Pol254 test

Peaceful rise

"China's peaceful rise" or sometimes referred to as China's "peaceful development" (as of 2004) was an official policy in China under the leadership of Hu Jintao. The term was implemented to rebut against the "China threat theory". From a liberal perspective as China emerged as a great political, economic and military power, China wanted to assure other countries that its rise will not be a threat to peace and security. China implements this policy by internally harmonizing China's society and externally, promoting a peaceful international environment. It seeks to characterize China as a responsible world leader, emphasizes soft power, and vows that China is committed to its own internal issues and improving the welfare of its own people before interfering with world affairs. From a constructivist perspective, in changing the phrasing of the PRC's policy from 'peaceful rise' to 'peaceful development' suggests the PRC is trying to change the impression to potential trading partners in the USA and EU as a nation with a hardline classical realist approach, that is in fact open to change. In this change, the PRC gets to play a part in shaping its own external perceptions to consolidate its effect and partnerships as it liberalises.

Res Nuillius

'Nobody's property' - no state claims owenership.

1 country 2 systems

'One country, two systems' is a principle formulated by Deng Xiaoping, that was established to oversea the transfer of the colonial territories of Macao and Hong Kong. This enables the regions to retain their respective economic systems stablished under colonial rule, while Mainland China retains its socialist system. The territories governance is responsible for its domestic affairs (sports, education, social welfare, judiciary, financial systems), but not its diplomatic relations and defence. Through a realist perspective control over aspects of international affairs would classify the territories as a separate state, which is contrary to the PRC's core policy of 'state sovereignty' and its traditionally collective, controlled, power orientated approach to foreign policy. This approach calls for Western respect of PRC's territories, so for China to continue to recognise international organisations and sovereignties. Through a exceptionalist lense, the territories - regions that has a shared culture, heritage and written language to parts of mainland China - as regions leased to a European power and its reunification to the PRC as a SAR is unusual and thus exceptional in the world structure. As a result it traditionally does not need to conform to the status quo of western governance in the management of its diplomatic affairs. From another theoretical perspective 'One country, two systems' in practice is a clash of realism and liberalism. It is the clash of a classically realist China who's main goal is the protection of state sovereignty, and the liberal territories of Hong Kong & Macao who's goals are reflective of an economically free lasseiz-faire market established by a European colonial power. This system of governance has also been proposed in respect to possible reunification with Taiwan, however the government of ROC has refused this proposal.

Charm offensive

A campaign of flattery, friendliness, and cajolement designed to achieve the support or agreement of others.

One China principle (1992 consensus)term-57

A modified form of the "One China" principle known as the "1992 Consensus" is the current policy of both the PRC and ROC governments. Under this consensus, both governments agree that there is only one sovereign state encompassing both mainland China and Taiwan, but disagree about which of the two governments is the legitimate government of this state. The One-China principle faces opposition from the movement for Taiwan independence, which pushes to establish the Republic of Taiwan and cultivate a separate identity apart from China called "Taiwanization". Taiwanization's influence on the government of the ROC has caused instability: after the Communist Party of China expelled the ROC in the Chinese Civil War from most of Chinese territory in 1949 and founded the PRC, the ROC's Chinese Nationalist government, which still held Taiwan, continued to claim legitimacy as the government of all of China. From a realist perspective, the notion of a 'one China' protects the prc's claim to state sovereignty, especially more so in the USA's recognition of the principle in the Shanghai communique. From a communitarian perspective, the KMT and the CCP have a shared history and traditionally stem from the same movement in China. Both the KMT and CCP have a mutual desire for a 'one china', even though they dispute the legitimate leadership of China.

ASEAN

ASEAN stands for the association of south east-asian nations. It comprises of Thailand, Burma, Malaysia, Laos, Indonesia, Cambodia, Vietnam, Brunei, Singapore and the Philippines. It was founded in 1967 partly as response to concerns regarding socialist expansion, mainly from China. However in the 21st century the threat of China to the ASEAN nations is mostly more benign, with the development of China's 'Peaceful Rise' in relation to foreign policy. The ASEAN regional forum provides China (one of 27 members) with a forum for an official formal multilateral discussion regarding issues in the Asia-Pacific region. ASEAN is regarded as an example of China's peripheral diplomacy producing tangible economic and diplomatic results. However tensions between various ASEAN nations and China has emerged in recent years surrounding the claim to the South China Sea. A Declaration on the Conduct of Parties in the South China Sea and the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation, were both signed by China and ASEAN to cool down tensions that arised in this region particularly regarding the Spratley and Paracel Islands. From a liberal perspective, cooperation with ASEAN and the terms set in these treaties enable China to continue with its agenda of a 'peaceful rise' in the global political system through the fostering greater co-operation and trust of SE Asian trading partners. However from a Realist perspective, these agreements only exist as long as China recognises the need for co-operation with ASEAN, as China's primary foreign policy goal is the preservation of 'state sovereignty', including that of disputed territories and regions.

Realism

According to realism, states work only to increase their own power relative to that of other states. Realism also claims the following: The world is a harsh and dangerous place. The only certainty in the world is power. A powerful state will always be able to outdo—and outlast—weaker competitors. The most important and reliable form of power is military power. A state's primary interest is self-preservation. Therefore, the state must seek power and must always protect itself There is no overarching power that can enforce global rules or punish bad behaviour. Moral behaviour is very risky because it can undermine a state's ability to protect itself. The international system itself drives states to use military force and to war. Leaders may be moral, but they must not let moral concerns guide foreign policy. International organisations and law have no power or force; they exist only as long as states accept them. Neither the United States nor China trusted one another, and each sought allies to protect itself and increase its political and military influence abroad. - Statism Sovereign state Anarchy - no overarching authority above the individual collection of sovereign states (not chaos and lawlessness, but lack of central authority) Domestic politics can constrain and channel power - structured according to different levels of power and subordination International politics is structurally different - Survival: State leaders prioritize the survival of their state Power is crucial to the realist concept of state relations: power traditionally defined narrowly in military strategic terms. Core national interest and modus operandi is survival - Self-help: Principle of action in an anarchical system of no global government - Lack of trust - If a state feels threatened it should seek to build up its own power capabilities This leads to a 'Balance of power': Cold War - balance of power in action - rational for the countries to arm themselves from threats of other countries

Semi-autonomous regions

An autonomous region is a first-level administrative subdivision of China. Like Chinese provinces, an autonomous region has its own local government, but an autonomous region has more legislative rights. An autonomous region is a minority entity which has a higher population of a particular minority ethnic group. The Inner Mongolia autonomous region was established in 1947; Xinjiang was made autonomous in 1955; Guangxi and Ningxia in 1958, and Tibet in 1965. The designation of Guangxi and Ningxia as Zhuang and Hui autonomous areas, respectively, was bitterly protested by the local Han Chinese, who made up two-thirds of the population of each region. Although Mongols made up even less of a percentage of Inner Mongolia, the ensuing Chinese Civil War gave little opportunity for protest.

Constructivism

Anarchy is a condition of the system of states because states in some sense 'choose' to make it so. Anarchy is the result of a process that constructs the rules or norms that govern the interaction of states. The condition of the system of states today as self-helpers in the midst of anarchy is a result of the process by which states and the system of states was constructed. It is not an inherent fact of state-to-state relations. Thus, constructivist theory holds that it is possible to change the anarchic nature of the system of states. o Key concern is origin of interests. Gives meaning to preferences, content to power, interests not necessarily fixed. o Inter-subjective or shared meanings/ beliefs o The norms, the visible formal rules - they matter because they believe they matter o Role of cultural traditions, political history, symbols (e.g. China's quasi-colonial legacy o Another example: What kept the Cold War cold? Mutual belief the weapons in question were too terrible to use in a war

Area studies

Area studies involves a focus on ethnographic, context-driven explanation. The study of China has strong Area Studies influence - sinology.

Great Leap Forward

As a result of the successful economic reconstruction that had taken place in the early 1950s under the First Five Year Plan, the Party leadership headed by Mao Zedong considered the conditions ripe for a Great Leap Forward in early 1958. The Great Leap was not merely a bold economic project. It was also intended to show the Soviet Union that the Chinese approach to economic development was more vibrant, and ultimately would be more successful, than the Soviet model that had been followed studiously until then. The Chinese people were to go all out in a concerted effort to surpass England in 15 (or even less) years and to make the transition from socialism to communism at the same time, thereby leaving the Soviet Union far behind. That, at least, was the plan, which brought to an abrupt stop the earlier, more cautious attempts to sustain the speed of China's recovery and further development by Five Year Plans. The more radical members of the leadership tried to outdo each other with more and more unrealistic calls for "greater, faster, better, [and] cheaper" production.The Great Leap Forward took two forms: a mass steel campaign, and the formation of the people's communes. By early 1959, it became clear that things were running out of hand. As a result of the massive production drives in steel and agriculture, both the production and transport sectors had become severely dislocated. The movement turned into a disaster when in the period 1959-1961 China was struck by natural disasters. More than an estimated 30 to 40 million people died in the ensuing famine.

