POLSC 103 Samstad Final

Lok Sabha

Elected by the parliament, the Lok Sabha (House of the People), to five-year terms, subject to votes of no-confidence

Karl Marx

(Communist Manifesto-1848) Karl Marx saw class conflict driving history, through the following stages: -Feudalism marked by conflict between lord and serf -Capitalism where the bourgeoisie (business owning class) was in conflict with the proletariat (blue collar workers) -Communism where the proletariat overthrows the bourgeoisie leading to a classless society --Revolution would inevitably come in the most advanced Capitalist societies where the contradictions were the sharpest between an ever richer bourgeoisie and an increasingly exploited proletariat ---This suggested Britain or Germany would have a revolution first, rather than economically "backwards" places such as Russia or China --Emphasis ultimately was on a critique of capitalism and conditions for revolution, rather than providing a blueprint for a new socialist society

Caste System

**pic on phone***

Import Substitution Industrialization (ISI)

-Protection of infant industries through tariffs and quotas -Provision of state subsidies for domestic manufacturers, especially through cheap loans -Limitations on foreign ownership and investment -Government ownership of strategic industries -State promotion of higher wages

Command Economy

-State control of all major productive apparatus ---Nationalized Industry --Collectivized Agriculture --State Run Markets -Emphasis on domestic industrialization using --Central Planning --Such as "Five Year Plans" -Extensive social guarantees to workers --Subsidized basic necessities --Guaranteed housing and health care --Universal employment -Separation from Capitalist world economy --------Especially during early days of Communism

General Secretary

-Though nominally the head of state, the presidency is usually held by the General Secretary of the Communist Party, who is actually is the most powerful individual -The General Secretary will often also take on the title of President once he has consolidated his position politically

Hassan Rouhani

50.7% Hassan Rouhani (MDP) In one of his first acts, Rouhani freed 11 prominent political prisoners Quickly moved to improve relations with US • AcceptedphonecallfromObamaduringavisitto UN in New York in September • DuringtriphedenouncedtheHolocaustand promises to never develop nuclear weapons • Uponreturning,heorderedtheremovalof numerous anti-American billboards in Tehran Allowed Iranians to access Twitter and Facebook for the first time in five years in September 2013 • Soonafter,calledforgreateracademicfreedom and lifted some restrictions of scholars visiting foreign conferences Agreed to help Iraq fight ISIS rebels in June 2014, backing militias, sending advisors, and launching airstrikes by the end of the year • BlamedWestforhelpingtofuelterrorismwithits actions in September 2014 speech to the UN After a series of acid attacks on Iranian women, thousands took to the streets to protest in city of Isfahan in October 2014 Supreme Leader Khamenei pushed Iran to double its population by banning vasectomies and further restricting access to contraception in 2015 Rouhani meanwhile moved to allow women to attend sporting events in April 2015 Government pushed austerity measures inn the face of continued sanctions, diminishing value of the Rial, and falling oil prices by 2015 • Crackeddownonwidespreadtaxfraudwhile ending targeted subsidies for food and gas In January 2015 speech, Rouhani suggested the possibility of organizing rarely used direct referendums • Suggestionseenaswayofpressuringclericsto not block his reforms Nuclear agreement with the "P5+1" nations (US, UK, France, China, Russia, and Germany) reached in July 2015 after two years of discussions initiated by Rouhani • InreturnforaliftingofWesternsanctions,Iran agreed to UN inspections to ensure that it will not pursue nuclear weapons • Rouhani'sapprovalratingsurgedto89% • SupremeLeaderAliKhameneibackeddeal,but forbade further negotiations with the United States Iranian protestors torched Saudi Arabia's embassy after January 2016 execution of a key Shi'i cleric • Tensionsincreaseasthetwocountriesback different factions fighting in Yemen and elsewhere Reformist coalition makes major gains in February 2016 Majles elections • Reformistcandidates,includingRouhanihimself, gain seats on Assembly of Experts as well Election of Donald Trump, who had been critical of the nuclear deal on the campaign trail, has presented new challenges to Rouhani • EarlyonTrumpimposednewsanctionsafterIran conducted ballistic missile tests, though later administration certified Iran's compliance with nuclear accord • IranincludedinTrumpstravelban,provoking large-scale protests in the country • ByOctober2017TrumpwoulddecertifyIranas coooperating with nuclear deal even without officially terminating it

