PL201 - Exam 2: Aristotle - 86.5

16. Explain the necessity and benefits of friendship. (There are six.)

- In poverty and other misfortunes, friends are the only refuge. - When we're old, friends can take care of us. - When we're young, they can deter us from error. - If we are rich and powerful, friends being around offers us the beneficence and to guard precarious prosperity. - If we are in the prime of our life, friends can stimulate noble actions, as we are more able to both think and act with friends around. - If we are happy, we need friends, which is the best external good. WE ARE POLITICAL ANIMALS AND CANNOT BE HAPPY ISOLATED.

14. Explain the different views on pleasure, and then explain Aristotle's view.

- The first view of pleasure is called Hedonism, and it is Eudoxus' belief that all pleasure is good because both humans and animals--both rational and non-rational--seek it. He believes that was is choiceworthy is good and what is most choiceworthy is supreme. Eudoxus also believes that when pleasure is added to any good, it can make that good more choiceworthy. - The second view of pleasure is anti-hedonism, and it is the argument against Hedonism. It states that if pain is an evil, it does not follow that pleasure is good, since evil is also opposed to evil, and both are opposed to the neutral condition, which is without pleasure or plain. - Aristotle's view of pleasure is that it is not the good. He states that life is not all about avoiding pain, as no one would choose to live like a child for whom pleasure is everything. Also, there are many things that we do that don't bring pleasure. (for example pursing knowledge) Still, he says that only some pleasures are good. Some are choiceworthy in themselves. Some objects of pleasures are inferior or disgraceful though they appear good.

8. What are the two kinds of virtue, and how are they related to the above question?

According to Aristotle, there are two kinds of virtues. The first kind are called virtues of though: and they are intellectual. That regard thinking and arise from teaching. On the other hand, there are virtues of character. These are moral virtues. They regard passion and arise from habit. Virtues of thought fall under the rationally calculating part of the rational part of the soul, as it is intellectual and thus calculating. On the other hand, virtues of character fall under the irrational part of the soul, more specifically the part that shares in reason. As these are moral virtues, they are thus passionate.

1. What is Aristotle's description of "a good" and "the good?"

Aristotle describes a good as what every action and decision seeks. He says that it is better than the activities that seek it. Still, Aristotle states that only "the good" is sought for it's own sake rather than as a means to an end. "A good," however, is a means to an end. "The good," the one that is sought for it's own sake, is happiness. An example of "a good" is medicine, which seeks health, which in short, seeks the ultimate good--happiness.

7. Explain Aristotle's analysis of the soul, using it's two divisions and each subdivisions of those divisions.

Aristotle explains that the soul has two divisions. These are the rational part and the irrational, or non-rational part. The rational part consists of two sub-divisions: the scientific part and the rationally calculating part. The scientific part grasps rational principles and deals with changeless things. It is not concerned with actions, whereas the rationally calculating part deals with changeable, active things. Under the irrational part of the soul we find the part that shares in reason and is passionate and relevant to ethics. (For example, anger.) The other subdivision is the one that does not share in reason. It is vegetative and irrelevant to ethics. Digestion falls under this category.

9. Explain the importances of pleasure and pain in ethics.

Aristotle states that pleasure and pain are both important to ethics, as one's pain or pleasure is a sign of his or her state. He states that virtue is doing well regarding pleasures and pains, and we need an appropriate upbringing to know what is pleasurable and what is painful. If we find pleasure in the right things and pain in the right things, that we were brought up correctly. Having this upbringing, we should naturally pursue pleasure and avoid pain. We know both of these, as pleasure and pain has grown up with us from very early on.

3. Why are young people not the best judges of ethical matters (political science)?

Aristotle states that young people are not the best judges of ethical matter (political science) for two reasons. First, a good judge is educated in every area. Clearly, young people are not, as they lack life experience. The other reason that Aristotle says young people are not the best judges of ethical matter is because they tend to follow their feelings instead of thinking objectively. Those that follow their feelings, Aristotle states, get no benefit from their knowledge, as it is subjective and not absolute (objective).

Why is happiness as the activity of contemplation the best?

Happiness as the activity of contemplation is the best because it involves the best part of human beings (contemplation). The objects of this part are the most noble objects. Furthermore, contemplation is the most continuous activity. We contemplate every waking minute of our lives, whether we realize it or not; it's how we make decisions! Further, Aristotle states that the pleasure that comes with contemplation is more enduring and self sufficient than other virtues. Lastly, happiness as the activity of contemplation is chosen for it's own sake, not for another end. (For example, we choose to engage in war to achieve leisure or peace, which is a good that leads to the best good, happiness.)

