounds such as vitamins Binds to the enzyme and helps transfer chemical groups between molecules Helps facilitate reaction

Oxidation & Reduction

Oxidation is the loss of electrons Reduction is the gain of electron

ADP --> ATP (rxn)

Phosphorylation

Exocytosis

Process by which a cell releases large amounts of material (waste or secretions) Pushed from ICF to ECF through secretory vesicle --> fuses with plasma membrane and releases products

Immune system (function)

Protect body against pathogens and abnormal cells

Integumentary system (function)

Protect the body from external environment

Proteolysis

Proteins become amino acids

Cardiovascular system (function)

Pump blood to entire body Transport molecules throughout blood and body

Negative feedback example

Receptor on skin (sensor) --> change in body temp - hot (input signal) --> hypothalamus (integrating center) --> nerve signals to sweat glands (output signal) --> sweat glands release sweat (effectors)

Feedforward activation

Regulatory mechanism in which an enzyme in a metabolic pathway is stimulated by an intermediate appearing upstream

Endocrine systen (function)

Release of hormones into the blood stream

Ions & polar molecules

Require channel or transport proteins Glucose, proteins, & ions

Homeostasis (pathway)

Sensors --> input signal --> integrating center --> output signal --> effectors

Lipolysis

Separates glycerol from 3 fatty acid chains with lipase

Voltage

Separation/difference of charge across the membrane

Out of the transport processes, which is the only one that is not specific?

Simple diffusion

Musculoskeletal system (organs)

Skeletal muscle Tendons Ligaments Bone

Lactic acid fermentation

Skeletal muscles can produce ATP without oxygen for a limited amount of time by undergoing fermentation ETC backs up, but Kreb's cycle stops Glycolysis can continue if NADH is oxidized Liver metabolizes lactic acid & turns it into pyruvate

Integumentary system (organs)

Skin

Sodium potassium pump

Sodium comes in from apical membrane --> basolateral membrane ATP is used to move sodium out of the cell and potassium into the cell

Glycogen storage

Stored in the liver, kidneys, & skeletal muscles

Energy storage

Stores as triglycerides Triglycerides are 3 fatty acids & glycerol

Enzyme substrate reaction

Substrate + enzyme -> enzyme substrate complex-> product + enzyme (reversible arrows)

Metabolism definition

Sum of all chemical reactions in the body

Musculoskeletal system (function)

Support body Voluntary movement of body

Anabolic reactions

Synthesis of larger molecules from smaller ones

Feedback inhibition

The end product of a metabolic pathway inhibits an earlier step in the pathway, preventing the overproduction of that product and maintaining balance.

ATP (function)

The energy source for our body

Activation energy definition

The minimum amount of energy required to start a chemical reaction (Ea)

Respiratory system (function)

To bring oxygen to bloodstream To eliminate CO2 from the body

Urinary system (organs)

Urethra Bladder Kidney Ureters

Kreb's cycle reaction

acetyl CoA + 3 NAD+ + FAD + ADP + Pi + 3 H2O → 2 CO2 + 3 NADH + 3 H+ + FADH2 + ATP + CoA

Overall Glycolysis Reaction

glucose + 2NAD+ + 2ADP + 2Pi --> 2 pyruvate + 2NADH + 2ATP + 2H+

Facilitated diffusion: is the transported substance hydrophobic or hydrophilic

hydrophilic (polar)

Primary active transport: is the transported substance hydrophobic or hydrophilic

hydrophilic (polar)

Secondary active transport: is the transported substance hydrophobic or hydrophilic

hydrophilic (polar)

Simple diffusion: is the transported substance hydrophobic or hydrophilic

hydrophobic (non polar)

Basolateral membrane

membrane that faces bloodstream contains pumps and mechanisms that move things into the cell in order to reach the bloodstream and ISF Only membrane with Na+-K+ pump Contains leak channels and glucose carrier

Apical membrane

membrane that faces the lumen and has specialized channels and carrier proteins to move things from the lumen into the cell Contains sodium channel leak proteins and sodium linked glucose pump

Activation energy barrier

the energy gap between the reactants and the products (AEB)