Mahmoud Ahmadinejad

61.7% Mahmoud Ahmadinejad (Abadgaran) Appealed to religious conservatives and the economically impoverished Disappointment with Khatami's inability to make real reform in the face of Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei's opposition led to low turnout among reform supporters Ahmadinejad creates international controversy in 2005 when he declares Holocaust to be a myth • Personally hosts conference that includes Holocaust deniers in December 2006 US accuses Iran of aiding Iraqi insurgents by 2006 Fifteen British sailors accused of entering Iran's territorial waters are detained • Released after thirteen days Re-opens Isfahan uranium conversion plant in 2005 and Natanz nuclear research facility in 2006 • IAEA reports Iran to the UN Security Council which imposes sanctions for violating the NPT Facing UN sanctions, Ahmadinejad raises domestic prices on oil in June 2007 • Increase leads to major protests within Iran • AgreestoallowIAEAtoinspectisArak nuclear power plan in July 2007 US imposes more sanctions in October 2007 A US National Intelligence Estimate report is released in December 2007 arguing that Iran abandoned its nuclear weapons program in 2003 • President Bush insisted Iran still a threat Ahmadinejad welcomed on March 2008 Iraq visit • First such visit since the Iran-Iraq War Conducts July 2008 Shahab-3 long-range missile, with capabilities of hitting targets in Israel Police close human rights office of 2003 Nobel Peace Prize winner Shirin Ebadi in December 2008 Ahmadinejad runs for re-election in June 2009 against independent Mir-Hossein Mousavi, a reformist backed by former President Khatami • GovernmentannouncesAhmadinejadvictory by a large margin, avoiding a runoff US accused Iran in October 2011 of plot to kill the Saudi Arabian ambassador to the US • TensionswithUSandIsraelalsoincreasedas Iran accused those countries of cyber attacks and the killing of numerous nuclear scientists EU began boycott of Iranian oil in July 2012 after Iran resumed uranium enrichment • CameontopofnewUNsanctionsinJune 2010 and after refusal of US to accept agreement brokered by Brazil and Turkey to allow Iran to export uranium for enrichment Police crack down on black market currency traders in October 2012 as rial falls to just one fifth its value from the year before As female university enrollments hit 60% in 2012, government banned them from 77 different degrees including in business, engineering, and science In April 2011, after Khamenei overruled his attempt to fire the country's intelligence chief, Ahmadinejad refused to attend cabinet meetings, showing public signs of tensions between the two leaders Khamenei-backed conservatives made major gains during March 2012 Majles elections • Inaftermathofelection,Majlesforces Ahmadinejad to testify before them in order to defend his job performance With Ahmadinejad forced to retire by term limits, the 2013 presidential elections became wide open • Conservativessplitbetweensupportersof President Ahmadinejad and those of Supreme Leader Khamenei • ReformistsunifiedbehindAssemblyofExperts member Hassan Rouhani after former president Mohammad Khatami dropped out

Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)

A Hindu nationalist party that was formed in 1980 as the political wing of the rightist RSS (National Patriotic Organization), a group controversial for its association with sectarian violence, which had led it to be banned three time By the 1990s the BJP became a near equal rival of the dominant INC Leads a center-right coalition known as the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) The BJP currently has 282 seats with 11 other parties having 54 seats

Moderation and Development Party (MDP)

A pragmatic reformist group formed in 2002. It is the party of current president Hassan Rouhani

Umbrella Movement

A series of mass protest began on September 26, 2014 after the Chinese government announced restrictive electoral reforms giving it a veto over candidates for the local Hong Kong elections in 2017. After pushing for a pro-democracy referendum in October, organizers back down due to internal divisions after failing to win concessions from Beijing

Tiananmen Square Massacre

After weeks of sit-ins by protestors demanding the late General Secretary Hu Yaobang's rehabilitation, Chinese troops are sent to clear the Tiananmen Square by force. The official death toll was 200, although many fear the actual figure is much higher

Manmohan Singh

As a Sikh, Singh became the first non-Hindu PM in Indian history • Has doctorate in Economics, and formerly worked with the IMF • As Finance Minister under Narasimha Rao, he was considered "Father of Economic Reform" • Came in with a strong middle class base of support and a reputation for honesty Favored mixed economy, with government control of many areas of infrastructure and agriculture Faced December 2004 tsunami as well as Monsoon flooding in July 2005, each which killed thousands To fight corruption, introduces a widely praised Right to Information Act in 2005 Passed National Rural Employment Guarantee Act in 2005 granting every rural worker the right to 100 days of paid work per year at minimum wage India elected Governor Pratibha Patil with the Congress Party, as the first female president in 2007 India's growth rate reached 9% by 2007, the strongest in decades Built upon Vajpayee's peace efforts with Pakistan • Partial Kashmir troop withdrawal in 2004 • Nuclear risk reduction treaty signed in 2007 A 2006 agreement with the US on nuclear weapons inspections led to an attempted no-confidence vote • BJP accused Congress Party of using bribery to win vote