APEC

Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) is a forum for 21 Pacific Rim member economies, that promotes free trade throughout the Asia-Pacific region. It was established in 1989 in response to the growing interdependence of Asia-Pacific economies and the advent of regional trade blocs in other parts of the world; to fears that highly industrialised Japan (a member of G8) would come to dominate economic activity in the Asia-Pacific region; and to establish new markets for agricultural products and raw materials beyond Europe. An annual APEC Economic Leaders' Meeting is attended by the heads of government of all APEC members except Taiwan (which is represented by a ministerial-level official under the name Chinese Taipei as economic leader).

Bilateral Aid

Bilateral aid is aid given from a single donor to a single recipient. The DPRK relies heavily upon bilateral aid from the PRC. China's economic assistance to North Korea accounts for about half of all Chinese foreign aid. Beijing provides the aid directly to Pyongyang, thereby enabling it to bypass the United Nations. During the period of severe food shortage between 1996 and 1998, Beijing provided unconditional food aid to North Korea.

Chen Shui-bianterm-27

Chen Shui-bian was President of the Republic of China (Taiwan) from 2000 to 2008. Chen's election ended more than fifty years of Kuomintang (KMT) control in ROC. Chen helped found the Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) in 1986. Chen won the 2000 presidential election, to become the only non-member of the Kuomintang to hold the office of president. This was an unsettling reality in Beijing, where leaders had grown accustomed to working almost exclusively with the KMT. In the absence of official government-to-government ties, cross-strait relations are heavily dependent on party-to-party talks between the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and the KMT. The two parties have formed a good working relationship — and that, excludes all other stakeholders from the decision-making process. From a communitarian perspective, the KMT and the CCP have a shared history and traditionally stem from the same movement in China. Both the KMT and CCP have a mutual desire for a 'one china', even though they dispute the legitimate leadership of China. However the DPP championed for complete independence of Taiwan as a separate entity, and disregards the PRC's idea of a 'one china'. From a realist perspective however, the election of DPP threatens China's primary interest of self-preservation and assertion of state sovereignty, particularly its claim to Taiwan and surrounding islands.

Chiang Kai-Shek

Chiang Kai-shek was a Chinese political and military leader who served as the leader of the Republic of China between 1928 and 1975. Chiang was an influential member of the Kuomintang (KMT), the Chinese Nationalist Party, and was a close ally of Sun Yat-sen. He took Sun's place as leader of the KMT when Sun died in 1925. In 1926, Chiang led the Northern Expedition to unify the country, becoming China's nominal leader. He served as Chairman of the National Military Council of the Nationalist government of the Republic of China (ROC) from 1928 to 1948. Chiang led China in WWII, consolidating power from the party's former regional warlords. Unlike Sun Yat-sen, Chiang Kai-shek was socially conservative, promoting traditional Chinese culture in the New Life Movement and rejecting western democracy and the nationalist democratic socialism that Sun embraced in favour of an authoritarian government. Chiang's predecessor, Sun Yat-sen, was well-liked and respected by the Communists, but after Sun's death Chiang was not able to maintain good relations with the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). A major split between the Nationalists and Communists occurred in 1927; and, under Chiang's leadership, the Nationalists fought a nation-wide civil war against the Communists. After Japan invaded China in 1937, Chiang agreed to a temporary truce with the CCP. Despite some early cooperative military successes against Japan, by the time that the Japanese surrendered in 1945 neither the CCP nor the KMT trusted each other nor were actively cooperating. After American-sponsored attempts to negotiate a coalition government failed in 1946, the Chinese Civil War resumed. The CCP defeated the Nationalists in 1949. Westad says the Communists won the Civil War because they made fewer military mistakes than Chiang Kai-Shek, and because in his search for a powerful centralized government, Chiang antagonized too many interest groups in China. Furthermore, his party was weakened in the war against Japan. Meanwhile the Communists told different groups, such as peasants, exactly what they wanted to hear, and cloaked themselves in the cover of Chinese Nationalism. Chiang's government and army retreated to Taiwan, where Chiang imposed martial law and persecuted people critical of his rule in a period known as the "White Terror". After evacuating to Taiwan, Chiang's government continued to declare its intention to retake mainland China. Chiang ruled the island securely as President of the Republic of China and General of the Kuomintang until his death in 1975. He ruled mainland China for 22 years, and Taiwan for 30 years.

Collective leadership

Collective leadership is considered an ideal form of ruling a communist party, both within and outside a socialist state. Its main task is to distribute powers and functions from the individual to a single group. For instance, in China powers have been distributed from the office of General Secretary of the Communist Party and shared with the Politburo Standing Committee while still retaining one ruler.

Communitarianism

Communitarianism: moral values only make sense when they are grounded in a particular society and a particular historical period human beings are morally formed to favour the needs and interests of those with whom they share a cultural and national identity emphasize the moral significance of our particular communities and loyalties in IR, communitarianism is often state-centric

Cosmopolitanism

Cosmopolitanism a belief in a cosmopolis or 'world state' Moral cosmopolitanism the world constitutes a single moral community people have obligations (potentially) towards all other people in the world, regardless of nationality, religion, ethnicity, etc every individual is of equal moral worth the doctrine of human rights Political cosmopolitanism ( 'legal' or 'institutional' cosmopolitanism) there should be global political institutions, and possibly a world government

Exceptionalism

Exceptionalism is the perception that a country, society, institution, movement, or time period is "exceptional" (i.e., unusual or extraordinary) in some way and thus does not need to conform to normal rules or general principles. o Overlap with constructivism: roots in Chinese tradition/ thought o Indigenization and the rejections of foreign or western theory o E.g. "Tianxia" - all under heaven connection with China as centre

Harmonious Worldterm-69

Harmonious Society is a socio-economic vision in China. The concept of social harmony dates back to ancient China, to the time of Confucius. As a result, the philosophy has also been characterized as a form of New Confucianism. In modern times, it developed into a key feature of Hu Jintao's signature ideology of the Scientific Development Concept developed in the mid-2000s, being re-introduced by the Hu-Wen Administration during the 2005 National People's Congress. The philosophy is recognized as a response to the increasing social injustice and inequality emerging in mainland Chinese society as a result of unchecked economic growth, which has led to social conflict. The governing philosophy was therefore shifted around economic growth to overall societal balance and harmony. Along with a moderately prosperous society, it was set to be one of the national goals for the ruling communist party. The promotion of "Harmonious Society" demonstrated that Hu Jintao's ruling philosophy had departed from that of his predecessors. Near the end of his tenure in 2011, Hu appeared to extend the ideology to an international dimension, with a focus on the international peace and cooperation, which is said to lead to a "harmonious world". The administration of Hu's successor, Xi Jinping, has used the philosophy more sparingly.

Suzerainterm-83

Historically, the Emperor of China saw himself as the center of the entire civilized world, and diplomatic relations in East Asia were based on the theory that all rulers of the world derived their authority from the Emperor. The degree to which this authority existed in fact changed from dynasty to dynasty. However, even during periods when political power was distributed evenly across several political entities, Chinese political theory recognized only one emperor and asserted that his authority was paramount throughout the world. Diplomatic relations with the Chinese emperor were made on the theory of tributary states, although in practice tributary relations would often result in a form of trade under the theory that the emperor in his kindness would reward the tributary state with gifts of equal or greater value. This system broke down in the 18th and 19th centuries in two ways. First during the 17th century, China was ruled by the ethnically Manchu Qing dynasty which ruled a multi-ethnic empire and justified their rule through different theories of rulership. While not contradicting traditional Han Chinese theories of the emperor as universal ruler, the Qing did begin to make a distinction between areas of the world which they ruled and areas which they did not. The system also broke down as China faced European powers whose theories of sovereignty were based on international law and relations between separate states.

Hong Kong

Hong Kong is former British colony located on the southern coast of China, bordering the South China Sea. It was handed back to People's Republic of China in 1997, and established as a special administrative region. The terms of this change in governance was established in 1984 under a binding inter-state treaty known as the Sino-British Joint Declaration. The terms of this retrocession agreement is in place until 2047, in which Hong Kong is granted a high level of autonomy. This agreement was envisaged under a principle formulated by Deng Xiaoping, under a system known as 'one country, two systems'. This enables hong Kong to retain its economic systems that were established under colonial rule, while Mainland China retains its socialist system. Hong Kong governance is responsible for its domestic affairs (sports, education, social welfare, judiciary, financial systems) including the retention of its common law system, but not its diplomatic relations and regional defence. Through a realist perspective control over aspects of international affairs would classify Hong Kong as a separate state, which is contrary to the PRC's core policy of 'state sovereignty' and its traditionally collective, controlled, power orientated approach to foreign policy. This approach calls for Western respect of PRC's territories, so for China to continue to recognise international organisations and sovereignties. Through a exceptionalist lense, Hong Kong - a region that has a shared culture, heritage and written language to parts of mainland China - as a territory leased to a European power and its reunification to the PRC as a SAR is unusual and thus exceptional in the world structure. As a result it traditionally does not need to conform to the status quo of western governance in the management of its diplomatic affairs. From another theoretical perspective 'One country, two systems' in practice is a clash of realism and liberalism. It is the clash of a classically realist China who's main goal is the protection of state sovereignty, and the liberal Hong Kong who's goals are reflective of an economically free lasseiz-faire market established by a European colonial power.

