PLANNING AND INSTRUCTION NHC1

Authentic assessment

includes a task for students to perform and a rubric by which their performance on the task will be evaluated. Authentic assessment presents students with real-world situations that require them to apply their relevant skills and knowledge In authentic assessment, students • Make oral reports • Play tennis • Write stories and reports • Solve math problems that have real-world applications • Do science experiments • Read and interpret literature

Percentile scores

indicates the percentage of the population whose scores fall at or below that score. A score of 20, for example, would have 20% of the group falling at or below the score and 80% above the score. The 50th percentile would be the mean

Educational Games

involve students in decision-making roles in which they compete for certain objectives according to specified rules. Thus, educational games should reflect society; they should offer students the opportunity to experience roles that are common in life.

Jigsaw Strategy.

is a cooperative learning plan in which six-member teams work to investigate a common topic. The topics are typically broad enough in scope (e.g., the country of Canada in geography, islands in science, and the body in health) that individual members of the team can be assigned subjects within the topic. Individuals are responsible for researching and learning their part. Members of different teams who have studied the same part convene, discuss their part, and then return to their teams, where they take turns teaching their part to other team members. All students are expected to learn all the information on the topic, and comprehensive quizzes can be used to supplement group reports to measure if this happens.

Portfolios Portfolios also provide students with the opportunity to communicate their learning to their parents (Overturf, 1997). Students can be asked to share their portfolios with parents, and parents can provide a written response regarding the contents. Indeed, student-led parent-teacher conferences can be structured to center on student portfolios

is a purposeful collection of student work that tells the story of the student's efforts, progress, or achievement in a given area. Teachers design activities resulting in student-made products that are collected to make a portfolio for each student. The portfolio of work is then used as the product by which students are evaluated. A portfolio can be thought of as a systematic, organized collection of evidence that documents growth and development and that represents progress made toward reaching specified goals and objectives. Portfolios enable students to display their skills and accomplishments for examination by others. To make the evaluation of portfolios as objective as possible, most teachers develop a scoring rubric to guide the grading process

Competence in performing a skill ably and independently. Informational Objective: The student will be able to perform a kickflip without pausing to think.

Ordinative Movement

—Building an internally consistent value system. A set of criteria is established and applied in choice-making. Informational Objective: The student will conduct and share additional research about how class pets help children learn to care for themselves and others.

Organizing

Conferences

Parental conferences may be needed for gathering evaluative information. Parents sometimes can shed needed light on students' social and academic problems. Parent conferences, however, are most beneficial when they are scheduled ahead of time and well planned.

The first stage in the model is the establishment of objectives—that is, learning intent. Stage 2, instructional activities designed to develop student mastery are implemented. The final stage is a determination of whether the intent was accomplished.

Teacher Accountability

Measurement Accuracy

Reliability, validity, and usability are three important qualities of every measurement device. If a teacher-made test reveals that 50% of an algebra class was unable to solve algebraic equations, should the teacher be concerned? The answer depends on the reliability, validity, and usability of the test—that is, the ability of the test to consistently measure what it is supposed to measure: problem-solving ability

—Freely attending to stimuli and voluntarily reacting to those stimuli. Informational Objective: The student will volunteer to clean the hamster's cage.

Responding

Teachers can differentiate at least four classroom elements based on students' readiness, interest, or learning profile.

1. Content. What the student needs to learn or how the student will get access to the information. Teachers can use reading materials at varying readability levels, put text on DVDs, use computers, present ideas through both auditory and visual means, and reteach an idea or skill in small groups to struggling learners or extend the thinking or skills of advanced learners. For students who learn more slowly, one modification that is needed is to reduce the volume of material in a lesson. The focus should be on essential understandings and skills. 2. Process. Activities in which the students engage to make sense of or master the content. Teachers can provide interest centers; offer different activities with different levels of support, challenge, or complexity; offer manipulatives or other hands-on supports; and vary the length of time a student may take to complete an activity. All students should be engaged in differentiated meaningful activities related to instructional goals. As noted earlier, ongoing assessment must be an integral part of the instructional process. Assessment provides the teacher with the necessary information for making sound decisions on the total instructional process for all students. 3. Products. Culminating projects that ask the students to rehearse, apply, and extend what they have learned in a unit. Teachers can give students options on how to express required learning (e.g., write a letter or use a computer), use rubrics that match and extend students' varied skill levels, allow students to work alone or in small groups on projects, and encourage students to create their own product assignments. 4. Learning Environment. The way the classroom works and feels. Teachers can make sure there are quiet places in the room to work, provide materials that reflect a variety of cultures and home settings, set clear guidelines for independent work, and help students understand that some students have to be active to learn.

A Model of Teaching

1. Diagnosing the learning situation 2. Planning the course 3. Planning the instruction 4. Guiding learning activities 5. Evaluating learning 6. Reflecting 7. Following up

More specifically, a well-constructed unit should include the following components: (Always keep in mind that a unit consists of a series of daily lessons. The unit can be viewed as the whole, with the individual lessons as its parts. Thus, the individual lessons must be selected so they are interrelated and address the learner outcomes that are specified in the objectives of the unit as a whole.)