Narendra Modi

As chief minister of Gujarat, Modi oversaw strong growth of manufacturing jobs in the state, but had also been accused of encouraging a 2002 Hindu-Muslim riot that killed 1,000 • Supreme Court deemed there to be insufficient evidence to prosecute Modi, though the US barred his entry until his election as PM Within weeks of taking office, instituted a series of measures to eliminate environmental regulations and reduce taxes to better compete with China Modi visited Washington DC in September 2014, and Obama reciprocated with January 2015 India trip Supreme Court in April 2014 recognized transgender people (the "hijras") as a third sex • Even though the previous December, the court had re-banned homosexuality just five years after declaring such laws unconstitutional (a decision that will be reviewed again in 2016) Narendra Modi BJP (2014-) Government made series of moves restricting speech and the media that have led to major protests • Threatened legal action against BBC in March 2015 after it broadcasts a documentary on the 2012 gang rape of an Indian medical student • In August government threatened to revoke licenses of three TV station for criticizing execution of a convicted terrorist • Also that month, state unsuccessfully tried to ban 857 internet porn sites • In 2016. government pursued pursue sedition charges against a university student who spoke for Kashmir separatism Federal government in March 2015 allowed India's second largest state, Maharashtra, to ban the sale, consumption, or possession of beef • The BJP-backed bill had been blocked since 1995 • Controversy intensified after Modi was slow to denounce a 2015 Delhi-area lynching of Muslim man falsely accused of eating meat Narendra Modi BJP (2014-) With a 7.5% annual growth in 2015, India became the fastest growing economy in the world, overtaking China, where growth rates fell to 6.9% In surprise and unusual effort to fight the underground economy, Modi in November 2016 eliminated the current 500 and 1,000 rupee bank notes (worth about $7.75 and $15.50 respectively), which accounted for 86% of currency in circulation • Indians given one month to exchange notes and provide evidence of legally obtaining their cash and paying taxes • A surprisingly high 97% of cash was successfully exchanged in time • Though process chaotic and created a cash shortage, many welcomed effort to fight corruption • Demonetization would be followed by crackdown on cryptocurrencies in 2018 • In aftermath, India's growth rate cut to 7.1% in 2016 Narendra Modi BJP (2014-) In spite of problems with demonetization, BJP scored a large victory in March 2017 legislative elections in Uttar Pradesh (UP), the biggest state in the country • BJP's choice of Hindu extremist Yogi Adityanath as UP Chief Minister raised concerns • With the INC struggling, Sonia Gandhi transfers party leadership to her son Rahul in December In effort to promote gender equality, government opened up military combat positions to women in 2016 and doubled maternity leave to 26 weeks in 2017 India and Bhutan demand in 2017 China cease building a road in the strategically sensitive Chumbi Valley next to India's Sikkim province • The Northeast was a site of the 1962 Sino-Indian War, as well as several subsequent border skirmishes between 1967 and 1975 • India responds with January 2018 test of nuclear missile capable of reaching most of China New budget in 2018 expands aid to India's farmers, increases spending on health care

Great Leap Forward

Attempted to break with Stalinist industrialization model • Maopromised:"WewillgetaheadofGreat Britain in fifteen years" Tried to decentralize industry and move it to the countryside • "Fullysocialistcooperatives"ofabout160 households each Cooperatives tried to produce their own iron Economic effects proved disastrous • Faminekilledasmanyas20million Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev ordered a cutoff of aid in 1960 • Beginningatwenty-yearlong"Sino-Soviet"split • Successful1964testofChinesenuclearbomb furthered the country's political independence

Washington Consensus

Austerity: Reduce or eliminate the federal deficit -Cut government spending -Close or sell off money-losing firms the state owns -End policy of cheap government loans and allow interest rates to rise to market rates -Raise taxes and improve tax collection, if necessary Structural Adjustment: Promote growth based on trade and foreign investment -Cut tariffs and enter into trade agreements -Eliminate restrictions on foreign investment -Devalue currency to reflect market exchange rate -Privatize even profitable and potentially profitable firms, including to foreign investors -Weaken and/or reduce enforcement of labor laws

Muhammad Reza Pahlavi

Came to power after his father was forced out by an Allied occupation of Iran (1941-1945) The monarchy co-existed with an elected parliament during Reza Shah's first years in office • Including the election of Muhammad Mossadegh (1951-1953) as prime minister, who nationalized the British-owned petroleum industry • TheCIAandBritishintelligenceconspiredwiththe Iranian military to carry out a coup against Mossadegh, consolidating the Shah's political control In 1963 established a program of economic and political modernization known as the "White Revolution" • Emphasisonsecularizingandindustrializing country • Maintainedautocraticpoliticalcontrol,particularly through the SAVAK secret police Signs Status of Forces Agreement with US in 1964, exempting American military personnel from Iranian law In a reaction by religious conservatives to his modernization program, and by others to his dictatorial rule, massive street protests and rioting begin in 1978 • The Shah responds by declaring Martial Law in September 1978 Forced into exile by protests on January 16, 1979 • By April 1, 1979, the "Islamic Republic of Iran" is declared by referendum The former Shah enters the US for medical treatments, leading to the new government's demands that he be extradited • Iranian student's seized the US embassy on November 4 demanding his return • Reza Pahlavi leaves the US, but dies of cancer in Egypt on July 27, 1980

Chechen War

Chechen War on October 1 • Second war proves much more successful, boosting popularity of then-Prime Minister Vladimir Putin, a former KGB agent also with militants of various Islamist groups, fought from August 1999 to April 2009.