Hu Jintao

Hu Jintao was the president of the PRC from 2003-13. Hu has participated in the Communist party bureaucracy for most of his career, notably as Party secretary for Guizhou province and the Tibet Autonomous Region, and then later First secretary of the Central Secretariat and Vice-President under former leader Jiang Zemin. Hu is the first leader of the Communist Party without any significant revolutionary credentials. As such, his rise to the leadership represented China's transition of leadership from establishment communists to younger, more pragmatic technocrats. During his term in office, Hu reintroduced state control in some sectors of the economy that were relaxed by the previous administration, and has been conservative with political reforms. Along with his colleague, Premier Wen Jiabao, Hu presided over nearly a decade of consistent economic growth and development that cemented China as a major world power. He sought to improve socio-economic equality domestically through the Scientific Development Concept, which aimed to build a "Harmonious Socialist Society" that was prosperous and free of social conflict. Meanwhile, Hu followed conservative policies on China politically, cracking down on social disturbances, ethnic minority protests, and dissident figures. On foreign policy, Hu advocated for "China's peaceful development", pursuing soft power in international relations and a corporate approach to diplomacy. Through Hu's tenure, China's influence in Africa, Latin America, and other developing regions has increased. Hu possessed a low-key and reserved leadership style. His tenure was characterized by collective leadership and consensus-based rule.These traits made Hu a rather unknown figure in the public eye, embodying the focus in Chinese politics on technocratic competence rather than persona.

Hu Yaobing

Hu Yaobang was a high-ranking official of the People's Republic of China. He achieved his most senior status within the Communist Party of China from 1981 to 1987, first as Party chairman from 1981 to 1982, then as General Secretary of the Communist Party from 1982 to 1987. Hu joined the Chinese Communist Party in the 1930s, and rose to prominence as a comrade of Deng Xiaoping. During the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976), Hu was purged, recalled, and purged again, following the political career of Deng. After Deng rose to power, following the death of Mao Zedong, Deng promoted Hu to a series of high political positions. Throughout the 1980s Hu pursued a series of economic and political reforms under the direction of Deng. Hu's political and economic reforms made him the enemy of several powerful Party elders, who opposed free market reforms and attempts to make China's government more transparent. When widespread student protests occurred across China in 1987, Hu's political opponents successfully blamed Hu for the disruptions, claiming that Hu's "laxness" and "bourgeois liberalization" had either led to, or worsened, the protests. Hu was forced to resign as Party general secretary, but was allowed to retain a seat in the Politburo. Hu's position as Party general secretary was taken by Zhao Ziyang, who continued many of Hu's economic and political reforms. A day after Hu's death, in 1989, a small-scale demonstration commemorated him and demanded that the government reassess his legacy. A week later, the day before Hu's funeral, some 100,000 students marched on Tiananmen Square, leading to the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989.

Jiang Zemin

Jiang Zemin served as President of the People's Republic of China from 1993 to 2003. Jiang has been described as the "core of the third generation" of Communist Party leaders since 1989. Also, his long career and political prominence have led to him being "paramount leader" of China. Jiang Zemin came to power following the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, replacing Zhao Ziyang as General Secretary, the highest office within the Communist Party of China. With the waning influence of Deng Xiaoping and the other members of Eight Elders due to old age — Jiang effectively became the "paramount leader" in the 1990s. Under his leadership, China experienced substantial developmental growth with reforms, saw the peaceful return of Hong Kong from the United Kingdom and Macau from Portugal, and improved its relations with the outside world while the Communist Party maintained its tight control over the government. Jiang has been criticized for being too concerned about his personal image at home, and too conciliatory towards Russia and the United States abroad.

Kim Il-Sung

Kim Il-sung was the leader of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, commonly referred to as North Korea, for 46 years, from its establishment in 1948 until his death in 1994. He held the posts of Prime Minister from 1948 to 1972 and President from 1972 to his death. He was also the leader of the Workers' Party of Korea from 1949 to 1994 (titled as chairman from 1949 to 1966 and as general secretary after 1966). He authorized the invasion of South Korea in 1950, triggering a defense of South Korea by the United Nations led by the United States. A cease-fire in the Korean War was signed on 27 July 1953. His tenure as leader of North Korea was autocratic. Inspired by Stalinism, he established an all-pervasive cult of personality around himself. From the mid-1960s, he promoted his Juche variant of communism, which gradually replaced Marxism-Leninism as the ideology of the state.

Liberalism (low politics)term-15

Liberalism emphasizes that the broad ties among states have both made it difficult to define national interest and decreased the usefulness of military power. Liberalism developed in the 1970s as some scholars began arguing that realism was outdated. Increasing globalization, the rapid rise in communications technology, and the increase in international trade meant that states could no longer rely on simple power politics to decide matters. Liberal approaches to international relations are also called theories of complex interdependence. Liberalism claims the following: The world is a harsh and dangerous place, but the consequences of using military power often outweigh the benefits. International cooperation is therefore in the interest of every state. Military power is not the only form of power. Economic and social power matter a great deal too. Exercising economic power has proven more effective than exercising military power. Different states often have different primary interests. International rules and organizations can help foster cooperation, trust, and prosperity. Example: Relations among the major Western powers fit a model of complex interdependence very well. The United States has significant disagreements with its European and Asian allies over trade and policy, but it is hard to imagine a circumstance in which the United States would use military power against any of these allies. Instead, the United States relies on economic pressure and incentives to achieve its policy aims.

Ma Ying-jeon

Ma Ying-jeon is a Taiwanese politician and the current President of the Republic of China under the KMT party Ma first won the presidency by 58.45% of the popular vote in the presidential election of 2008, and was re-elected in 2012 with 51.6% of the vote. During his office Ma notibly signed the ECFA. The ECFA (Economic Cooperation framework Agreement) is a preferential free trade agreement signed in 2010 between the PRC and the ROC. The signing enable the free trade of goods, relaxing of movement of people between the two entities, and preferential trade in certain goods. The ECFA shows the opening of relations between the two, with the PRC becoming more liberal in their approach than their previously exclusionary approach. However from a realist perspective this can be seen as more of the PRC conforming with their policy of 'peaceful rise/ development' in the international system. From a liberal perspective, the signing of the PRC could be seen as a reassertion of power over Taiwan through the formal establishment of dominance through assertion of power in the economic hegemony, seen via the 4:1 trade balance favouring the PRC as a result of this agreement.

Macao

Macao is former Portuguese colony located on the South Eastern coast of Guangdong province, China. It was handed back to People's Republic of China in 1999, and established as a special administrative region. The terms of this change in governance was established in 1987 under a binding inter-state treaty known as the Sino-Portuguese Joint Declaration. The terms of this retrocession agreement is in place until 2049, in which Macao is granted a high level of autonomy. This agreement was envisaged under a principle formulated by Deng Xiaoping, under a system known as 'one country, two systems'. This enables Macao to retain its economic systems that were established under colonial rule, while Mainland China retains its socialist system. Macao governance is responsible for its domestic affairs (sports, education, social welfare, judiciary, financial systems), but not its diplomatic relations and defence. Through a realist perspective control over aspects of international affairs would classify Macau as a separate state, which is contrary to the PRC's core policy of 'state sovereignty' and its traditionally collective, controlled, power orientated approach to foreign policy. This approach calls for Western respect of PRC's territories, so for China to continue to recognise international organisations and sovereignties. Through a exceptionalist lense, Macau - a region that has a shared culture, heritage and written language to parts of mainland China - as a territory leased to a European power and its reunification to the PRC as a SAR is unusual and thus exceptional in the world structure. As a result it traditionally does not need to conform to the status quo of western governance in the management of its diplomatic affairs. From another theoretical perspective 'One country, two systems' in practice is a clash of realism and liberalism. It is the clash of a classically realist China who's main goal is the protection of state sovereignty, and the liberal Macau who's goals are reflective of an economically free lasseiz-faire market established by a European colonial power.

Multilateralism

Multilateralism is multiple countries working together on a certain issue. In previous years, from a realist stand point, China's primary tool of asserting power in the region and the world was participating in armed conflict to assert its sovereignty i.e. Korean War, incursions in Tibet, the Taiwan Straits conflicts. However in recent years, in more liberal approach the PRC has sought to multilateral institutions to expand and consolidate its power not only regionally but also globally. Multilateralism has become an essential part of China's international policy, with Beijing demonstrating much pragmatism in its attitude toward global multilateral institutions. From a liberal perspective multilateral diplomacy has become a powerful instrument for coping with unipolarity and opposing hegemony — that is, pushing back against the predominant role of the US in global affairs. New concepts and ideas that China has put forth are often designed to undermine the moral ground of US unilateralism or bilateral arrangements. For Beijing, multilateralism will also help to facilitate the formation of a multi-polar world in which China is expected to play a more eminent role, together with other major powers. Secondly, Beijing believes that its participation in multilateralism could help diminish the 'China threat' thesis and build a 'responsible power' image for China. Thirdly, China believes that multilateral diplomacy can provide new platforms for international cooperation, especially in the East Asian region, to facilitate Chinese interests.