1. Topic: presumably the subject suggested by a course outline, a textbook, or a state curriculum guide. 2. Goals and objectives: a list of your learning intentions in broad and specific terms. 3. Content outline: an outline of the material to be covered—with as much detail as you feel is needed—which should help clarify the subject and help you with the sequence and organization. 4. Learning activities: teacher and student activities—comprising introductory, developmental, and culminating activities—that, when arranged into a series of daily lessons, will lead to the desired learning outcomes. 5. Resources and materials: a list of materials to be selected and prepared for the unit. 6. Evaluation: an outline of your evaluation procedure—including homework, tests, and special projects—that should be planned and prepared prior to instruction. 7. Accommodations: the plans you have made to accommodate students who would have difficulty meeting your objectives or already can perform the lesson intent or know what the lesson teaches. 8. Reflection: a self-evaluation on the effectiveness of the lesson and needed changes if the lesson is to be taught again. This section is completed following execution of the lesson.

basically is a list of the criteria against which a student's performance or end product is judged. With a checklist, a teacher simply checks off the criteria items that have been met.

A checklist The scoring of the checklist type of test is simple. The number of negative statements checked is subtracted from the number of positive statements checked. The result is the positiveness of the attribute being measured.

Closure

A closure activity should provide a logical conclusion; it should pull together and organize the concepts learned. Once your lesson has been concluded, the lesson closure consolidates the main concepts and ideas and integrates them within the students' existing cognitive structure. Closure should be more than a quick review of the ideas covered in the lesson. It should be designed to enable students to organize the new material in relation to itself and other lessons. It should show the relationship among the major ideas and tie together the parts of the lesson.

can be described as an activity curriculum. In effect, a student-centered curriculum focuses on student needs, interests, and activities. In its purest form, a student-centered curriculum operates with students as the center of the learning process. Activities are planned jointly by the teacher and students. The teacher is seen as a stimulator and facilitator of student activity. The student-centered curriculum is the most appropriate curriculum pattern for the elementary school level

A student-centered curriculum

Receiving: Follow, select, rely, choose, point to, ask, hold, give, locate, attend Responding: Read, conform, help, answer, practice, present, report, greet, tell, perform, assist, recite Valuing: Initiate, ask, invite, share, join, follow, propose, read, study, work, accept, do, argue Organization: Defend, alter, integrate, synthesize, listen, influence, adhere, modify, relate, combine Characterization by a value or value complex: Adhere, relate, act, serve, use, verify, question, confirm, propose, solve, influence, display

Affective Domain Taxonomy and Illustrative Action Verbs Krathwohl, Bloom, and Masia (1964) developed a classification system for categorizing affective responses into five levels, according to the degree to which an attitude, feeling, value, or emotion has become part of the individual.

Rationale for Objectives What Objectives are and do

An objective is not a statement of what you plan to do; instead, it is a statement of what your students should be able to do after instruction. Objectives, then, should place the emphasis on student outcome or performance. Objectives establish the framework for instruction: They compel you to provide the environment and sequence of activities that will allow students to reach the stated intent. Objectives also prescribe exactly what skills and knowledge students must manifest as a result of instruction. In other words, your objectives will set the framework for the evaluation process. Objectives also serve an important communication function. Clear and measurable objectives need to be stated for the benefit of students, parents, and program accountability Objectives make clear to students your expectations prior to instruction.

Individualized instruction (another aspect) If reading is a problem, textbooks at different levels can be made available or textbook chapters might be recorded so struggling readers can still learn the textbook information. Using assistive devices such as closed-circuit monitors and "speaking" computer software plus audiovisual resources such as films, CDs, DVDs, and video clips will enhance all students' academic efforts.

Another technique that can be used for individualizing instruction is varying your objectives. If you pretest your class on the intended instructional outcomes (objectives), you may find that some have already mastered these outcomes. Thus, instead of insisting that all students work on the same outcomes, you tailor the activities to the needs and abilities of different students or groups of students. Low-ability students might need to work on all your objectives, whereas better students might need to work on a small number. Clearly, you need to break down your instruction into a variety of objectives and related activities to accommodate this type of individualization. A third individualization technique is to vary the method used in accomplishing the desired outcome. Even when students are working on the same outcome, they can use different means of achieving mastery. One student may rely on a textbook, whereas another may work with tutors. Still other students with learning difficulties may need to work with special teachers. Self-instructional packages, learning centers, and computer-assisted instruction are other possible methods that could provide individualized instruction.

Assessment and Evaluation Process

Assessment and evaluation are vital parts of the instructional process. Assessment is the process of documenting, usually in measurable terms, knowledge, skills, attitudes, and beliefs. Evaluation, on the other hand, refers to the process of making judgments, placing value, or deciding on worth. A test, for example, is an assessment device to determine how much students know about a topic. Assigning grades, however, is an evaluation process because values are being assigned to the information. Evaluation must be conducted to determine whether students are learning, to gauge the appropriateness of the curriculum for a given group of students, to identify what must be retaught, to ensure proper placement of individual students within a program of instruction, and to make sure that state guidelines for achievement have been met.

Assessment and Measurement

Assessment is the gathering of information about students, the curriculum, and the school environment. This information can be gathered through information observations and verbal exchanges or through formal assignments, portfolios, or tests. The purpose of assessment, either through observable performance, product development, or traditional paper-and-pencil tests, is to provide data to measure the degree to which a desired outcome has been mastered. That is, assessment provides the information for evaluation

Analysis

Breaking down complex material into its component parts so it can be better explained. Instructional Objective: Given the menu from a fast-food restaurant, the student will be able to identify the nutritious elements (if any) of a fast-food meal.

