PID Final Exam

the GENERAL categories of personality disorders

Erratic -Antisocial -Borderline -Histrionic -Narcissistic Eccentric -Schizoid -Schizotypal -Paranoid Anxious -Avoidant -Dependent -Obsessive-compulsive

Know the difference between real and possible selves? What researcher is associated with this idea?

(Hazel Markus) Possible selves are what we dream of becoming, or alternately dread becoming Possible selves guide us through life & motivate us to achieve goals or avoid failures.

Understand the difference between the actual, ideal, and ought selves.

Actual self—what people often refer to as the self-concept; the attributes that you believe that you have Ideal self—attributes you wish you had Ought self—attributes that you think you're obligated to have Ideal and ought selves result from interaction with parents

What does conditional positive regard/conditions of worth mean? What are the consequences of conditions of worth?

Believed all children are born wanting to be loved and accepted by parents and others. This inborn desire is called the desire for positive regard. Parents frequently place conditions of worth on their children; these are the requirements for positive regard that children need to meet to earn their love. Children may begin living their lives to please others, not themselves, and eventually forget what would make them happy. They remain preoccupied with pleasing others even as adults

Know what the possible causes of antisocial and borderline personality disorder are.

Borderline: poor attachment relationships in childhood; sexual abuse; growing up in chaotic homes with a lot of exposure to impulsive behavior of adults. (Little evidence for genetics; most evidence points to loss of or neglect by the parents in early childhood) Antisocial: several theories. Child abuse is common, as is drug/alcohol abuse (may produce biological changes that are responsible for antisocial behavior); clear familial trends showing some genetic causes. Learning theories say that antisocial are deficient in learning through punishment.

What are some characteristics of people who are high in the need for achievement?

Defined as the need to do better, be successful, and feel competent Energized by incentives of challenge; accompanied by feelings of interest, surprise, and curiosity People high in this need get satisfaction from accomplishing a task or anticipating accomplishing it and... Prefer moderate challenges Motivated to do better than others Like to feel personally responsible for the outcome Prefer tasks for which feedback for their performance is available

Understand the characteristics of a humanistic therapist.

Differs from psychoanalysis in that the client is never offered a solution to his problem or direction to take. The client is supposed to figure out the solution for himself. (Self-insight) Three core components: Genuine acceptance on the therapist's part, Unconditional positive regard for the client, Empathic understanding for the client

Know the difference between those with an internal vs. external locus of control.

External locus of control—generalized expectancy that events are outside of one's control (based on luck, chance, fate) Internal locus of control—generalized expectancy that one has control over events Internal LOC is associated with better outcomes.

What is the difference between field dependence and independence? What are some general characteristics of each? How is this concept measured?

Field Dependence: Have a hard time seeing the trees for the forest; interested in the big picture, not the details Known as global learners. Attentive to social cues; people-oriented. Tend to get along well with others. Tend to major in social sciences & education. Field Independence: Can't see the forest for the trees; focused on details. Known as analytical learners. Function more independently. More detached from others; social skills somewhat weak. Prefer natural science, math, engineering as majors. More creative. How Field Independence/Dependence is Assessed: Witkin first used the Rod and Frame Test in which Ss had to sit in a dark room and adjust a rod until it was perpendicular to a frame. Easier method today is the Embedded Figures Test (EFT), which can be adapted for children and for group settings. EFT is often used in education.

What is the best way to foster high achievement in children?

Independence training—behave in ways that promote self-sufficiency in children (let kids feed & clean up after themselves, etc.) **Strict toilet-training is associated with high nAch 26 years later. Set challenging standards for children but help them achieve the goals Reward the child when h/she reaches the goal. Positive and frequent successes achievement motivation. Avoid instilling a fear of failure; emphasize the motive to succeed. Acknowledge failures but don't dwell on them. Stress effort over ability. Secure attachment style is associated with achievement motivation.

What did Carol Dweck's research conclude?

It's more adaptive to think of abilities as malleable (changeable), not fixed, and able to be changed through effort. Emphasis is on the belief that one's performance is a temporary indicator of where one is, not where one will ultimately be, and that one's true potential will be realized only through sustained effort. This theory has an impact in educational settings.

What are generalized expectancies and locus of control?

Locus of control: Describes one's perception of responsibility for the events in his or her life. Generalized expectancies: a person's expectations for reinforcement hold across a variety of situations.

How do Larsen & Buss conceptualize personality disorders?

Maladaptive variations or combinations of normal personality traits Extremes on either end of specific trait dimensions can be associated with disorders. An enduring pattern of experience and behavior that differs greatly from society's expectations Pattern is inflexible and pervasive and leads to significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning. Pattern is stable and of long duration. Disorder is not better accounted for by another mental disorder, drug use, or a medical condition.

What is the difference between need for affiliation and need for intimacy?

Need for Intimacy is a more recent conceptualization of Need for Affiliation.. It emphasizes the positive sides of nAff without the anxiety and fear of rejection. High need for Intimacy -motivation to engage in close, positive, interpersonal relationships Intimacy motive reflects a concern for the quality of one's social involvement and is defined as the willingness to "experience a warm, close, and communicative exchange with another person"

What did Murray think about motives—i.e., do we always seek to decrease drives, increase them, etc.?

Needs refer to states of tension that motivate people to reduce the tension It's the process of reducing tension, rather than tension-reduction itself, that people find satisfying. People might seek to increase tension (e,g., sensation-seekers) Needs are acquired over time and are a result of experience.

How does need for power and need for intimacy differ between men and women?