DPRK

North Korea (DPRK), is a country in East Asia, in the northern part of the Korean Peninsula. The capital and largest city is Pyongyang. North Korea shares a land border with China to the north and north-west.The legitimacy of this border is not accepted by either side, as both states claim to be the legitimate government of the entire peninsula. The Empire of Japan annexed Korea in 1910. After the Japanese surrender at the end of World War II in 1945, Korea was divided into two zones by the United States and Soviet Union, with the north occupied by the Soviets and the south by the Americans. Negotiations on reunification failed, and in 1948 two separate governments were formed: the Democratic People's Republic of Korea in the north, and the Republic of Korea in the south. The conflicting claims of sovereignty led to the Korean War in 1950. The Korean Armistice Agreement in 1953 led to a ceasefire, but no peace treaty was ever signed. Both states were accepted into the United Nations in 1991. The DPRK holds elections and describes itself as a self-reliant socialist state, but it is widely considered a dictatorship and has been described as totalitarian and Stalinist, with an elaborate cult of personality around Kim Il-sung and his family. Human rights violations in North Korea have been assessed by international organizations as in a category of their own, with no parallel in the contemporary world. The Workers' Party of Korea, led by a member of the ruling family, holds power in the state and leads the Democratic Front for the Reunification of the Fatherland of which all political officers are required to be a member. Over time North Korea has gradually distanced itself from the world Communist movement. The means of production are owned by the state through state-run enterprises and collectivized farms, and most services such as healthcare, education, housing and food production are state funded or subsidized. In the 1990s, North Korea suffered from a famine and continues to struggle with food production. North Korea follows Songun, or "military-first" policy. It is the world's most militarized society, with a total of 9,495,000 active, reserve, and paramilitary personnel. Its active duty army of 1.21 million is the 4th largest in the world, after China, the U.S., and India. It also possesses nuclear weapons.

Ping-pong diplomacy

Ping-pong diplomacy refers to the exchange of table tennis (ping-pong) players between the United States and People's Republic of China (PRC) in the early 1970s. The event marked a thaw in Sino-American relations that paved the way to a visit to Beijing by President Richard Nixon. Two months after Richard Nixon's visit, Zhuang Zedong visited the U.S. as the head of a Chinese table-tennis delegation, April 12-30, 1972. Also on the itinerary were Canada, Mexico and Peru. However, China's attempts to reach out to countries through "ping-pong diplomacy" were not always successful, such as when the All Indonesia Table Tennis Association (PTMSI) refused China's invitation in October 1971, claiming that accepting the PRC's offer would improve the PRC's reputation. Because neither Soviet athletes nor journalists appeared in China following the appearance of the American players and journalists, one speculation is that the act showed the equal scorn of both countries towards the USSR.

China threat theory

Proponents of the "China threat" theory argue that it is inconceivable for China to have a peaceful rise; a superpower China will inevitably be a threat to the United States. This article analyzes the military and economic aspects of the "China threat" theory from theoretical, methodological and strategic points of view. The theory's flaws are in its assumptions, which this article tackles by providing counter examples as well as by highlighting external and internal problems facing China that can complicate its rise to great-power status. In addition, the "China threat" theory is based on linear projection and imperfect historical analogies that are as misleading conceptually as they are strategically counterproductive to Sino-American strategic relations. This, of course, is not to argue that China poses no threat; it is, however, to suggest that the nature of any threat is far more nuanced than the "China threat" theorists claim it to be.

Sinicization

Sinicization, is a process whereby non-Han Chinese societies come under the influence of Han Chinese state and society. Areas of influence include alphabet, diet, economics, industry, language, law, lifestyle, politics, religion, sartorial choices, technology, culture, and cultural values. More broadly, "Sinicization" may refer to policies of acculturation, assimilation, or cultural imperialism of neighbouring cultures to China, depending on historical political relations. This is reflected in the histories of Korea, Vietnam, Taiwan and Japan in the East Asian cultural sphere, for example, in the adoption of the Chinese writing system.

Soft power

Soft power is a concept developed to describe the ability to attract and co-opt rather than coerce, use force or give money as a means of persuasion. Recently, the term has also been used in changing and influencing social and public opinion through relatively less transparent channels and lobbying through powerful political and non-political organizations. Hu Jintao called for China to increase its use of soft power in 2007.

Special Economic zones

Special Economic Zones of China (SEZs) are special economic zones located in mainland China. The government of China gives SEZs special (more free market-oriented) economic policies and flexible governmental measures. This allows SEZs to utilize an economic management system that is more attractive to doing business than in the rest of mainland China. An example of this can been seen in the opening of the Pudong new zone in Shanghai in 1990.

Sun Yat-Sen

Sun Yat-Sen (1866-1925) was the leader of the republican China revolution and the Kuomintang. Sun became the figurehead of the revolution and influential in overthrowing the Qing (Manchu) dynasty (1911/12). He served as the first provisional president of the Republic of China (1911-12) and later as de facto ruler (1923-25). Although Sun is considered one of the greatest leaders of modern China, his political life was one of constant struggle and frequent exile. After the success of the revolution he quickly resigned from his post as President of the newly founded Republic of China, and led successive revolutionary governments as a challenge to the warlords who controlled much of the nation. His party, which formed a fragile alliance with the Communists, split into two factions after his death. Sun's chief legacy resides in his developing of the political philosophy known as the Three Principles of the People: nationalism, democracy, and the people's livelihood. From a exceptionalist lense, Sun proves to be a unifying factor between the PRC and the ROC in the fact both entities were established as a result of his actions and the revolution he sparked.

Taiwan

Taiwan, officially the Republic of China is a sovereign state in East Asia. The Republic of China (ROC) was established in China in 1912. After Japan's surrender in 1945, the ROC assumed its control of Taiwan. Following the Chinese civil war, the Communist Party of China took full control of mainland China and founded the People's Republic of China (PRC) in 1949. The ROC relocated its government to Taiwan, and its jurisdiction became limited to Taiwan and its surrounding islands. Despite this, the ROC continued to represent China at the United Nations until 1971. International recognition of the ROC has gradually eroded as most countries switched recognition to the PRC. 21 UN member states and the Holy See currently maintain official diplomatic relations with the ROC. It has unofficial ties with most other states via its representative offices. Ongoing issues of Cross-Strait relations as well as political status of Taiwan are major factors of contention in Taiwanese politics and a cause of social and political division among political parties and their respective supporters within the country. Constitutionally, there is dispute over whether the ROC still lays claim to the sovereignty over all of "China," but the ROC has not made retaking mainland China a political goal since 1992. However, the government's stance on defining its political position of relation with China largely depends on which political coalition is in charge. The PRC has threatened the use of military force as a response to any formal declaration of Taiwanese independence, or if it deems peaceful reunification no longer possible.

Shanghai Communique

The 1972 Shanghai Communique marked the beginning of the formal re-establishment of relations between the US and China. During this conference a document was signed acknowledging the 'One China Policy', in which forced those wishing to establish diplomatic relations with the PRC to loosen diplomatic relations with the ROC. In this the PRC is recognised as the legitimate ruler of China. This change in relations could be seen as a shift away from atypical approaches of the US at the time in cold-war containment policies. Typically the US would not establish relations with communist nations as a part of this policy, from a realist perspective this agreement signified a recognition of sovereignty in the international structure for the PRC and enabled the PRC to build up its own power capabilities within the international hierarchy. This was not only significant for the PRC and USA, but also Taiwan. This recognition was significant for Taiwan as the USA previously refused to recognise, as part of their cold-war containment policy, the PRC as legitimate representative of China in international affairs as seen in the USA's opposition to China being granted a set on the UN security council in 1971. From a realist perspective, the waning of US influence in world order saw a need for the US to ensure its security in the changing international system in agreeing a balance of power arrangement, especially in relation to China who bordered the USSR. On the other hand from a liberal perspective the the attempt to normalisation of relations between the two, can be seen in their agreement not to 'seek hegemony in the Asia-Pacific region'. In this, the agreement could be seen more as a move for the US to seek stronger relations in the region in establishing the basis for growth in economic interdependence between the two nations.

Beijing Consensus

The Beijing Consensus is a term that refers to the political and especially economic policies of the People's Republic of China that began after the death of Mao Zedong and the rehabilitation of Deng Xiaoping (1976) and are thought to have contributed to China's eightfold growth in gross national product over two decades. The phrase "Beijing Consensus" was coined by Joshua Cooper Ramo to pose China's economic development model as an alternative — especially for developing countries — to the Washington Consensus of market-friendly policies promoted by the IMF, World Bank and U.S. Treasury. The term has been described variously as the pragmatic use of innovation and experimentation in the service of "equitable, peaceful high-quality growth", and "defense of national borders and interests" (by Ramo); the use of "stable, if repressive, politics and high-speed economic growth". Others maintain that "it seems" there is "no consensus as to what it stands for" other than being an alternative to the neoliberal Washington Consensus; and that the term "is applied to anything that happens in Beijing, regardless of whether or not it has to do with a 'Chinese Model of Development,' or even with the People's Republic of China (PRC) per se."

