Power chapter

Leadership and power relationship

Leaders use power as a means of attaining group goals. - Goal compatibility - Power does not require goal compatibility, merely dependence. - The direction of influence Leadership focuses on the downward influence on one's followers. - Leadership research emphasizes style.

What are influence tactics?

Legitimacy Rational persuasion Inspirational appeals Consultation Exchange Personal appeals Ingratiating Pressure Coalitions

Power types explained

We can divide power into two general groupings: formal and personal. Formal power is based on an individual's position in an organization. There are three types of formal power: coercive, reward, and legitimate. Coercive power depends on fear of negative results. It rests on the application, or the threat of application, of physical sanctions such as the infliction of pain, the generation of frustration through restriction of movement, or the controlling by force of basic physiological or safety needs. At the organizational level, A has coercive power over B if A can dismiss, suspend, or demote B, assuming that B values his or her job. Similarly, if A can assign B work activities that B finds unpleasant or treat B in a manner that B finds embarrassing, A possesses coercive power over B. Reward power is the opposite of coercive power. People comply because doing so produces positive benefits; therefore, one who can distribute rewards that others view as valuable will have power over those others. These rewards can be either financial—such as controlling pay rates, raises, and bonuses—or nonfinancial, including recognition, promotions, interesting work assignments, friendly colleagues, and preferred work shifts or sales territories. Legitimate power is shown in formal groups and organizations through one's structural position. It represents the power a person receives as a result of his or her position in the formal hierarchy. Legitimate power is broader than the power to coerce and reward. It includes acceptance of the authority of a position by members of an organization. The second group of power—personal power—comes from an individual's unique characteristics, and includes expert power and referent power. Expert power is influence wielded as a result of expertise, special skill, or knowledge. As jobs become more specialized, we become increasingly dependent on experts to achieve goals. Referent power's source is identification with a person who has desirable resources or personal traits. If I admire and identify with you, you can exercise power over me because I want to please you. Referent power develops out of admiration of another and a desire to be like that person; it is a lot like charisma. It also explains why celebrities are paid millions of dollars to endorse products in commercials. Some people who are not in formal leadership positions nonetheless have referent power and exert influence over others because of their charismatic dynamism, likability, and emotional effects on us.

Does power corrupt?

- Power leads people to place their own interests ahead of others. - Powerful people react, especially negatively, to any threats to their competence. Power leads to overconfident decision making. - Power doesn't affect everyone in the same way, and there are even positive effects of power.

Info about power:

- Power may exist but not be used. - the most important aspect of power is that it is a function of dependence. - The greater B's dependence on A, the greater is A's power in the relationship. Dependence, in turn, is based on alternatives that B perceives and the importance that B places on the alternative(s) that A controls A person can have power over you only if he or she controls something you desire.

Nine influence tactics and their contigencies:

A study comparing managers in the United States and China found that U.S. managers prefer rational appeal, whereas Chinese managers prefer coalition tactics. These differences tend to be consistent with the values in these two countries. The reason is consistent with the U.S. preference for direct confrontation and rational persuasion to influence others and resolve differences, while coalition tactics align with the Chinese preference for meeting difficult or controversial requests with indirect approaches. Research has also shown that individuals in Western, individualistic cultures tend to engage in more self-enhancement behaviors (such as self-promotion) than individuals in more collectivistic Eastern cultures.

what are the types of power?

- Formal Power 1) Coercive Power 2) Reward Power 3) Legitimate Power - Personal Power 1) Expert Power 2) Referent Power

How politics work in organizations?

- Political behavior: activities that are not required as part of one's formal role in the organization, but that influence the distribution of advantages within the organization. key elements: - Outside of one's specified job requirements. - Encompasses efforts to influence decision- making goals, criteria, or processes. - Includes such behaviors as withholding information, whistle-blowing, spreading rumors, and leaking confidential information

for managers: power, behavior and employees

By assessing behavior in a political framework, you can better predict the actions of others and use that information to formulate political strategies that will gain advantages for you and your work unit. Consider that employees who have poor political skills or are unwilling to play the politics game generally relate perceived organizational politics to lower job satisfaction and self-reported performance, increased anxiety, and higher turnover. Therefore, if you are adept at organizational politics, help your employees understand the importance of becoming politically savvy.

What are factors that' influence political behavior?