Self-Directed Approaches

Computer integration--Using computer to enhance curriculum learning Simulations and games--Models of artificial situations and events designed to provide no-risk experiences for students Individualized instruction--Instruction tailored to interests, needs, and abilities of students Independent study--Activities carried out with little or no guidance Mastery learning--Diagnostic-corrective-enrichment model where students work on objectives until mastery is achieved Drill and practice--Development of automatic and/or improved performance

—Consistently acting according to a value and being firmly committed to the experience. Informational Objective: The student will organize a fund-raising effort to earn money to buy class pets for all of the school's classrooms.

Characterizing by a Value or Value Complex

• Following up a film, record, play, or television program • Summarizing the presentation of a guest speaker • Closing a group discussion • Summarizing experiences of a field trip • Consolidating the learning of a new concept • Ending a science experiment • Concluding a long unit of study

Closing Methods Closure can be appropriate in the following situations: Demonstrating or applying new information at the conclusion of a lesson has the added advantage of providing needed immediate feedback to the students

Synthesis

Combining available elements to form a new whole with a new and unique form. Instructional Objective: Given an imaginary budget, the student will plan 1 week's menu of nutritious meals aligned with the food pyramid guidelines.

Evaluation systems can be grouped into two categories

Competitive evaluation systems--- force students to compete with other students (norm referenced), Noncompetitive evaluation systems do not require interstudent comparisons; rather, they are based on established sets of standards of mastery (criterion referenced).

Computer Integration

Computer and Internet use can be incorporated into every content area to some extent and thus truly be integrated into the entire curriculum. Computer and Internet use needs to be included in the teaching plan so that students spend part of each day interacting with the computer, being led through exercises that expand on the information being discussed in class. Your teaching can be enhanced by exciting materials that can be used to reinforce what you are teaching.

Group Investigation.

Cooperative learning can be used to promote higher level learning. Group investigation involves a combination of independent learning and group work. It places students together in teams of three to six to investigate or solve some common problem. Examples might include social studies or a science experiment, a community project, or construction of an art collage. Students are responsible for developing group goals, assigning individual responsibilities, and bringing the projects to completion. Cooperation is encouraged and fostered through common group goals, and grades are assigned to the total project. The teacher's role is to facilitate investigation and maintain cooperative effort.

Cooperative learning The size of the cooperative learning group varies, depending on the task to be accomplished. The common group size tends to be four. In general, cooperative learning groups are given considerable autonomy. Team members are allowed a great deal of freedom as they decide how to deal with the assigned task.

Cooperative learning generally requires that students work together in mixed-ability groups in accomplishing a set of tasks. Students are placed in groups that are mixed in performance level, gender, and ethnicity. The percentage of high, middle, and low learners in each group should represent the appropriate population of each group in the whole class. Rewards to individual students are often based on the performance and accomplishment of the team. Accountability of individual students for the whole group builds an incentive for students to work together productively. Individual accountability is an essential characteristic of all cooperative learning. Accountability means that the success of the group is based on the individual learning of each team member. Individual accountability occurs when each student in the group is held responsible for the required learning goals.

Ability to produce and compose motor options that serve the personal purposes of the performer. Instructional Objective: Using proper safety equipment, the student will be able to perform a skateboard routine using multiple surfaces, three tricks, and some personal razzle-dazzle.

Creative Movement

hold the information collected on students over the school years. These records are usually stored in the guidance center office and contain such things as academic records, health records, family data, vital statistics, and other confidential information, as well as scores on tests of intelligence, aptitude, and achievement. Cumulative records also often contain behavioral comments from past teachers and administrators. These comments can prove useful in understanding the reasons for students' academic problems and disruptive behaviors

Cumulative records

Levels of Planning Lesson plans should reflect the individual needs, strengths, and interests of the teacher and the students. Lesson planning should never be dictated by rigid standards that prevent and stifle creativity When planning your lessons, you must ensure that you modify and include modifications for any special-needs students in your class by carefully analyzing the lesson and modifying it so it is understood by the whole class. This is important because special-needs students often respond to the curriculum differently from other students.

Curriculum Mapping-- The most general type of planning you will perform as a classroom teacher is curriculum mapping (course planning) Unit Planning-- Courses are usually divided into a sequence of manageable units of study that represent discrete segments of the year's work. Each unit is organized around a specific theme or a cluster of related concepts. Weekly Plans--outlines each day's lesson for 1 week. These weekly lesson plans vary greatly in detail from school to school. They are essentially short, watered-down copies of the week's daily lesson plans, written on special forms provided by the school. Daily Lesson Plans-- The most detailed and specific type of plan which simply defines the objectives and class activities for a single day.

is a form of teaching and learning that draws upon the knowledge and skills of a variety of discipline areas as they become necessary in problem solving

Curriculum integration

are pictorial or graphical ways to organize written or oral information.

Graphic Organizers Graphic organizers form visual pictures of information and allow people to process information more intensely, which improves recall. They help students organize information into a simple-to-read, structured display that presents complex information in an easy-to-understand manner. Essentially, learning is enhanced because students must prioritize information when they create the graphic organizer and when they determine where each information component is placed on the graphic organizer.

Comprehension

Extending beyond the memorization of previously learned material to change its form or make simple interpretations. This is the first level of understanding. Informational Objective: The student will be able to describe how vitamins and minerals help the body remain healthy.

Movements that form the basic building blocks for the higher level movements. Informational Objective: The student will be able to stand on a stationary skateboard without falling off.