Congress Party (INC)

Congress Party (INC) wins first general elections under leadership of Nehru in 1951 Indian National Congress (INC, or simply the Congress Party) Since independence has been the dominant political party Leads a coalition of center-left parties known as the United Progressive Alliance (UPA)

Jawaharlal Nehru

Congress Party (INC) wins first general elections under leadership of Nehru in 1951 Nehru emphasized development utilizing a large state sector • Model for development somewhere between traditional import substitution and a command economy • Nehru hoped to industrialize India in a generation Nehru became most important leader of the "Non- aligned movement" • Foreign policy declared as neutral in the Cold War between the US and USSR India lost brief border war with China in 1962 The INC's Lal Bahadur Shastri (1964-66) takes over as prime minister upon Nehru's death in 1964 • Fought second war with Pakistan over Kashmir in 1965

Guardian Council

Consists of twelve clerics Six appointed by the Supreme Leader » Judge Six appointed by the legislature from a list drawn up by the Chief Has power to veto bills by parliament Officially to confirm that they conform to Islamic Law (shari'a) Has the right to review and reject nominations for president and the legislature

Atal Bihari Vajpayee

Continued economic reforms of his predecessors, including an ambitious privatization program • Sold of shares of India's profitable Hindustan Petroleum and Bharat Petroleum • But privatization program ended up moving quite slowly Detonated nuclear bomb as signal to Pakistan in 1998 test • India had previously had a single nuclear test in 1974, but had largely abandoned the program subsequently • Pakistan responded by demonstrating its own nuclear warheads • The US sanctioned both India and Pakistan, but lifted them after 9-11 to reward India and Pakistan for joining US "War on Terrorism" Outbreak of sporadic border fighting in Kashmir between 1999 and 2003 heightens concerns New attacks in India by Muslim militants • December 2001 Suicide squad attacks parliament in New Delhi, killing 12 • A February 2002 fire on a train carrying Hindu pilgrims returning from the disputed Babri Masjid site in Ayodhya is blamed on Muslims - Gujarat kill over 1,000, mainly Muslims January 2002 India successfully test-fires a nuclear- capable Agni ballistic missile that has a 2,000 km range • Later that year Pakistan test-fires Ghauri missiles of similar capabilities Worked to improve relations with US and China • In 2000 Bill Clinton made first visit by a US President in 22 years • Reached 2003 agreement where China recognizes India's claim to Sikkim and India agrees to Chinese control of Tibet Agreed to match a Pakistani declaration of a Kashmir ceasefire in November 2003 • A January 2004 meeting between the Indian government and moderate Kashmir separatists increased optimism for an eventual peace agreement High rate of economic growth during his term led Vajpayee to be confident in 2004 elections • However opposition Congress Party wins surprise victory • Economic policies led to continued growth rate, but with greater levels of inequality domestically - • Congress Party ends up winning most seats, 145 as opposed to BJP's 137 Increasing support from middle class undercut Vajpayee's base among India's poor (who had been underrepresented in the polls)

United Russia

Current ruling party, generally considered to be center-right - Founded by merger in December 2001 of Boris Yeltsin's Unity Bloc and the Fatherland-All Russia party

Demonetization

Demonetization is the act of stripping a currency unit of its status as legal tender. It occurs whenever there is a change of national currency: The current form or forms of money is pulled from circulation and retired, often to be replaced with new notes or coins. Demonetization would be followed by crackdown on cryptocurrencies in 2018

Deng Xiaoping

Deng never officially held office as General Secretary or President, but was China's de facto "paramount leader" until his death in 1997 • His ally Hu Yaobang formally held position of General Secretary (1982-1987) Rehabilitated "capitalist roaders" removed during Cultural Revolution Launched the "Beijing Spring" (1977-78) where the excesses of the Cultural Revolution were denounced publicly • A temporary period of openness In 1978 began controversial "one-child policy," levying fines on urban copies having more than a single child • It reduced population growth by some 200 millions over the next decades, but limited personal liberties and contributed to a 117:100 male to female birth ratio by 2000 Restored full diplomatic relations with US by 1979

Dmitry Medvedev

Dmitry Medvedev (United Russia) 69.8% January 2011 attack on Moscow's Domodedovo airport leaves 35 dead • GovernmentblamedChechenmilitants Medvedev and Obama attempt to improve strained US-Russian relations • New2010"Start"agreementfor30%cutin nuclear weapons in both countries • USbackedRussianeffortstojoinWTO But tensions with US continued • TenRussianspiesarrestedinUSin2010 • USvoicedconcernovergrowingRussian authoritarianism Accusations of fraud in December 2011 parliament elections led to first major public demonstrations in decades • UnitedRussiaonlybarelyabletomaintaina majority in Duma after getting 49.3% of vote, down from 64.4% in 2007