Chinese Dreamterm-79

The Chinese Dream is a term popularized after 2013 within Chinese socialist thought that describes a set of personal and national ideals in the People's Republic of China and the Communist Party of China. It is used by journalists, government officials, and activists to describe the role of the individual in Chinese society as well as the goals of the "Chinese nation". The phrase is closely associated with Xi Jinping, who is the General Secretary of the Communist Party of China. Xi began promoting the phrase as a slogan in a high-profile visit to the National Museum of China in November 2012 after taking the office of general secretary. Since then, use of the phrase has become widespread in official announcements and has become routine party lexicon as the embodiment of the political ideology of the leadership under Xi Jinping. While the overarching policy implications of the "dream" remain vague, Xi has described the dream as "national rejuvenation, improvement of people's livelihoods, prosperity, construction of a better society and a strengthened military." He said that young people should "dare to dream, work assiduously to fulfill the dreams and contribute to the revitalization of the nation." According to the party's theoretical journal Qiushi, the Chinese Dream is about Chinese prosperity, collective effort, socialism and national glory. The phrase took inspiration from the American Dream, though the two are said to be different by nature.

DPPterm-35

The Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) was founded in 1986, with the primary objective to assert a separate identity from China. Chen won the 2000 presidential election, to become the only non-member of the Kuomintang to hold the office of president. This was an unsettling reality in Beijing, where leaders had grown accustomed to working almost exclusively with the KMT. In the absence of official government-to-government ties, cross-strait relations are heavily dependent on party-to-party talks between the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and the KMT. The two parties have formed a good working relationship — and that, excludes all other stakeholders from the decision-making process. From a communitarian perspective, the KMT and the CCP have a shared history and traditionally stem from the same movement in China. Both the KMT and CCP have a mutual desire for a 'one china', even though they dispute the legitimate leadership of China. However the DPP championed for complete independence of Taiwan as a separate entity, and disregards the PRC's idea of a 'one china'. From a realist perspective however, the election of DPP threatens China's primary interest of self-preservation and assertion of state sovereignty, particularly its claim to Taiwan and surrounding islands.

ECFAterm-44

The ECFA (Economic Cooperation framework Agreement) is a preferential free trade agreement signed in 2010 between the PRC and the ROC. The signing enable the free trade of goods, relaxing of movement of people between the two entities, and preferential trade in certain goods. The ECFA shows the opening of relations between the two, with the PRC becoming more liberal in their approach than their previously exclusionary approach. However from a realist perspective this can be seen as more of the PRC conforming with their policy of 'peaceful rise/ development' in the international system. From a liberal perspective, the signing of the PRC could be seen as a reassertion of power over Taiwan through the formal establishment of dominance through assertion of power in the economic hegemony, seen via the 4:1 trade balance favouring the PRC as a result of this agreement.

Opium War

The First Opium War (1839-42), was fought between Britain and China over their conflicting viewpoints on diplomatic relations, trade, and the administration of justice for foreign nationals. In the 17th and 18th centuries, the demand for Chinese goods (particularly silk, porcelain, and tea) in the European market created a trade imbalance because the market for Western goods in China was virtually non-existent; China was largely self-sufficient and Europeans were not allowed access to China's interior. European silver flowed into China when the Canton System, instituted in the mid-17th century, confined the sea trade to Canton and to the Chinese merchants of Thirteen Hongs. The British East India Company (E.I.C.) had a matching monopoly of British trade. E.I.C. began to auction opium grown on its plantations in India to independent foreign traders in exchange for silver. The opium was then transported to the China coast and sold to Chinese middlemen who retailed the drug inside China. This reverse flow of silver and the increasing numbers of opium addicts alarmed Chinese officials. In 1839, the Daoguang emperor, rejecting proposals to legalize and tax opium, appointed Lin Zexu to solve the problem by abolishing the trade. Lin confiscated around 20,000 chests of opium without offering compensation, blockaded trade, and confined foreign merchants to their quarters. The British government, although not officially denying China's right to control imports of the drug, objected to this arbitrary seizure and used its naval and gunnery power to inflict quick and decisive defeat. In 1842, the Treaty of Nanking—the first of what the Chinese later called the unequal treaties—granted an indemnity and extraterritoriality to Britain, the opening of five treaty ports, and the cession of Hong Kong Island. The failure of the treaty to satisfy British goals of improved trade and diplomatic relations led to the Second Opium War (1856-60). The war is now considered in China as the beginning of modern Chinese history.

First Sino-Japanese War

The First Sino-Japanese War (1 August 1894 - 17 April 1895) was fought between Qing dynasty China and Meiji Japan, primarily over control of Korea. After more than six months of unbroken successes by the Japanese land and naval forces and the loss of the Chinese port of Weihai, the Qing leadership sued for peace in February 1895. The war demonstrated the failure of the Qing dynasty's attempts to modernize its military and fend off threats to its sovereignty. For the first time, regional dominance in East Asia shifted from China to Japan; the prestige of the Qing Dynasty, along with the classical tradition in China, suffered a major blow. The humiliating loss of Korea as a vassal state sparked an unprecedented public outcry. Within China, the defeat was a catalyst for a series of political upheavals led by Sun Yat-Sen and Kang Youwei, culminating in the 1911 Revolution.

Five Principle's of peaceful co-existence

The Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, are a set of principles to govern relations between states. Their first formal codification in treaty form was in an agreement between China and India in 1954. They were enunciated in the preamble to the "Agreement (with exchange of notes) on trade and intercourse between Tibet Region of China and India", which was signed at Peking on 29 April 1954. This agreement stated the five principles as: Mutual respect for each other's territorial integrity and sovereignty. Mutual non-aggression. Mutual non-interference in each other's internal affairs. Equality and cooperation for mutual benefit. Peaceful co-existence. The history of the first major enunciation of the Five Principles is not wholly encouraging. China has often emphasized its close association with the Five Principles. It had put them forward, as the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, at the start of negotiations that took place in Delhi from December 1953 to April 1954 between the Delegation of the PRC Government and the Delegation of the Indian Government on the relations between the two countries with respect to the disputed territories of Aksai and South Tibet. The 29 April 1954 agreement mentioned above was set to last for eight years. When it lapsed, relations were already souring, the provision for renewal of the agreement was not taken up, and the Sino-Indian War broke out between the two sides. However, in the 1970s, the Five Principles again came to be seen as important in Sino-Indian relations, and more generally as norms of relations between states. They have become widely recognized and accepted throughout the region.

Four no's

The Four Noes was a pledge by former President of the Republic of China Chen Shui-bian made in his inauguration speech on 20 May 2000, concerning the political status of Taiwan. It was an important part of cross-straits relations. The pledge was that, provided the People's Republic of China has no intention to use military force against Taiwan, Chen's administration would not: declare Taiwanese independence, change the national title from "the Republic of China" to "the Republic of Taiwan", include the doctrine of special state-to-state relations in the Constitution of the Republic of China, or promote a referendum on unification or independence.

KMT

The Kuomintang of China is a political party in the Republic of China (ROC). It is the current ruling political party in Taiwan. The name is often translated as the Chinese Nationalist Party. The KMT was founded by Sun Yat-sen shortly after the Xinhai Revolution of 1911. Sun was the provisional president but he did not have military power and ceded the first presidency to the military leader Yuan Shikai. After Yuan's death, China was divided by warlords, while the KMT was able to control only part of the south. Later led by Chiang Kai-shek, the KMT formed the National Revolutionary Army and succeeded in its Northern Expedition to unify much of China in 1928. It was the ruling party of China from 1928 until its retreat to Taiwan in 1949 after being defeated by the Communist Party of China (CPC) during the Chinese Civil War. In Taiwan, the KMT continued as the single ruling party until reforms in the late 1970s through the 1990s loosened its grip on power. Since 1987, the Republic of China is no longer a single-party state; however, the KMT remains one of the main political parties, controlling the Legislative Yuan (Parliament) and most of the councils. The guiding ideology is the Three Principles of the People, advocated by Sun Yat-sen. Its party headquarters are located in Taipei. It is currently the ruling party in Taiwan, and holds most seats in the Legislative Yuan. The KMT is a member of the International Democrat Union. Current president Ma Ying-jeou, elected in 2008 and re-elected in 2012, is the seventh KMT member to hold the office of the presidency. Together with the People First Party and Chinese New Party, the KMT forms what is known as the Taiwanese Pan-Blue Coalition, which supports eventual unification with the mainland. However, the KMT has been forced to moderate its stance by advocating the political and legal status quo of modern Taiwan. The KMT accepts a "One China Principle" - it officially considers that there is only one China, but that the Republic of China rather than the People's Republic of China is its legitimate government under the 1992 Consensus. However, since 2008, in order to ease tensions with the PRC, the KMT endorses the "three noes" policy as defined by Ma Ying-jeou - no unification, no independence and no use of force.