Fundamental Movement

Carrying out the basic rudiments of a skill when given directions and under supervision. Instructional Objective: Under supervision, the student will be able to propel the skateboard without stopping for at least 5 minutes.

Generic Movement

—Being aware of and willing to attend freely to stimuli and messages in the environment (listen and look). Informational Objective: The student will demonstrate awareness that there is a class pet (hamster) in the classroom.

Receiving

Student Teams Achievement Division (STAD).

In STAD, students are paired on evenly matched teams of four, and team scores are based on the extent to which individuals improve their scores on skills tests. Rewards are given to teams whose members improve the most over their past performances, thus encouraging group cooperation. STAD is a popular cooperative learning strategy because of its wide applicability across a variety of subject matter areas (including math, reading, and social studies) and grade levels.

Peer Tutoring.

One of the simplest forms of cooperative learning uses students as supplementary instructors in basic skills areas. The teacher presents material as he or she normally would. Pairs of students then use structured exercises and worksheets with answer sheets to reinforce the new material. Students take turns being the tutor and provide each other with immediate, one-to-one feedback

1. Objectives: the specific learning intent for the day, selected from the unit plan 2. Introduction (set induction): an activity used at the beginning of the lesson to attract student attention and interest 3. Content: a brief outline of the content to be covered in the lesson 4. Methods and procedure: a sequential listing of developmental activities for the day, selected from the unit plan 5. Closure: the lesson wrap-up activity 6. Resources and materials: a list of instructional materials needed for the lesson 7. Evaluation procedure: an activity or technique that determines how well students have mastered the intended learning outcomes of the lesson 8. Assignment: the in-class or homework assignment to be completed for the next class period

Lesson Plan Format 1 ( basic lesson plan format) (A lesson plan should provide needed structure to a lesson but should be general enough to allow for flexibility.)

1. Anticipatory set: a teacher-directed activity designed to prompt students to focus on the lesson before the lesson begins 2. Objective and purpose: teacher statements that explicitly inform students as to what will be learned in the coming lesson and how it will be useful 3. Input: the new knowledge, processes, or skills students are to learn 4. Modeling: the examples used in developing an understanding of the knowledge, processes, or skills being taught—including the techniques used to illustrate the new knowledge, processes, or skills 5. Checking for understanding: a method for determining whether students understand the learning intent that may occur before or during the teacher-directed activity (modeling) or during the student-guided activity 6. Guided practice: student practice of new knowledge, processes, or skills under teacher supervision (in-class) 7. Independent practice: unsupervised practice of new knowledge, processes, or skills (assigned seatwork or homework)

Lesson Plan Format 2. (Madeline Hunter instructional design.) It is appropriate for skill learning and many forms of teacher-centered instruction, such as lecturing, lecture recitation, and Socratic questioning. The more student-centered lessons, such as discussions and problem solving, would not fit into this format

1. Objectives: statements of the specific learning intents or what students should be able to do upon completion of the lesson 2. Initial focus (set induction): a teacher-directed activity to get student attention and interest focused on the required assigned task 3. Major task: teacher-directed presentation of assigned group task, directions for group work, and options available to students 4. Group activity: students' task assigned by the teacher, who can offer strategy options or require that students develop their own 5. Debriefing: students' analysis and presentation of the product of the assigned task, as well as of the strategies that were and were not effective 6. Resources and materials: listing of the materials needed for groups to work on and complete the assigned task 7. Evaluation: formal and informal techniques to be used to check whether students have achieved task and objectives

Lesson Plan Format 3. This format is suggested for use with the small-group learning strategy. Small-group strategies generally require that students be prepared for their task and be debriefed once the assigned task has been addressed. Therefore, the planning process is a student-centered format

1. Enduring understanding(s): knowledge and skills worth being familiar with and important to know and do 2. Essential questions: related questions that fully cover the enduring understanding(s) that will guide and focus teaching/learning 3. Assessment/acceptable evidence: how students will demonstrate understandings, knowledge, and skills 4. Strategies/best practices used to explicitly teach understandings: sequence of teaching/learning experience that will equip students and demonstrate the desired understandings designed to hook students and hold their interest 5. Resources and materials: listing of materials needed to accomplish tasks

Lesson Plan Format 4. This format is suggested for the backward design approach to instruction. It is based on the concept that a firmer and clearer grasp of where learning is going will be presented when goals or assessments are clearly articulated right from the beginning.

Set induction--Activity at outset of a lesson to get students' undivided attention, to arouse their interest, and to establish a conceptual framework Instructional strategy--The methodology and procedure. It is the global plan of a lesson. Methodology learning--planned patterned behaviors that are definite steps by which the teacher influences Procedure--Sequence of steps designed to lead students to the acquisition of the desired learning Closure--An activity designed to pull a lesson together and bring it to a logical conclusion

Lesson Plan Structure Concepts

Evaluation

Making a judgment as to the value of materials or ideas. Criteria or standards must be given or determined. Informational Objective: The student will write a persuasive letter to the school principal to precipitate a change in the cafeteria menu.

Cognitive Domain

Objectives in the cognitive domain are concerned with students' thinking and reasoning abilities. Because the ability to think can range from simple recall of information to more complex thinking behaviors,

Student Assessment

Once a lesson has ended, a clear picture of how well students have mastered the stated objectives must be in your grasp. If there is a discrepancy between the intent and what was achieved, then you must decide whether reteaching is necessary. The postlesson assessment that emerges from a lesson can vary widely in specificity and level of formality. Sometimes it will come from information gained during question-and-answer sequences. Sometimes it consists of information gleaned from student group work, individual seatwork, or completion of class activities. At other times, the assessment is formal (quiz or test).