Tibetans

Five regions with large ethnic minority populations (non-Han Chinese) are given more local control -people of Tibet

Ruhollah Khomeini

From exile in Paris, led a 1979 revolution against the Shah • Became central figure in a broad anti- Shah movement that included everything from an Islamist right to a Communist left After period uncertainty during the revolution's first, was able to consolidate his position as the country's Supreme Leader for life Allowed students to take over US embassy in December 1979, and hold embassy personnel hostage for 444 days Ousted first post-revolutionary President Abolhassan Bani-Sadr (1979-1981) after he denounced the theocratic government as a dictatorship Government fought of Iraqi invasion in bloody Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988) • Utilized"HumanWave"strategyofmass numbers of revolutionary troops against better armed Iraqis Some 500,000 casualties on both sides during war • AgreedtoaUN-brokeredceasefirewithIraq in July 1988 Diplomatic relations with Iraq resumed in 1990 Khomeini issued fatwa (religious edict) against British Muslim Salman Rushdie for his supposedly blasphemous novel "The Satanic Verses" in 1988 Tensions increase in July 1988 after the US Navy mistakenly shoots down Iran Air Flight 655 with a guided missile, killing all 290 civilians on board Khomeini died June 3, 1989

Iran-Iraq War

Government fought of Iraqi invasion in bloody Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988) • Utilized"HumanWave"strategyofmass numbers of revolutionary troops against better armed Iraqis Some 500,000 casualties on both sides during war • AgreedtoaUN-brokeredceasefirewithIraq in July 1988 Diplomatic relations with Iraq resumed in 1990

Ali Khamenei

Had served as president of Iran (1981-1989) for most of Ayatollah Khomeini's term • Elevated in spite of lacking the strong religious credentials of a Grand Ayatollah • WasreplacedaspresidentbyAliAkbar Hashemi Rafsanjani (1989-1997), who would go on to serve a full two terms Alleged sponsorship of terrorism and efforts to develop nuclear arms led to the US to impose oil and trade sanctions on Iran in 1995 Election of reformers in 1997 result in eight year conflict over the direction of the Iranian Revolution • One in which Khamenei eventually prevails

Supreme Leader

Has broad powers » Acts as commander-in-chief of the armed forces » officers Can dismiss the president, presidential candidates, judges, and military » television network Appoints clergy to key mosques and director of the state-run radio and » - Appointed to life term by Assembly of Religious Experts Can grant amnesty » of continuing duties » Should clerics be unable to agree on a Supreme Leader upon the previous leader's death, than leadership would be turned over to a council of two or three senior clerics

Hausa-Fulani

Hausa-Fulani are collectively the Hausa and Fulani people of Africa. The two are grouped together because since the Fulani War their histories have been largely intertwined within Nigeria.

Boris Yeltsin

Having won as an independent in the first ever elections for President of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR) in July 1991, Boris Yeltsin became the de facto leader of the independent nation of Russia upon the USSR's dissolution

Hu Jintao

Hu handpicked as successor by Jiang Zemin in a smooth transfer of power Pushed military expansion and technological progress • First manned spacecraft in 2003 • In 2007, China successfully shot down one of its old weather satellite with a missile and launched a spacecraft to orbit the moon • China launched its first aircraft carrier in September 2012 Trips to Latin America in 2004 and Africa in 2007 underlined expansion of Chinese trade and investment • But many in West criticize trade deals with the Sudan and other human rights violators • Others warn of a possible "debt trap" created • Hu also signed a trade agreement with ASEAN in 2004, joining the organization in 2010 Facing rural protests and growing Communist Party corruption, Hu tried to re-emphasize moral values and Maoist ideals, at least rhetorically • His 2006 "Eight Honors and Eight Shames" code encouraged good citizenship rather than greed

Xi Jinping

In a widely expected move, Vice-President Xi Jinping, 59, became General Secretary of the Communist Party in November 2012 • Made State President in March 2013 • Also named head of the state and party Central Military Commissions, quickly consolidating his position as Hu's successor A so-called "princeling," he is the son of Xi Zhongxun, who was one of Mao's top lieutenants until he was jailed during the Cultural Revolution • Xi Jinping himself was sent to work in the countryside as a result In inaugural address emphasized the need to root out corruption and increase the responsiveness of the country's central bureaucracy • Economically he pushed "sustainable growth" by developing China's domestic economy more Loosened the one-child policy in 2013, allowing two children if at least one parent was an only child Controversial "re-education through labor program" abolished in November 2013 • Program, which was begun under Mao and widely used against political dissidents, allowed incarceration without trial for up to four years China's "Jade Rabbit" lunar rover successfully sent to surface of the moon in December 2013, although probe stopped functioning earlier than planned Seeking to address growing perception of judicial corruption, Xi introduced reforms in 2014 to solidify "Rule of Law" within China • But with little changed in terms of control of the Communist Party over the court system • Anti corruption campaign included numerous arrests of high ranking members of the economic and national security ministries • Arrests consolidated Xi's position as the "core leader" with perhaps the most personal control since Mao

Glasnost

Internal political restructuring introduced, known as "glasnost" (openness)

Muhammad Mosaddeq

Iranian nationalist politician and prime minister (1951-1953), led the movement for the nationalization of the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company. His democratically elected government was overthrown as the result of a coup d'état sponsored by Great Britain and the United States.