Long March

The Long March (October 1934-October 1935) was a military retreat undertaken by the Red Army of the Communist Party of China, the forerunner of the People's Liberation Army, to evade the pursuit of the Kuomintang army. There was not one Long March, but a series of marches, as various Communist armies in the south escaped to the north and west. The best known is the march from Jiangxi province which began in October 1934. The First Front Army of the Chinese Soviet Republic, led by an inexperienced military commission, was on the brink of annihilation by Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek's troops in their stronghold in Jiangxi province. The Communists, under the eventual command of Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai, escaped in a circling retreat to the west and north. The route passed through some of the most difficult terrain of western China by traveling west, then north, to Shaanxi. The Long March began Mao Zedong's ascent to power, whose leadership during the retreat gained him the support of the members of the party. The bitter struggles of the Long March, which was completed by only about one-tenth of the force that left Jiangxi, would come to represent a significant episode in the history of the Communist Party of China, and would seal the personal prestige of Mao and his supporters as the new leaders of the party in the following decades.

MOFCOM

The Ministry of Commerce (MOFCOM) of the Government of the People's Republic of China, formerly Ministry of Foreign Trade and Economic Co-operation is an executive agency of the State Council of China. It is responsible for formulating policy on foreign trade, export and import regulations, foreign direct investments, consumer protection, market competition and negotiating bilateral and multilateral trade agreements.

One China Policyterm-33

The One-China policy to a view that there is only one state called "China", despite the existence of two governments that claim to be "China". As a policy, this means that countries seeking diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China (PRC) must break official relations with the Republic of China (ROC) and vice versa. Hence, all the countries recognizing the ROC recognize it as the sole legitimate representative of all of China and not just the island of Taiwan and other islands which it controls. Similarly, all states that recognize the PRC either recognise the PRC as the legitimate representative of Taiwan or acknowledge the PRC's views on the matter. This is significant to all nations and organisations that have diplomatic relations with either entity, including major trading partners such as the US, and the EU. From a liberal perspective, the PRC consolidates the world hierarchical order by enforcing a policy of economic and political pressure. Through the PRC asserts its power in world structures in line with its philosophy of peaceful development, and while building up networks of cooperation and trust

PAP

The People's Armed Police, officially Chinese People's Armed Police Force is a law enforcement force primarily responsible for civilian policing and fire rescue duties in the People's Republic of China, as well as providing support to the PLA during wartime. In contrast to public security police, PAP servicemen, also called as "Armed Policemen", wear olive green instead of the blue uniforms of the Public Security Department People's Police. The PAP is estimated to have a total strength of as high as 1.5 million, with over half its strength employed in its internal security units. The official estimate in 2006 was 660,000.

PLA

The People's Liberation Army is the military of the People's Republic of China (PRC) under the leadership of the CPC. The PLA is the world's largest military force, with a strength of approximately 2,285,000 personnel, 0.18% of the country's population. A system of political officers embedded within the military assures party authority over the armed forces, so that the primary role of the Ministry of Defense is that of a liaison office with foreign militaries. The political and military leadership have made a concerted effort to create a professional military force restricted to national defense and to the provision of assistance in domestic economic construction and emergency relief. This conception of the role of the PLA requires the promotion of specialized officers who can understand modern weaponry and handle combined arms operations. Troops around the country are stationed in seven military regions and more than 20 military districts. Military service is compulsory by law; however, compulsory military service in China has never been enforced due to large numbers of volunteers from China's population. In times of national emergency, the People's Armed Police and the People's Liberation Army Militia act as a reserve and support element for the PLA, primarily for the People's Liberation Army Ground Force.

Diaoyu/ Senkaku Islands

The Senkaku Islands dispute concerns a territorial dispute over a group of uninhabited islands known as the Senkaku Islands in Japan, the Diaoyu in the People's Republic of China (PRC), and Tiaoyutai Islands in the Republic of China (ROC or Taiwan). Aside from a 1945 to 1972 period of administration by the United States as part of the Ryukyu Islands, the archipelago has been controlled by Japan since 1895. According to Lee Seokwoo, the People's Republic of China (PRC) started taking up the question of sovereignty over the islands in the latter half of 1970 when evidence relating to the existence of oil reserves surfaced. Taiwan also claims the islands. The territory is close to key shipping lanes and rich fishing grounds, and there may be oil reserves in the area. Japan argues that it surveyed the islands in the late 19th century and found them to be Terra nullius (land belonging to no one); subsequently, China acquiesced to Japanese sovereignty until the 1970s. The PRC and the ROC argue that documentary evidence prior to the First Sino-Japanese War indicates Chinese possession and that the territory is accordingly a Japanese seizure that should be returned as the rest of Imperial Japan's conquests were returned in 1945. Although the United States does not have an official position on the merits of the competing sovereignty claims, the islands are included within the Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan, meaning that a defense of the islands by Japan would require the United States to come to Japan's aid.

Shanghai Cooperation Organisation

The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation or SCO or Shanghai Pact is a Eurasian political, economic and military organisation which was founded in 2001 in Shanghai by the leaders of China, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan. These countries, except for Uzbekistan, had been members of the Shanghai Five, founded in 1996; after the inclusion of Uzbekistan in 2001, the members renamed the organisation. The focus of the co-operation is the creation of greater relations and trust with a group of nations with shared regional interests and concerns.

Spratleys

The Spratly Islands are a disputed group of islands in the South China Sea. In addition to various territorial claims, some of the features have civilian settlements, but of the approximately 45 islands, reefs, cays and other features that are occupied, all contain structures which are occupied by military forces (from the People's Republic of China, the Republic of China (Taiwan), Vietnam, the Philippines and Malaysia). Additionally, Brunei has claimed (but does not occupy) an exclusive economic zone in the southeastern part of the Spratlys. From a realist perspective such small and remote islands have little economic value in themselves, but are important to the claimants in their attempts to establish international boundaries. This is significant to China in primary interest in that preservation of what it sees as state, according to historical maps signifying it mades claims to the islands in the 12th century. Exerting a military presence through the construction of bases in the region affirms this expansion of China's power and builds up power & legitimacy as a potential threat to its surrounding neighbours. The islands represent on a micro-scale, a balance of power currently in play in the Asia-Pacific region between the nations bordering the PRC. The relatively small number in actual military encounters, shows from a realist perspective a method of self-help in China's interest to serve state sovereignty when a central authority governing these nations fails to bring little change. From a liberal perspective the islands offer China a way in which to build up more power and influence in the Asia-Pacific region by controlling the waters of the the South China Sea. Not only is there potentially revenue gathering from supposed oil and gas reserves

Taiping rebellionterm-78

The Taiping Rebellion was a massive civil war in southern China from 1850 to 1864, against the ruling Manchu Qing dynasty. It was a millenarian movement led by Hong Xiuquan, who announced that he had received visions, in which he learned that he was the younger brother of Jesus. At least 20 million people died, mainly civilians, in one of the deadliest military conflicts in history. Hong established the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom with its capital at Nanjing. The Kingdom's army controlled large parts of southern China, at its height ruling about 30 million people. The rebel agenda included social reforms such as shared "property in common", equality for women, and the replacement of Confucianism, Buddhism, Daoism and Chinese folk religion with their form of Christianity. The Qing government eventually crushed the rebellion with the aid of French and British forces. In the 20th century, Sun Yat-sen, founder of the Chinese Nationalist Party, looked on the rebellion as an inspiration, and Chinese leader Mao Zedong glorified the Taiping rebels as early heroic revolutionaries against a corrupt feudal monarchy.

Third Taiwan Strait Crisis

The Third Taiwan Strait Crisis, also called the 1995-1996 Taiwan Strait Crisis or the 1996 Taiwan Strait Crisis, was the effect of a series of missile tests conducted by the People's Republic of China (PRC) in the waters surrounding Taiwan including the Taiwan Strait from July 21, 1995 to March 23, 1996. The first set of missiles fired in mid-to-late 1995 were allegedly intended to send a strong signal to the Republic of China (ROC) government under Lee Teng-hui, who had been seen as moving ROC foreign policy away from the One-China policy. The second set of missiles were fired in early 1996, allegedly intending to intimidate the Taiwanese electorate in the run-up to the 1996 presidential election.

Three Represents theory

The Three Represents is a guiding socio-political theory credited to Jiang Zemin in 2000. The official statement of the ideology stipulates that the Communist Party of China should be representative to advanced social productive forces, advanced culture, and the interests of the overwhelming majority.

TPP

The Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP) is a proposed regional regulatory and investment treaty, which began in 2005 in New Zealand. China is open to joining the Trans-Pacific Partnership, a high-ranking Chinese official indicated on Wednesday at a think-tank in Washington, DC. China, once deeply skeptical of the TPP, has become more interested in the trade bloc as its own economic reforms advance.

Treaty of amity & cooperation

The Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia is a peace treaty among Southeast Asian countries established by the founding members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). China is also a treaty signatory as of 2003, as well as 27 other entities including the USA and NZ. The purpose of the Treaty is to promote perpetual peace, everlasting amity and co-operation among the people of Southeast Asia which would contribute to their strength, solidarity, and closer relationship. In their relations with one another, the High Contracting Parties shall be guided by the following fundamental principles; a. mutual respect for the independence, sovereignty, equality, territorial integrity and national identity of all nations, b. the right of every State to lead its national existence free from external interference, subversion or coercion, c. non-interference in the internal affairs of one another, d. settlement of differences or disputes by peaceful means, e. renunciation of the threat or use of force, and f. effective co-operation among themselves.