Integrated Methods

Ordinary demonstration--Individual shows and explains something to class Inquiry demonstration--Individual shows class something without explanation; students observe, make inferences, and reach conclusions Socratic method--Questioning and interaction to draw information out of students Concept attainment--Teaching strategy designed to help students learn concepts and practice analytical thinking skills Cooperative learning--Students work together as a team on assigned tasks

Planning Instruction

Planning serves two practical functions: It allows you to anticipate instructional needs in advance so materials can be gathered and organized, and it provides a plan that directs classroom interactions.

Application

Putting learned information to use in reaching a solution or accomplishing a task. Instructional Objective: Given a list of various food items, the student will be able to categorize the items according to their food groups with 90% accuracy.

call on students to examine themselves and react to a series of statements about their attitudes, feelings, and opinions. Because questionnaires require self-reporting of these attributes, it is important that you recognize the potential for persons to choose socially correct responses rather than to indicate true beliefs.

Questionnaires

Block scheduling As a general strategy, teachers should consider planning three to four activities during the instructional block. For example, block-of-time lessons could be structured in the following manner:

Review Previous Learning. Through such means as checking homework, teacher questioning, and student self-assessment in learning pairs, teachers can quickly assess student mastery of previously taught concepts and engage in appropriate reteaching strategies. Instructional Input. Important new concepts should be delivered with primary concern for active student involvement. Direct teaching, demonstrations, multimedia presentations, concept attainment, and inquiry methods are a sampling of effective approaches for ensuring that students receive instruction on the day's concepts. Student Performance. Group experiences provide students with an opportunity to master the lesson content while engaging in hands-on activities. Experiments, cooperative learning, role-playing, case studies, and computer simulations can each be used to provide effective experiences Guided Practice/Reteaching. Individual student mastery remains the foundation of effective teaching. Guided practice (individually or with a group) should be provided so teachers can assess levels of student understanding. This component is especially critical for schools with alternate-day schedules because students will most likely not have an opportunity to correct learning errors for 2 or more days. Teachers should reteach and reinforce the day's objectives, provide closure, and assign homework.

Remembering: Retrieve, recognize, and recall relevant knowledge Understanding:Construct meaning from oral, written, and graphic messages through interpreting, exemplifying, classifying, summarizing, inferring, comparing, and explaining Applying:Carry out or use a procedure through executing or implementing Analyzing:Break material into constituent parts; determine how the parts relate to one another and to an overall structure or purpose through differentiating, organizing, and attributing Evaluating: Make judgments based on criteria and standards through checking and critiquing Creating: Put elements together to form a coherent or functional whole; reorganize elements into a new pattern or structure through generating, planning, or producing

Revised Bloom's Taxonomy and Category Definitions

Simulations and Games Two basic types of simulation can be used in the classroom: human simulations and person-to-computer simulations. Human simulations are usually conducted in the form of role-playing and sociodramas, whereas person-to-computer simulations often take the form of simulation games.

Simulations and game activities can be most useful as teaching tools. Indeed, they provide a variety of learning opportunities in the classroom. Such activities can create interest and relieve tension in difficult curriculum areas. Furthermore, students often find simulations and games fun. Simulation is the presentation of an artificial situation or event that represents reality but removes risk to the individual involved in the activity. Simulations can be viewed as models of what exists or might exist under manageable and controlled conditions.

Constructing a rubric is not an easy task. A clearly defined purpose is essential as each component is developed. With this in mind, follow these steps:

Step 1. Examine the standards or objectives that the product or performance is meant to address. Step 2. Write or identify the criteria that will be used to judge the student's product or performance, and make sure they match the standards or objectives. Step 3. Design a frame by deciding on the major categories or attributes the rubric will address. Step 4. Describe the different levels of performance (exceptional, very good, adequate, etc.) that match each criterion. Be sure to choose words or phrases that show the actual differences among the levels. Make sure they are observable. Step 5. Test the rubric with students to make sure it is understandable. Step 6. Revise the rubric as necessary.

classifies cognitive ability into six categories, ranging from the fairly simple recall of information to the complex assimilation of information and evaluation. Knowledge -- Identify, define, list, match, state, name, label, describe, select Comprehension-- Translate, convert, generalize, paraphrase, rewrite, summarize, distinguish, infer, alter, explain Application-- Use, operate, produce, change, solve, show, compute, prepare, determine Analysis-- Discriminate, select, distinguish, separate, subdivide, identify, break down, analyze, compare Synthesis --Design, plan, compile, compose, organize, conclude, arrange, construct, devise Evaluation--Appraise, compare, justify, criticize, explain, interpret, conclude, summarize, evaluate

Taxonomy of Educational Objectives

Team Accelerated Instruction (TAI).

TAI combines the notion of cooperative learning with individually paced instruction. Students work in heterogeneous teams, but each student studies individualized academic materials he or she is to master. Teammates check each other's work from answer sheets, and more advanced students serve as tutors. Rewards may be based upon the number of units each team has completed, the number of final tests passed, or other criteria.