No gender differences in incidence of nPow, but there are in expression of it. In men, linked to dissatisfying relationships, divorce, sexual exploitation and abuse of women, and alcohol abuse. These "profligate impulsive" behaviors can be avoided with responsibility training. None of these behaviors has been found in women. High nInt measured at age 30 in male Harvard grads was related to overall adjustment 17 years later. It's been shown to have positive benefits and life outcomes for both genders. For women, it's associated with happiness and life satisfaction. For men, it's associated with less strain in life. Goes along with findings regarding Stress & Coping: social support helps buffer us against the negative effects of stress.

What did Kelly think that people want more than anything else?

People try to understand, predict, and control events in their lives

Know the difference between the optimistic and pessimistic explanatory styles.

People who generally tend to blame themselves for negative events, believe that such events will continue indefinitely, and let such events affect many aspects of their lives display what is called a pessimistic explanatory style.

What did Petrie's research on pain show?

Petrie—induced pain in Ss (through application of heat and increasing weights on middle finger joints) to see how much they could tolerate. Theorized that people who could tolerate pain well had a nervous system that dampened/reduced the effects of sensory stimulation. Seems to be related to extraversion and sensation-seeking. People with low pain tolerance augment or amplify the perception of sensory information. Theory came to be known as Reducer/Augmenter Theory.

What did Rogers believe about self-actualization? What is the goal of therapy?

Rogers focused on the process of becoming self-actualized. He believed that the natural human state was to be fully functioning but people can get stalled in their movement toward self-actualization. His theory explains how people can lose their direction and get back on track. His therapy emphasizes the attainment of self-insight.

What is self-complexity? Is it better to have high or low self-efficacy?

Self-complexity—how the self-concept is organized. For those with high degrees of self-complexity, important aspects of the self are distinct from one another. They have roles that don't have a high degree of overlap. People who have low self-complexity have more overlap in their roles.

What is the difference between self-concept and self-esteem?

Self-concept Your answers to the question "Who am I?" Global self-concept includes self-schemas, the specific beliefs that we perceive about ourselves (smart, funny, extroverted, etc.) Self-schemas are a way to organize information about ourselves. Allow us to answer questions about ourselves automatically.

What is self-handicapping, and what is its goal?

Self-handicapping is a cognitive strategy by which people avoid effort in the hopes of keeping potential failure from hurting self-esteem

Which of Maslow's needs are the strongest vs. weakest?

Strongest: physiological Weakest: self-actualization

How do measures of achievement motivation differ from the TAT as compared to questionnaires?

TAT measures implicit motivation (unconscious motivation) that predict long-term behavioral trends over time. Self-report measures explicit motivation and are best for measuring subjects' conscious motives or beliefs about goals.

What is self-efficacy?

The belief that you can accomplish what you set out to achieve.

What is a fully functioning person?

The person who is on his way toward self-actualization; may not be self-actualized yet but has no roadblocks in the way. Open to new experiences, enjoy diversity, centered in the present (rather than the past or future), trust themselves and their feelings and judgments and don't look toward others for guidance. Often unconventional...march to the beat of their own drummer.

What is the difference between high and low self-monitors?

Traits of high self-monitors: Concerned with social appropriateness of their self-presentations Attentive to what others are doing as a guide to their own self-expressions Able to control their self-expressions Willing to control their self-expressions in social situations Inconsistent in their self-presentations from situation to situation Traits of low self-monitors: Not concerned with what other people think it is appropriate to do Attentive to inner self; not concerned with what others are doing Not concerned with controlling their self-expressions Not willing to control their self-expressions to social situations Consistent in their self-presentations from situation to situation

What is the goal of Kelly's reconstruction therapy?

Used role-playing in his theory Two steps: Elaborating the complaint (Identify the problem.) Elaborating the construct system (Identify where the constructs failed and figure out what to do about it.)

What does the Thematic Apperception Test measure?

Used to assess achievement, creativity, defense mechanisms, attachment styles, and psychosexual stages.

What do all personality disorders have in common with each other?

Usually manifested in one or more of the following: How people think How they feel How they get along with others How they control their impulses or behaviors Must take into account the effects of culture, age, gender, and ethnic background.

What is learned helplessness?

become passive and accepting of a situation, in effect learning to be helpless

What is Rogers' concept of anxiety?

defined as the result of having an experience that does not fit with one's self-conception. A fully functioning person can change their self-concept to incorporate experiences without trying to use the defense mechanism of distortion to modify the experience. (They can accept failure without blaming an external circumstance for it.)

Know some general characteristics of Maslow's hierarchy in terms of our persistence of satisfying each motive and when we're happiest, etc.

general, people appear to work up the hierarchy in order, though there are always exceptions. Lower-level needs emerge earlier in life than higher-level needs do, and they are more pressing when not satisfied than higher needs are because they're more tied to survival. When people are working on higher-level needs, their motivation is weak and easily disrupted. The lower the need, the greater its strength, potency, and priority. People typically work on satisfying multiple needs at one time, but they're investing most of their energy toward one need. The level of need one is working on is NOT related to happiness (you're just as happy working on lower-level needs as you are on higher -level ones).

What are some of the criticisms of the TAT?

it has low test-retest reliability and internal reliability, and correlations with self-report measures are low. TAT scores do not predict college GPA or achievement scores very well.

Be able to recognize the order of Maslow's hierarchy of needs.

physiological needs safety & security love & belonging self-esteem self-actualization

Understand terror management theory.

proposes a basic psychological conflict that results from having a desire to live, but realizing that death is inevitable.

Apperception

the act of interpreting the environment and perceiving the meaning of a situation

Alpha press

the objective reality, a "real" environment

Beta press

the perceived reality (what the person perceives to be true)

How does the humanistic tradition differ from the psychoanalytic and behavioral traditions?

views motivation as the need to grow and become who you're meant to be. Need to self-actualize is not a deficiency-based motive but a motive to develop, grow, and become more what one is destined to become.