Treaty of non-proliferation of nuclear weapons

The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, is an international treaty whose objective is to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons and weapons technology, to promote cooperation in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy, and to further the goal of achieving nuclear disarmament and general and complete disarmament. total of 191 states have joined the Treaty, though North Korea, which acceded to the NPT in 1985 but never came into compliance, announced its withdrawal in 2003. The treaty recognizes five states as nuclear-weapon states: the United States, Russia, the United Kingdom, France, and China.

21 demands

The Twenty-One Demands were a set of demands made during the First World War by the Empire of Japan sent to the weak government of the Republic of China on January 18, 1915. The demands would greatly extend Japanese control of Manchuria and of the Chinese economy, and were opposed by Britain and the United States. In the final settlement Japan gained a little but lost a great deal of prestige and trust in Britain and the US. The Chinese people responded with a spontaneous nationwide boycott of Japanese goods; Japan's exports to China fell 40%. Britain was affronted and no longer trusted Japan as a partner. With the First World War underway, Japan's position was strong and Britain's was weak. Nevertheless Britain (and the United States) forced Japan to drop the fifth set of demands that would have given Japan a large measure of control over the entire Chinese economy and ended the Open Door Policy.

UN Security Council

The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) is one of the six principal organs of the United Nations and is charged with the maintenance of international peace and security. Its powers include the establishment of peacekeeping operations, the establishment of international sanctions, and the authorization of military action through Security Council resolutions; it is the only UN body with the authority to issue binding resolutions to member states. Like the UN as a whole, the Security Council was created following World War II to address the failings of another international organization, the League of Nations, in maintaining world peace. In its early decades, the body was largely paralysed by the Cold War division between the US and USSR and their respective allies. With the collapse of the Soviet Union, UN peacekeeping efforts increased dramatically in scale, and the Security Council authorized major military and peacekeeping missions in Kuwait, Namibia, Cambodia, Bosnia, Rwanda, Somalia, Sudan, and the Democratic Republic of Congo. The Security Council consists of fifteen members. The great powers that were the victors of World War II—Russia, the United Kingdom, France, China, and the United States—serve as the body's five permanent members. These permanent members can veto any substantive Security Council resolution, including those on the admission of new member states or candidates for Secretary-General.

WTO

The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an intergovernmental organization which regulates international trade. The WTO officially commenced on 1 January 1995 under the Marrakech Agreement, signed by 123 nations on 15 April 1994, replacing the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which commenced in 1948. The WTO deals with regulation of trade between participating countries by providing a framework for negotiating trade agreements and a dispute resolution process aimed at enforcing participants' adherence to WTO agreements, which are signed by representatives of member governments. China joined the world trade organisation in 2001 after 15 years of negotiations.

Yasukuni Shrine

The Yasukuni Shrine is a Japanese Shinto shrine to to war dead who served the Emperor of Japan during wars from 1867-1951. This eligibility includes civilians in service and government officials. This activity is strictly a religious matter due to the religious separation of State Shinto and the Japanese Government. The priesthood at the shrine has complete religious autonomy to decide to whom is enshrined. A more recent source of controversy concerns visits to the shrine by Japanese Diet cabinet members in general and Prime Ministers in particular, which have been a cause of protest in Japan and abroad. China, North Korea, South Korea and Taiwan have protested against various visits since 1985. From an exceptionalist perspective the enshrinement poses a unique situation as tribunals regarding Japanese war crimes were heavily disputed in regards the amount of supporting evidence, and the fact that the surviving convicted criminals were all released by 1958. From a Japanese perspective the enshrinement was seen as legitimate in the fact that they were all released. However China, Taiwan, and South Korea, view it as Japan being unapologetic for the actions of Japan during their occupation of the nations. It also presents common ground from a communitarian perspective between that of Taiwan and South Korea - two countries in which China's traditionally realist policies of exerting power via military force has been inflicted upon.

China- North Korea border

The border is 1,420 kilometres and divides the two countries. Their waterfronts face each other and are connected by the Sino-Korean Friendship Bridge. A 1962 border treaty between North Korea and China split the islands along the Yalu delta according to which ethnic group were living on each island. Both countries have navigation rights on the river, including in the delta. Its border with China has been described as North Korea's "lifeline to the outside world." Much of the China-North Korea trade goes through the port of Dandong. The Sino-Korean Friendship Bridge, between Dandong in China and Sinuiju in North Korea, is the most heavily used rail connection between the two countries. The border at the Yalu River delta near Dandong in 2012 The border between North Korea and China has been described as "porous". Many North Korean defectors cross into China.

Century of humiliation

The century of humiliation, refers to the period of intervention and imperialism by Western powers and Japan in China between 1839 and 1949. The term arose in 1915, in the atmosphere of rising Chinese nationalism opposing the Twenty-One Demands made by the Japanese government and its acceptance by Yuan Shikai, with the Guomindang and Chinese Communist Party both subsequently popularizing the characterization. The beginning of the Century of Humiliation is usually dated to the mid-19th century, on the eve of the First Opium War amidst widespread opium addiction and the political unraveling of Qing dynasty China that followed. Other major events often cited as part of the Century of Humiliation are the Taiping Rebellion, the First Sino-Japanese War, the British invasion of Tibet, the Twenty-One Demands by Japan, and the Second Sino-Japanese War. In this period, China lost all the wars it fought, often forced to give major concessions to the great powers in the subsequent treaties. The time for an end of the Century has been open to different interpretations. Both Chiang Kai-shek and Mao Zedong declared the end of the Century of Humiliation in the aftermath of World War II, with Chiang promoting his wartime resistance to Japanese rule and China's place among the victorious Allies in 1945, while Mao declared it with the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949. The idea of an end of the Century was similarly declared in the repulsion of UN forces in the Korean War, the 1997 reunification with Hong Kong, the 1999 reunification with Macau, and even the hosting of the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing. Some still say that the Century will not end until Taiwan is reunified with the mainland. Some analysts have pointed to its use in deflecting foreign criticism of human rights abuses in China and domestic attention from issues of corruption, while bolstering its territorial claims and general economic and political rise.

Four modernizations

The four modernisations were goals enacted by Deng Xiaoping in 1978 following the death of Mao, in an attempt to revitalise China's stagnant economy. China experienced a number of liberalisations of its economy and society. These aims, were hoped to help catapult the PRC to the international stage. Focuses of the PRC were upon Agriculture, military & defence, Science & technology, and Industry. The enactment of these goals marked the beginning of the reform era. The Four Modernizations were designed to make China a great economic power by the early 21st century. These reforms essentially stressed economic self-reliance. The PRC decided to accelerate the modernization process by stepping up the volume of foreign trade by opening up its markets, especially the purchase of machinery from Japan and the West. By participating in such export-led growth, China was able to speed up its economic development through foreign investment, a more open market, access to advanced technologies, and management experience. These modernisations are significant in

Goddess of democracy

The goddess of democracy was a plaster statute, that was erected as a statement in Tiananmen Square by its student creators on May 29. It stood for five days, before it was destroyed by the People's Liberation Army forces on June 4. It was not the location or the statute itself that the CCP disagreed with, it was the concept and ideals that it represented. As an entity, it embodied the principles in which the student protests tried to address. The goddess held onto the torch with both hands, representing political freedom of expression and liberty as an ideal yet to be claimed by the people of China. It served as a symbol of the whole movement, a call for a change to a more democratic system. It reflected the ideals in which the west took for granted: liberty, freedom, and choice. From a cosmopolitan perspective the fact that replicas stand in some Western cities, such as the Victims of Communism memorial in Washington D.C., reflects the desire of the western nations to convert their system of world order upon nations such as China to have a multilateral shared moral agenda regarding things they believe to be essential human rights. However through a realist lense, the ideals in which the statute represented threatened the preservation of the state domestically and within the international structure. Prospects of letting morality govern, in a realist perspective, threatened to present a power vacuum, in both China's legitimacy in its presence in the autonomous regions of Tibet, Xinjiang and Inner Mongolia.

Nine-dashed line

The nine-dashed line, and at various times also referred to as the "The 11 dashed line", refer to the demarcation line used initially by the government of the Republic of China (ROC / Taiwan), and subsequently also by the government of the People's Republic of China (PRC), for their claims of the major part of the South China Sea (SCS). The contested area in the SCS includes the Paracel Islands, and the Spratly Islands. The first widely recognized[by whom?] map showing a U-shaped eleven-dotted line was published in the then Republic of China on 1 December 1947. Two of the dots in the Gulf of Tonkin were later removed at the behest of Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai, reducing the total to nine. Subsequent editions added dashes to the other end of the line, extending it into the East China Sea. Despite having made the vague claim public in 1947, China is still (as of 2015) to file a formal and specifically defined claim to the area within the dashes.