CHAPTER 7 Developing Unit and Daily Lesson Plans First comes thought; then organization of that thought into ideas and plans; then transformation of those plans into reality. The beginning, as you will observe, is in your imagination. —NAPOLEON HILL

Teaching requires a large repertoire of skills and the ability to put these skills to use in different situations. Good teachers improvise: No one approach works equally well all the time and in all situations. In short, effectiveness depends on the subject, students, and environmental conditions. Effective teaching is complicated. The better teachers, however, are proactive; that is, they are active information processors and decision makers. They are strongly committed to the importance of content delivery and tend to be task oriented. They understand the demands of teaching their content, the characteristics of their students, and the importance of decision making in keeping students on task

authentic assessment (assessment drives the curriculum)

That is, teachers first determine the tasks that students will perform to demonstrate the desired outcomes, and then a curriculum is developed that will enable students to perform those tasks well, which would include the acquisition of essential knowledge and skills. This has been referred to as planning backwards. Authentic assessment has evolved to encompass a range of approaches, including portfolio assessment, journals and logs, products, videotapes of performances, and projects. Portfolio assessment is presently being widely adopted in many schools.

Teams-Games-Tournaments (TGT)

The TGT procedures follow STAD except that instead of an individual quiz being given, the team members compete aganist each other. Students are put into homogeneous ability groups of three or four students for competition. Students play these competitive games in weekly tournaments in which they compete with members of other teams who have similar past records in the subject. The competition takes place with three students at each tournament table. Because the tables include students of similar ability, all students have the opportunity to be successful. The winner of each table is usually bumped up to the next higher level or table of competition. If you lose, you move down. Thus, competition is always among matched or somewhat alike-achieving students. High-performing teams earn certificates or other team-based awards. Individual accountability is maintained during competition because teammates cannot help each other.

there are two major ways of delivering instruction: directly or indirectly.

The direct delivery of instruction ("telling") is the "traditional" or didactic mode, in which knowledge is passed on through the teacher, the textbook, or both. The indirect avenue of instruction ("showing") provides students with access to information and experiences whereby they develop knowledge and skills.

Fundamental movement: Track, crawl, hear, react, move, grasp, walk, climb, jump, grip, stand, run Generic movement: Drill, construct, dismantle, change, hop, clean, manipulate, follow, use, march Ordinative movement: Play, connect, fasten, make, sketch, weigh, wrap, manipulate, play, swim, repair, write Creative movement: Create, invent, construct, manipulate, play, build, pantomime, perform, make, compose

The four-level system presented here is adapted from the work of Harrow (1972)

direct instructional strategy

The main strength of the direct instructional strategy is that it is efficient, especially in quickly providing information to the students. It is also an effective way to allow students to achieve mastery when learning fundamental facts, rules, formulas, or sequences. The direct instructional strategy is not an effective way to teach higher level thinking, analysis, or evaluation. It cannot be used to teach material over a long period of time or present additional details to students who have already mastered the basic concepts.

Cooperative learning takes

The most common approaches are peer tutoring, student teams achievement division (STAD), teams-games-tournaments (TGT), team accelerated instruction (TAI), group investigation, jigsaw strategy.

Knowledge

The simple recall or recognition of previously learned materials. Informational Objective: The student will be able to name the food groups represented on the food pyramid.

places emphasis on oral discourse and extensive explanations. It expects teachers to plan instruction before teaching begins and to organize it around the content, and it assumes that certain content should be taught to all students. The subject-centered curriculum usually consists of a study of specific facts and ideas. The teaching methods usually include the direct strategies: lectures, discussions, and questions

The subject-centered curriculum

Strategies, then, should be viewed as utilitarian: Start of chapter 10

They achieve the instructional intent. For example, if the intent of a social studies lesson is to share views on some controversial issue, it is obvious that the discussion method and applicable procedures should assist in achieving this objective. The lecture method, or simply showing a film, would not support the intent of the lesson.

Unit planning can be deemed more critical than other levels of planning. The unit plan links the goals, objectives, content, activities, and evaluation you have in mind. The plan should spell out your goals and specific instructional objectives. A list of needed instructional materials and resources should be provided. Finally, the methods you intend to use for evaluating student learning need to be specified, as well as what constitutes acceptable evidence of mastery. In addition, you should indicate accommodations that will be made for exceptional students and a reflection section that should be completed after the lesson has been taught.

Unit Planning

—Voluntarily giving worth to an idea, a phenomenon, or a stimulus. Instructional Objective: After seeing a classmate poke items in the hamster's cage, the student will state three reasons why the hamster is entitled to a safe, peaceful existence.

Valuing

that schools and teachers align all components (state learning expectations, instruction, and assessment) into a verifiable teaching/learning system. Therefore, teachers must clearly link state expectations, classroom objectives, instruction, and assessment.

accountability system require

Objectives in the affective domain For example, the affective objective "The student will value the need for rules" is not properly written. The behavior "value" is not observable or measurable. The verb value must be replaced with an action that shows observable behavior: "The student will support the school rules during class discussions on class rules Behaviors related to the affective domain must take place in a "free-choice" situation in order to be true indicators of students' attitudes, likes and dislikes, and feelings. Otherwise, students may exhibit the desired behaviors for a reward or because they want to please you.

are concerned with the development of students' attitudes, feelings, and emotions. They can vary according to the degree of internalization of the attitude, feeling, or emotion. Clearly, because teachers must be concerned with the total development of students, not just development in the cognitive domain, writing affective objectives should be an integral part of the planning process. Affective domain objectives are often difficult to write because attitudes, feelings, and emotions are difficult to translate into overt, observable behaviors