Goodluck Jonathan

Jonathan, a Christian from Eastern state of Bayelsa, was governor before becoming Vice President Became acting president shortly after January 2010 clash between Christian and Muslim militants kills 149 people in center belt city of Jos • NewJosriotsinMarchkill120more • AnapparentBokoHarambombinginJosin December led to further Christian-Muslim violence, killing approximately 200 people Pushes "Roadmap for Power Sector Reform" to make delivery of electricity more stable in August 2010 Delays in producing ballots in time leads to postponement of April 2011 Congressional and Presidential elections each by one week Jonathan became PDP candidate for April 16 presidential elections over objections from those in the party who argued that there had been a "gentleman's agreement" to rotate north to south only after two full terms

Mao Zedong

Led successful revolution by emphasizing tactic of guerrilla war based in the Chinese countryside Began extensive rural land redistribution in 1950 Sends forces to "liberate" Tibet, absorbing it into China in 1950 • TheDalaiLama,theTibetanBuddhist's spiritual leader, goes into exile in India • Mao suppresses independence revolt in 1959 Sends troops to defend North Korea during Korean War (1950-1953) • Leading to more than 100,000 Chinese combat deaths, but turning the course of the war so as to allow the survival of North Korea Began the Hundred Flowers Campaign (1956-1957) promoting public criticisms of intellectuals under to slogan "Let a hundred flowers bloom, let the hundred schools of thought contend" • But soon after cracked down on dissidents when criticisms started to get out of hand • Mao also feared trend in the USSR with Nikita Khrushchev secret speech denouncing Stalin's crimes Launched Anti-Rightest Campaign (1957-1959) • Workedtopurge"Rightists,"suchas those advocating market reforms, from the CCP

State Duma

Lower House: State Duma - 450 members chosen by closed list proportional representation nationally » Half had been elected by plurality in single member districts until 2004, after which it was changed to eliminate regional parties - 7 percent threshold for party representation, with tough requirements for party registration - 1993 Constitutional amendment greatly reduced the Duma's power, although it is the more powerful of the two branches of the Federal Assembly » Can issue a vote of no confidence, but the President is effectively free to ignore it

Majles

Majles is the unicameral legislature 290 seats elected with staggered four year terms Seats are taken by top runners in multi-member districts Can remove cabinet members and investigate government officials All laws must also be approved by the Guardian Council

Cultural Revolution

Mao decided it was necessary to eliminate emerging elites • Argued for theory of the "reemergence of capitalist traits" Began "Cultural Revolution" initially against the party elites • Encourage intellectuals to attack "bourgeoisie culture" Promoted a new revolutionary consciousness among the people • Students encouraged to organize "Red Guards" Some 700,000-800,000 lost their occupational positions As part of the "Down to the Countryside Movement," many urban, educated youths forcibly sent to rural areas to become agricultural workers Movement soon spun out of control • Violent clashes killed as many as 400,000 • By 1968 Mao called in the People's Liberation Army to end conflicts, though officially the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution did not end until Mao's death in 1976

Chibok Kidnappings

On the night of April 14, 2014, 276 schoolgirls were kidnapped by Boko Haram in the north-east city of Chibok. Though some 53 managed to escape, most were reportedly forced to convert to Islam and sold as "brides." Even as a "Bring Back Our Girls" campaign trends internationally on social media, Jonathan's government fails to secure the girls' release despite a ceasefire and repeated announcements of breakthroughs in negotiations with Boko Haram.

Vladimir Putin

Pushed through new law allowing sale of agricultural land in 2002 Economy began to improve • Although inflation remained at around 10 percent and 30 million Russians had fallen to below the poverty line Conflict in Chechnya continued • Won March 2003 referendum in region supporting Constitution that continues its status as part of multi-ethnic Russia • But Russia faced frequent terrorist attacks by Chechen separatists May 2002, Putin agreed to nuclear weapons reduction treaty with the US Vladimir Putin (United Russia) 53.4% In 2002 Russia, along with France and Germany, became a key opponent of Iraq War • However, in October 2004 Putin publicly backed Bush's re-election United Russia party made big gains in 2003 Duma elections, allowing Putin to control it Government began increasing control of media • By January 2002, Putin had closed the last independent national TV station (TV-6), later re-openinng it as TVS with new management linked to Putin Just prior to election, arrested Mikhail Khodorkovsky, Russia's richest man and a key supporter of Putin's liberal opponents, for fraud • Later his Yukos oil company seized by state and Khodorkovsky and imprisoned in Siberia • Released in December 2013, he went into exile in London and has since has had an arrest warrent issued by Russia for murder Militants demanding Chechen independence take hundreds of schoolchildren hostage on September 1, 2004, only to have 385 die after Russian security forces retake school in Beslan three days later • In aftermath Putin uses incident as excuse to abolish elections for regional governors State acquires majority control of Russia's key gas company, Gazprom in 2005 • Russia later uses control to cut off gas supplies to pressure governments of Ukraine & Belarus Former Russian spy Alexander Litvinenko killed in London in 2006 by radioactive poisoning • UK eventually accused and sought extradition of ex-KGB officer Andrei Lugovoi for killing