2. What is the proper precision required of political science (ethics)?

Not a lot of exactness is required of politics. Different disciplines require different levels of exactness. For example, in the field of mathematics, 1 + 1 is always 2. (If I were to say 1 + 1 is probably 2, then I would be a bad mathematician.) However, the field of politics has a high level of opinion involved. For example, I might say that wealth is a good thing, as it allows us to purchase things that we need. Still, another might argue that wealth is bad, as it can prevent us from being humble. Clearly, both answers are not wrong. On the other hand, there is no figure that can tell us which is exactly right. Thus, we settle knowing that our answers, our opinions, are simply different.

What is Aristotle's description of happiness, and what does he mean by the qualities he attributes to happiness?

Once again, Aristotle states that happiness is the FINAL GOOD, "the good," if you will. He states that it is SELF-SUFFICIENT in the way that when isolated, it (happiness alone) makes life desirable and lacking nothing. He also states that happiness is the BEST AND MOST PLEASANT THING, as it has pleasure within itself. Still, Aristotle tells us that happiness INCLUDES SOME EXTERNAL GOODS, as we cannot do fine actions without resources. (For example, we use friends as instruments in many of our actions.) Finally, he he states that true happiness is ENDURING. When it only lasts for a short time, one is not truly happy.

13. Compare the virtuous vs. the continent vs. the incontinent vs. the vicious. Think of concrete examples.

The continent moral character has correct reason but a bad desire or appetite. He knows his appetite is bad, and thus, he overcomes it using his rational judgment. (He wants to drink alcohol really badly, but he refrains as he has work tomorrow and he knows even one beer can get him very drunk.) On the opposite, the incontinent reason, also having a knowingly bad appetite, follows that appetite. He does not use rational judgement to overcome it. (In this instance, the man gets drunk and disregards that he has work in the morning.) On the complete opposite side of the spectrum, a virtuous person does not have this desire to drink. He genuinely desires not to, and reasonably does not drink. He doesn't want to get drunk but also knows he needs to go to work in the morning. Still, he doesn't desire to drink. (Both his desire and and his reason is good) Opposite from him is the vicious person, whose reason and desire are both bad. He desires to drink for the reason that it will get him drunk and he will miss work.

12. Give the full set of moral characters.

The six moral characters are the godlike, the virtuous, and the continent, (these are the ones that are encouraged) as well as the incontinent, the vicious, and the bestial, (which should be avoided, according to Aristotle.) The godlike is the best moral character, and can be described as superhuman, while bestiality is the worst moral character.

17. Explain the three kinds of friendship.

The three kinds of friendship, according to Aristotle, are friendship based on utility, friendship based on pleasure, and friendship based on virtue. Friendship based on pleasure is incomplete and easily dissolved. It is common among the young, as the young are emotional. They pursue what is pleasant and what is at hand. For example this person may smell good, and therefore you hang out with them for that ) The second kind of friendship is based on utility. It too, is incomplete and easily dissolved. It is common among the old. An example of it is old people at a retirement home. They may not find each other pleasant, and they might not like living together, but they do because they're always lumped together anyways. Finally, friendship based on virtue is a relationship between two people who are similar in virtue. It is complete, perfect, and non-incidental. It is enduring because virtue is enduring. It is rare because virtuous people are rare and they need time to get accustomed to each other. It is the most comprehensive because it includes utility and pleasure.

Explain the function argument of Happiness and reason.

To achieve happiness, one must look at the proper function of human beings that distinguish them from lower beings. First we can look at a life of nutrition. Is it the proper function of human beings? No--dogs, lower beings, can be healthy. Still, we might look at a life of perception in terms of sense. Is this the proper function of human beings? Still, the answer is no, as dogs use perception based on sense all time time! (They smell food, for example, and subconsciously think it's time to eat.) So, proper human function is more than that. It is activity of the soul in accordance with REASON, something that animals do not have. Humans have the ability to reason, and therefore contemplate (Aristotle also says that happiness, the good, is the activity of the soul in accordance with virtue, as we are looking for the function of excellent human beings, not just human beings.)

11. Explain virtue as a mean, two senses of a mean.

Virtue is a mean in two senses. First it is a mean with respect to the object. What he means by this is virtue is equidistant from each extremity. Aristotle gives a mathematical of this by stating that the mean of 1 and 11 is 6. This mean in terms of virtue describes the middle of excess of a certain feeling and a deficiency of that feeling. He calls this virtuous. He also states, though, that virtue is a mean with respect to us. This is a little bit more complicated, but he uses the example of food to illustrate it. (I will use the example of pizza.) I may be large, and you may be small, and thus, eating six slices of pizza might be virtuous for me, but it is not virtuous for you, who may only eat two slices. He uses this metaphor to illustrate that virtue can be relative to the person. This is because there may be situations that cause me to be very angry but only cause you to be moderately yet still appropriately angry.