Cooperative Base Groups

are long-term, heterogeneous cooperative learning groups with stable membership (Johnson, Johnson, & Holubec, 2008). Members' primary responsibilities are to (a) ensure all members are making good academic progress (i.e., positive goal interdependence) (b) hold each other accountable for striving to learn (i.e., individual accountability), and (c) provide each other with support, encouragement, and assistance in completing assignments (i.e., promotive interaction). In order to ensure the base groups function effectively, periodically teachers should teach needed social skills and have the groups process how effectively they are functioning. Typically, cooperative base groups are heterogeneous in membership (especially in terms of achievement motivation and task orientation), meet regularly (for example, daily or biweekly), and last for the duration of the class (a semester or year) or preferably for several years. The agenda of the base group can include academic support tasks (such as ensuring all members have completed their homework and understand it or editing each other's essays), personal support tasks (such as getting to know each other and helping each other solve nonacademic problems), routine tasks (such as taking attendance), and assessment tasks (such as checking each other's understanding of the answers to test questions when the test is first taken individually and then retaken in the base group).

Effective teachers

are proactive; that is, they are active information processors and decision makers. They are strongly committed to the importance of content delivery and tend to be task oriented. They understand the demands of teaching their content, the characteristics of their students, and the importance of decision making in keeping students on task

Independent study

can be defined as any educational activity carried out by an individual with little or no guidance. Essentially, independent study is a pure form of self-directed learning.

student work samples

can be used to offer credible evidence of student learning and to provide evidence of teacher effectiveness. They portray the learning process of students over a sufficiently long period of time for appreciable progress in learning to occur. Work samples might include (a) written work such as a report, science experiment results, test, or story; (b) artwork; (c) tape recordings; (d) a constructed project done in art, industrial arts, or an appropriate subject; and (e) other types of finished products depending on the subject area. Work samples collected over sufficiently long periods of time allow teachers to assess and evaluate the success of their teaching, the progress of their students in relation to the objectives and standards delineated in the planning of instruction, and the ability to reflect on student achievement in relation to teaching and make the changes necessary for improved teaching and student success.

Informal Cooperative Learning

consists of having students work together to achieve a joint learning goal in temporary, ad-hoc groups that last from a few minutes to one class period. During a lecture, demonstration, or film, informal cooperative learning can be used to focus student attention on the material to be learned, set a mood conducive to learning, help set expectations as to what will be covered in a class session, ensure that students cognitively process and rehearse the material being taught, summarize what was learned and precue the next session, and provide closure to an instructional session. The teacher's role for using informal cooperative learning to keep students more actively engaged intellectually entails having focused discussions before and after the lesson (i.e., bookends) and interspersing pair discussions throughout the lesson. Two important aspects of using informal cooperative learning groups are to (a) make the task and the instructions explicit and precise and (b) require the groups to produce a specific product (such as a written answer).

Formal Cooperative Learning

consists of students working together, for one class period to several weeks, to achieve shared learning goals and complete jointly specific tasks and assignments. In formal cooperative learning groups the teachers' role includes Assessing students' learning and helping students process how well their groups functioned.

Individualized instruction

engages students in learning plans tailored to meet their interests, needs, and abilities. Accordingly, you might vary one or more of the following: (a) the learning pace, (b) the instructional objectives, (c) the learning method, or (d) the learning materials. Students do not learn at the same pace. Some need more time to attain understanding. Thus, one—and perhaps the simplest—method to individualize instruction is that of permitting students to work on the same assignments at their own pace. This is accomplished by breaking down the instructional materials into a series of short and related activities or lessons. The faster students or high achievers can move through the lessons rapidly without having to wait for classmates to catch up. Students experiencing difficulty can move through the materials at a slower pace, reworking troublesome areas and seeking assistance when unable to master the material.

Rubric (Sometimes teachers use a checklist or rating scale in conjunction with the rubric summary performance levels to increase the accuracy of the assessment. Rubrics communicate standards and scoring criteria to students before the performance.) .

is a summarization of the performance criteria at different levels of performance. Often, teachers label the different levels as "excellent," "good," "fair," and "poor" or with particular grades to summarize the performance. Generally, there are two types of rubrics: holistic rubrics and analytic rubrics. A holistic rubric makes assessment decisions based on a global look at something. An analytic rubric examines only certain components

Differentiated Instruction In differentiated classrooms, teachers are able to reach students by appealing to differing interests and by using varied rates of instruction along with varied degrees of complexity. Teachers in differentiated classes use time flexibly and use a range of instructional strategies. Teachers can differentiate at least four classroom elements based on students' readiness, interest, or learning profile.

is a teaching theory based on the premise that instructional approaches should vary and be adapted in relation to individual and diverse students in the classroom. The goal of differentiated instruction is to develop challenging and engaging tasks for each learner. Differentiated instruction means that classroom teachers make vigorous attempts to meet students where they are in the learning process and move them along as quickly and as far as possible in the context of a mixed-ability classroom. To differentiate instruction is to recognize students' varying background knowledge, readiness, language, preferences in learning, and interests and to react responsively. Differentiated instruction is a way to approach teaching and learning for students of differing abilities in the same class. Teachers can differentiate by individuals, small groups, or even the whole class. The intent of differentiating instruction is to maximize each student's growth and individual success by meeting each student where he or she is and assisting in the learning process

Curriculum mapping

is a technique for gathering data on what is actually being taught through the course of a school year

Usability

is how well a measurement device is suited for gathering the desired information. For example, a 2-hour science test would not be suitable for a 50-minute class period.

rating scale

is nothing more than a specific set of characteristics or qualities that is arranged in order of quality. Indications are made along the scale in such a way that a judgment can be made about the degree to which the attribute being assessed is present. For example, a scale for assessing student involvement in a group project might have five steps, with the lowest category labeled "uninvolved" and the highest labeled "involved."