Crimea Annexation

Russian forces took control of Crimea in March 2014 after Ukraine's president, Viktor Yanukovich, was ousted following street protests Crimea had been part of Russia until Khrushchev gave it to Ukraine in 1954 • Putin recognized Crimea secession after quickly organized vote to rejoin Russia passes by 97% Crimean crisis and consequent Western economic sanctions led to further restriction on democracy and human rights • Denying that Crimea is part of Russia made a crime punishable by four years in jail

Joseph Stalin

Stalin argues for "socialism in one country" seeking central control over the economy and repressive control in the name of a "dictatorship of the proletariat" Institutes the first of a series of "Five Year Plans" in 1928 • Openswayforcollectivizationofagriculture in favor of large, state-run farms • Resistanceby"Kulak"farmersleadsto repression and the sending of one million Kulaks to Siberia Collectivization leads to Ukraine Famine of 1932- 1933 • Millionsperish Institutes widespread political repression • Particularlyduringthe"StalinistTerror" period of purges between 1936-1938 • Institutesa"cultofpersonality"promoting himself through propaganda Pursues forced industrialization • Usesmoneyfromagricultureandthreatof repression to push rapid industrial growth Reaches a "peace agreement" with Adolf Hitler in 1939 that divides Poland and allows USSR to gain control over Baltics Germany invades USSR anyway on June 22, 1941 • StalinhadnotanticipatedHitler'sbreakingof non-aggression Pact • GermanyquicklyoverrunsSovietcontrolled Poland, Baltics, and much of Western USSR USSR enters alliance with Britain and US • GainssupportfromUSthroughLend-Lease aid program in 1942 War begins to turn after 1943 • ByMay2,1945,RussianstakeBerlin • Byend,20millionSovietsoldiershaddied Communist governments installed in much of Soviet occupied Eastern Europe from 1946-48 • LeadingtoColdWarwiththeWestand development of Soviet atomic (1949) and hydrogen bombs (1955) Dies under uncertain circumstances in 1953

Communist Party of the Russian Federation (CPRF)

Successor to the Communist Party of the Soviet Union after it was banned by Boris Yeltsin in 1991 - Advocates "new socialism," criticizes United Russia corruption, and draws support from more rural and "conservative" regions

Chinese Communist Party (CCP)

The Communist Party of China (CPC), also referred to as the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), is the founding and ruling political party of the People's Republic of China

Han

The Han Chinese, Han people or simply Han are an East Asian ethnic group and nation

Igbo

The Igbo people are one of the largest ethnic groups in Africa. ... In rural Nigeria, Igbo people work mostly as craftsmen, farmers and traders.

Kashmir Dispute

The Kashmir conflict is a territorial conflict primarily between India and Pakistan, having started just after the partition of India in 1947. China has at times played a minor role

Biafra War

The Nigerian Civil War, commonly known as the Biafran War (6 July 1967 - 15 January 1970), was a war fought between the government of Nigeria and the secessionist state of Biafra. The conflict resulted from political, economic, ethnic, cultural and religious tensions which preceded Britain's formal decolonization of Nigeria from 1960 to 1963.

Olusegun Obasanjo

Took power after the 1976 assassination of Gen. Murtala Muhammed during a failed coup attempt by pro-Gowon military • Hadbeenthesecondincommandunder Muhammed Agreed to hold democratic elections in 1979 • Oversawtheadoptionofanew constitution based on that of the US rather than Great Britain - Including the creation of a directly elected President for the first time After election, retired from the military • AsanethnicYoruba,hiswillingnesstohand over power to a non-Yoruba made him quite unpopular with his own people

Indira Gandhi

Unexpected independence from leadership leads to split in Congress Party Introduced substantial reform program • Increased Land redistribution • Nationalization of coal mines • New taxes on wealthy • Ambitious Five Year Plan seeking self-reliance and end of poverty Fights Third India-Pakistan War in 1971 • After East Pakistan splits from Pakistan to form Bangladesh • Wins the brief conflict allowing creation of Bangladesh, in spite of US opposition In 1975, High Court of Allahabad finds Indira Gandhi guilty of committing electoral fraud in the 1971, requiring her to resign • Responds by declaring Martial Law, suspending constitution and arresting many opponents • But calls for elections in 1977, which she loses Strong political divisions within opposition Janata party leads to two short-lived prime ministerships • 1977-1979 Morarji Desai • 1979-1980 Charan Singh Wins prime ministership again in 1980 In May 1984 troops to storm Golden Temple, the Sikh's most holy shrine after religious militants push for independence from India • Attack led to wave of anti-Sikh violence in India, with 2,000 killed in rioting On October 31, 1984 Indira Gandhi is assassinated by two of her Sikh bodyguards Her son, Rajiv, becomes Prime Minister