Six party talks

The six party is a multilateral framework in nuclear disarmament involving the DPRK, China, Russia, Japan, USA and South Korea. The rounds of talks were in response to NK's withdrawal from the nuclear non-proliferation treaty in 2003. There were 5 rounds of talks between 2003-7, however the DPRK Conducted nuclear launches in 2006 without talking with the other countries. As a result the UN Security Council passed resolution 1718 - one of the few sanctions China imposed upon DPRK. This inflicted a series of political and economic restrictions. The extent of the threat of attack from nuclear weapons from DPRK is relatively underestimated, however from a realist perspective China is fully aware that the DPRK does not necessarily need to accept the terms on international agreements. The assertion of its military power/ capabilities by testing a missile, reflects a lack of trust between the DPRK and the West. China acts almost as an intermediary between its traditionally ideological ally in DPRK and its new trading partners in the West. A purely liberal approach in which the west enforces via sanctions is not sufficient, in a country that refuses to accept the terms agreed upon drawn up in an international system. This is illustrated by the DPRK's permanent withdrawal in 2009 out from the six party talks to continue its nuclear enrichment programme. From a realist lense, China is well aware of the precariousness of the DPRK's survival as a state with legitimacy in the world system and the agitation of its precarious economic system could create domestic toil with a flood of refugees in NE China. This would significantly affect the political and economic markets of the region, and have far reaching implications on the global economy. From a constructivist view despite the DPRK withdrawing, perhaps a shared belief in that the use of nuclear weapons on others is so horrific is at play - something experienced in the cold war balance of power.

Sino-North Korea Mutual Aid and Cooperation Friendship Treaty

The treaty was signed in Beijing in 1961 and came into effect on September 10 of the same year. Premier of the People's Republic of China Zhou Enlai and President of North Korea Kim Il-sung signed for their respective countries. The treaty generally promoted peaceful cooperation in the areas of culture, economics, technology and other social benefits between the two nations. Specifically, Article 2 of the treaty declares the two nations guarantee to adopt immediately all necessary measures to oppose any country or coalition of countries that might attack either nation. The treaty is in effect and automatically renews every 20 years. It has renewed in 1981 and 2001. The most recent renewal will remain in effect until the year 2021. From a realist perspective, this treaty is significant for not only the two signatories but also current enmities of the two nations. In this agreement both China and particularly the DPRK at the time sought allies to build up power capabilities, in the name of state self-preservation. In the modern era this leaves the DPRK in a balance of power state in the international system. The threat of China's involvement is enough for other nations to be hesitant in attacking the DPRK in direct conflict. However in a essentially more open society, the treaty is less for the protection militarily and politically for China but more economically. From a liberal perspective the treaty serves now more as a preservation of the DPRK, against collapsing all together from military and political threats. A collapse of the DPRK would leave China economically strained and politically challenged from the amount of refugees that would flee over its borders in a state of war, so essentially the treaty gives China legal legitimacy and a assurance from an economic/ logistic disaster.

Tiananmen Square

Tiananmen Square is the site in Beijing of student protests in 1989. By April 1989 China was experiencing skyrocketing inflation, rising urban unemployment, lagging political reform, and official corruption especially at the local level - led to discontent amongst citizens especially young people. By May hunger strikes occurred amongst students. Zhao Ziyang, the 3rd Premier of the PRC, favoured a more communitarian approach focusing more on dialogue. However the removal of Zhao, after his criticisms of the party's approach to dealing with the matter, only paved way for harsher regime response & intensified student demands. PLA troops dispatched June 1-4 to clear square of protestors Demonstrators worked to block PLA advancement, fighting breaks out in square as square cleared by June 4. PLA opens fire on crowd - unknown how many casualties resulted from this. However through a realist lense the ideals presented, threatened the preservation of the state domestically and within the international structure through assertion of power. Prospects of letting morality govern, in a realist perspective, threatened to present a power vacuum, in both China's legitimacy in its presence in the autonomous regions of Tibet, Xinjiang and Inner Mongolia, and in international organisations in respect to its justification of a realist approach to the discontent within China. In a liberalist approach, China's actions were largely condemned internationally and economic sanctions & arms embargoes were placed upon the country. This presented a clash of realist and liberal agenda in the international structure.

Two-level game

Two-level games, first developed by Robert Putnam in the late 1980s, are a game-theoretical model of reality that says national-level policymakers face two separate constituencies when making decisions: domestic-level groups and international-level groups. Sometimes the interests of these two groups are aligned; sometimes they are polar opposites. A prime example of a two-level game in international political economy is the negotiation and ratification process of an international trade agreement.

Vietnam

Vietnam is country of over 90.5million people bordering the south of China.

Westphaelian Sovereignty

Westphalian sovereignty is the principle of international law that each nation state has sovereignty over its territory and domestic affairs, to the exclusion of all external powers, on the principle of non-interference in another country's domestic affairs, and that each state (no matter how large or small) is equal in international law. The doctrine is named after the Peace of Westphalia, signed in 1648, which ended the Thirty Years' War, in which the major continental European states - the Holy Roman Empire, Spain, France, Sweden and the Dutch Republic - agreed to respect one another's territorial integrity. As European influence spread across the globe, the Westphalian principles, especially the concept of sovereign states, became central to international law and to the prevailing world order. Scholars of international relations have identified the modern, Western originated, international system of states, multinational corporations, and organizations, as having begun at the Peace of Westphalia. Both the basis and the conclusion of this view have been attacked by some revisionist academics and politicians, with revisionists questioning the significance of the Peace, and some commentators and politicians attacking the Westphalian system of sovereign nation-states.

Mao Zedong Foreign policy

With Mao in overall control and making final decisions, Zhou Enlai handled foreign-policy and developed a strong reputation for his diplomatic and negotiating skills. Regardless of those skills, Zhou's bargaining position was undercut by the domestic turmoil initiated by Mao. The Great Leap Forward of 1958-60 was a failed effort to industrialize overnight; it devastated food production and led to millions of deaths from famine. Even more disruptive was the Cultural Revolution of 1966-76, which decimated a generation of leadership. When the PRC broke diplomatic relations with the USSR around 1960, the main cause was Mao's insistence that Moscow had deviated from the true principles of communism. The result was that both Moscow and Beijing sponsored rival Communist parties around the world, which expended much of their energy fighting each other. China's focus especially was on the Third World as PRC portrayed itself as the legitimate leader of the global battle against imperialism and capitalism

Xi Jinping

Xi Jinping the President of the People's Republic of China. As General Secretary, Xi is also an ex officio member of the Politburo Standing Committee, China's de facto top decision-making body. Son of communist veteran Xi Zhongxun, Xi Jinping rose through the ranks politically in China's coastal provinces. He served as the Governor of Fujian between 1999 and 2002, then as Governor and Party Secretary of the neighboring Zhejiang between 2002 and 2007. Following the dismissal of Chen Liangyu, Xi was transferred to Shanghai as the Party Secretary for a brief period in 2007. Xi joined the Politburo Standing Committee and Central Secretariat in October 2007 and was groomed to become Hu Jintao's successor. He served as Vice-President between 2008 and 2013. Xi is now the leader of the People's Republic's fifth generation of leadership. Since assuming leadership, he has initiated an unprecedented and far-reaching campaign against corruption, called for further market economic reforms, governing according to the law and strengthening legal institutions, and an emphasis on individual and national aspirations under the neologism "Chinese Dream". Xi has also imposed further restrictions over ideological discourse, attempted to further entrench and legitimize the authority of the Communist Party over Chinese society, while also introducing far-ranging measures to enforce party discipline and ensure internal unity. He has significantly centralized institutional power through taking on a wide range of leadership positions himself, including chairing the newly formed National Security Commission, as well as new steering committees on overall reform, military reform, and the internet. Xi has also championed a more assertive foreign policy, particularly in relation to Sino-Japanese relations, disputes in the South China Sea, involvement in Asian regional affairs, and initiatives related to energy and natural resources.

Deng Xiaoping

Deng Xiaoping was a Chinese revolutionary and statesman. He was the leader of China from 1978 until his retirement in 1992. After Mao Zedong's death, Deng led his country through far-reaching market economic reforms. While Deng never held office as the head of state he nonetheless was considered the "paramount leader" of the People's Republic of China from December 1978 to 1992. As the core of the second-generation leaders, Deng shared his power with several powerful older politicians commonly known as the Eight Elders. Deng was a major supporter of Mao in the early 1950s. As the party's Secretary-General, Deng became instrumental in China's economic reconstruction following the Great Leap Forward in the early 1960s. His economic policies, however, were at odds with Mao's political ideologies. Inheriting a country fraught with social and institutional woes resulting from the Cultural Revolution and other mass political movements of the Mao era, Deng became the pre-eminent figure of the "second generation" of Chinese leadership. He is considered "the architect" of a new brand of socialist thinking, combining the Communist Party's socialist ideology with a pragmatic adoption of market economic practices. Deng opened China to foreign investment, the global market and limited private competition. He is generally credited with developing China into one of the fastest-growing economies in the world for over 35 years and raising the standard of living of hundreds of millions of Chinese.

Kim Jong-un

Kim Jong-un is the supreme leader of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea). He is the son of Kim Jong-il (1941-2011) and the grandson of Kim Il-sung (1912-1994). At 32 years of age, he is the first North Korean leader born after the country's founding and the world's youngest head of state.