Individualized Strategies three fundamental techniques for individualization: individualized instruction, independent study, and mastery learning

is often required in maximizing the potential of each student; this is especially important when students come from different backgrounds and have varying abilities

Role-playing

is often used for teaching citizenship responsibilities and for group counseling. It gives students opportunities to study human behavior. Students can explore their feelings, gain insights into the perceptions and attitudes of others, and develop their problem-solving skills. Teachers often use role-playing to facilitate learner involvement and interaction in the process of decision making. It teaches the process of decision making. It teaches students to learn through dramatization. The sociodrama is a form of role-playing, but it differs in that it focuses on how the group solves a problem; that is, alternative solutions to problems of concern to the total group are explored. For example, students can assume multiple roles to reenact while exploring a volatile issue at a faux town meeting, family situation, or United Nations problem.

Reliability

is the consistency with which a measurement device gives the same results when the measurement is repeated. In other words, it is the measurement device's trustworthiness or dependability

Validity

is the extent to which an evaluative device measures what it is supposed to measure. It measures what was taught and learned. the most important one to teachers is content, or face, validity. Content, or face, validity is established by determining whether the instrument's items correspond to the content that was taught in the course.

Reflective teachers

learn all they can about teaching from both theory and practice. They teach and reflect on the teaching. They think deeply about the theory and practice of teaching. Such teaching requires that you be sensitive to the diversity of students' needs and family backgrounds. Reflective teaching requires that you ask basic, but often difficult, questions about the appropriateness and success of your teaching

three different types of evaluation:

pretest, formative, and posttest (summative)

Standard scores

provide a standard scale by which scores on different evaluative instruments by different groups may be compared reasonably Most schools report student performances in terms of standard scores such as z scores, T scores, and stanine scores, as well as in terms of percentile. These methods use the normal distribution curve to show how student performances compared with the distribution of scores above and below the mean.

Objectives in the psychomotor domain

relate to the development of muscular abilities that range from simple reflex movements to precision and creativity in performing a skill. The psychomotor domain is especially relevant in physical education, music, drama, art, and vocational courses, but all subjects will relate to this domain to some degree

Managing differentiated classrooms A class is not differentiated when assignments are the same for all learners and the adjustments consist of varying the level of difficulty of questions for certain students, grading some students harder than others, or letting students who finish early play games for enrichment End of chapter 8

requires some adjustment in the way classrooms are managed. The management of an environment with multiple learning tasks taking place simultaneously requires that students be taught to work both independently and together in groups. Students must understand that responsibility for their own learning is an important component of the differentiated classroom. Another complex management problem with multiple tasks is that students working on an array of learning activities will not finish at the same time. Some will finish earlier than expected; others will need additional time. Activities and procedures must be developed for both early and late finishers

Performance assessment Some educators use the term performance assessment in place of, or with, authentic assessment. They call upon students to demonstrate specific skills and outcomes, that is, to apply the skills and knowledge they have mastered but with no reference to the authentic nature of the task.

students demonstrate the behaviors that the assessor wants to measure. if the desired behavior is writing, students write; or if the desired behavior is identification of geometric figures, they draw or locate geometric figures. Assessment is done by measuring the individual works against specified criteria that match the objectives toward a specific purpose.

Drill and Practice Computers can be quite effective at providing drill and practice. Computers can drill students as long as the students can hold up. Math programs, for example, use a random-number generator to create new problems—as long as students make requests. Drill and practice cannot be completely effective without some differentiation. You should always make your drill and practice flexible because they often must be adjusted to meet the differing learning needs of your students

systematic and repeated "workout" in the intended skill areas, with the purpose of achieving automatic accuracy and speed of performance. Drill is concerned with the fixation of specific associations for automatic recall, whereas practice is concerned with improvement. Thus, one drills on writing the different shorthand symbols but practices on the basic multiplication facts. Individualized problem-solving processes are the key to drill and practice. They are based on further development of initial whole-class learning they should give students opportunities to apply their knowledge in solving problems or refining their skills. Such practice and/or drill, when designed properly, will give you good feed back on how students are progressing.

mastery learning model Those at the mastery level are directed to enrichment activities, whereas those below the mastery level are involved in further objective-related activities.

takes a group approach to teaching. This model, through its diagnostic-corrective-enrichment activities, provides a high degree of individualization because students often learn at different paces and use different materials.

indirect instructional strategy

the indirect instructional strategy presents students with instructional stimuli in the form of materials, objects, and events and requires students to go beyond the basic information that they are given to make their own conclusions and generalizations. Indirect instruction allows teachers to engage their students in activities that require the students to learn independently. Students take an active role in their learning by developing ideas, testing their own conclusions, and discussing their results. This allows students to independently discover patterns and relationships in their learning and knowledge. Students go beyond the basic problems presented to them, allowing them to develop advanced levels of thinking analysis.

Stanine (standard nine) scores

with a stanine of 1 representing the lowest performance and a stanine of 9 the highest. These nine numbers are the only possible stanine scores a student can receive. Stanines use the normal distribution in grouping scores into nine categories, with a mean of 5 and a standard deviation of 2