Muhammad Khatami

Won May 1997 presidential election with 70% of the vote • Ran on reformist platform seeking to reduce the role of religious clerics in Iranian life and politics • Attracted strong backing of urban youth and women After religious authorities close a pro-reform newspaper, students at Tehran University protest, leading to some 1,000 arrests during six days of rioting Reformists win 170 of the 290 seats in the February 2000 Majlis elections • Hard-liners, previously in control of the Majlis, win just 44 seats in the initial vote Hard-liners in the judiciary ban 16 pro-reform newspapers in April 2000 Khatami wins re-election in 2001 with 77% of the vote Bush includes Iran along with Iraq and North Korea as part of the "Axis of Evil" in January 2002 State of the Union address • Reformers join hard-liners in condemning speech Against US wishes, Iran begins construction on its first nuclear power plant, at Bushehr, with Russian technical help in 2002 • Begins growing confrontation with the UN, the US, and Europe over whether the country is pursuing nuclear weapons in violation of the nuclear nonproliferation treaty (NPT) Thousands join new student protest against power of the clerics in June 2003 Iranian human rights activist Shirin Ebadi first wins 2003 Nobel Peace Prize • Had been Iran's first female judge until forced out after the 1979 revolution

People's Democratic Party (PDP)

a generally center-right party originally based in northern Nigeria, but became the first real national party and was the politically dominant force after re-democratization in 1999 up until 2015

Uighurs

a member of a people of northwestern China, particularly the Xinjiang region, and adjoining areas. -Protests by ethnic Uighurs in Xinjiang leads to violent clashes with police and at least 160 deaths in 2009

Yoruba

a member of a people of southwestern Nigeria and Benin. the Kwa language of the Yoruba, and an official language of Nigeria.

Boko Haram

a radical Islamist movement founded in 2002 seeking to impose shari'a law nationally • Subsequent clashes kill 700 people, untilraidon groups's headquarters kills founder Ustaz Mohammed Yusuf (apparently after his arrest)

Perestroika

economic restructuring

All Progressives Congress (APC)

governing since 2015, it was formed in February 2013 as a diverse but generally center-left coalition of various defectors from the PDP as well as four previous opposition parties

Muhammadu Buhari

led a new military coup Cracked down on government corruption • Atonepointattemptingtokidnapaformer Nigerian minister while he was in London in order to have him brought back and tried for embezzling $1 billion Launched "War Against Indiscipline" • Includedwhippingthosewhodidnotqueue correctly and forcing public servants who showed up late to publicly do "frog jumps" Refusing IMF demands for a massive devaluation, slashes budgetary expenditures 15% in 1984 • Atthesametime,pushedimportsubstitution industrialization policies Cracked down on public dissent, arresting numerous political opponents

Mikhail Gorbachev

ntroduced political and economic reforms • Faced a new, more rapid decline in oil prices between 1986-1987 • A military buildup by US President Ronald Reagan was pressuring government to increase its own defence spending Introduced program of perestroika (economic restructuring) in 1986 • State enterprises given more independence • Introduced market incentives, including legalizing parts of the "black market" Internal political restructuring introduced, known as "glasnost" (openness) • Publication of Stalinist era crimes • Press censorship lifted • Competitive, multiparty elections allowed Eliminated Soviet domination abroad • Pulled out from Afghanistan by 1989 • Allowed "Solidarity" movement in Poland, which won parliamentary elections in 1989 Increasingly republics pushed for independence • Lithuania declared independence in 1990 • Latvia and Estonia in 1991 • By June 1990 even the Russian Federal Republic (RSFSR) tried to leave, democratically electing the independent Boris Yeltsin a year later Signed July 1991 treaty creating a "Union of Sovereign States" with 10 of the 15 republics, • Giving them a high degree of local sovereignty Trying to prevent the Soviet Union from breaking apart, six military officers launched a coup d'état, arresting Gorbachev on August 19, 1991 • The next day Yeltsin publicly resists coup with dramatic speech from atop a tank • Russian troops refused to attack By August 21 Coup falls apart • Gorbachev released, only to find himself eclipsed by Yeltsin On December 8, 1991, Russia, Belarus, Ukraine agree to dissolve the USSR • Gorbachev formally resigns December 25

Mohandas Gandhi

political and spiritual leader during India's struggle with Great Britain for home rule; an advocate of passive resistance The colonial government responded by arresting Mohandas Gandhi and virtually the entire INC, though Britain was forced to promise India independence after the war ended.