Factors contributing to political behavior, as shown here in Exhibit 13-3, include individual factors. Researchers have identified certain personality traits, needs, and other factors that are likely to be related to political behavior. Employees who are high self-monitors, possess an internal locus of control, and have a high need for power are more likely to engage in political behavior. The high self-monitor is more sensitive to social cues and is more likely to be skilled in political behavior than the low self-monitor. Individuals with an internal locus of control are more prone to take a proactive stance and attempt to manipulate situations in their favor. The Machiavellian personality is comfortable using politics as a means to further his/her self-interest. An individual's investment in the organization, perceived alternatives, and expectations of success will also influence the tendency to pursue illegitimate means of political action. The organizational factors that influence politics are many. Political activity is probably more a function of the organization's characteristics than of individual difference variables. When an organization's resources are declining, when the existing pattern of resources is changing, and when there is opportunity for promotions, politics is more likely to surface. Cultures characterized by low trust, role ambiguity, unclear performance evaluation systems, zero-sum reward allocation practices, democratic decision making, high pressures for performance, and self-serving senior managers will create breeding grounds for politicking. When organizations downsize to improve efficiency, people may engage in political actions to safeguard what they have. Promotion decisions have consistently been found to be one of the most political in organizations.

For managers: power

Few employees relish being powerless in their job and organization. People respond differently to the various power bases. Expert and referent power are derived from an individual's personal qualities. In contrast, coercion, reward, and legitimate power are essentially organizationally derived. Competence especially appears to offer wide appeal, and its use as a power base results in high performance by group members. An effective manager accepts the political nature of organizations. Some people are significantly more politically astute than others, meaning that they are aware of the underlying politics and can manage impressions. Those who are good at playing politics can be expected to get higher performance evaluations and, hence, larger salary increases and more promotions than the politically naïve or inept. The politically astute are also likely to exhibit higher job satisfaction and be better able to neutralize job stressors.

infleunce tactics explained

First is legitimacy: relying on your authority position or saying a request accords with organizational policies or rules. Second is rational persuasion: presenting logical arguments and factual evidence to demonstrate a request is reasonable. Third is inspirational appeals: developing emotional commitment by appealing to a target's values, needs, hopes, and aspirations. Fourth is consultation: increasing the target's support by involving him or her in deciding how you will accomplish your plan. Fifth is exchange: rewarding the target with benefits or favors in exchange for following a request. Sixth is personal appeals: asking for compliance based on friendship or loyalty. Seventh is ingratiation: using flattery, praise, or friendly behavior prior to making a request. Eighth is pressure: using warnings, repeated demands, and threats. Nine is coalitions: enlisting the aid or support of others to persuade the target to agree.

employee response to consequences of political behavior?

For most people, those who have modest political skills or are unwilling to play the politics game, outcomes tend to be predominantly negative. Exhibit 13-4 summarizes the extensive research on the relationship between organizational politics and individual outcomes. There is very strong evidence indicating that perceptions of organizational politics are negatively related to job satisfaction. The perception of politics leads to anxiety or stress. When it gets to be too much to handle, employees quit. When employees of two agencies in a recent study in Nigeria viewed their work environments as political, they reported higher levels of job distress and were less likely to help their coworkers. Thus, although developing countries such as Nigeria are perhaps more ambiguous and more political environments in which to work, the negative consequences of politics appear to be the same as in the United States.

what creates dependence?

Importance Scarcity Nonsubstitutability What creates dependence? To create dependence, the thing(s) you control must be perceived as being important. However, note that there are many degrees of importance, from needing the resource for survival to wanting a resource that is in fashion or adds to convenience. A resource also needs to be perceived as scarce to create dependence. The scarcity-dependency relationship can further be seen in the power of occupational categories. Individuals in occupations in which the supply of personnel is low relative to demand can negotiate compensation and benefit packages far more attractive than can those in occupations where there is an abundance of candidates. Nonsubstitutability means the fewer viable substitutes for a resource, the more power control that resource provides.

Also managers should:

Investigate every complaint and include the legal and human resource departments . Make sure offenders are disciplined or terminated. Set up in-house seminars to raise employee awareness of the issues surrounding sexual harassment.

What should managers do about consequences of abuse of power:

Mangers should: Make sure an active policy defines what constitutes sexual harassment, informs employees they can be fired for sexually harassing another employee, and establishes procedures for how complaints can be made. Reassure employees that they will not encounter retaliation if they issue a complaint.

Drawing your political career

Mapping your political career. One of the most useful ways to think about power and politics is in terms of your own career. Think about your career in your organization of choice. What are your ambitions? Who has the power to help you get there? What is your relationship with these people? The best way to answer these questions is with a political map, like the one shown in Exhibit 13-7, which can help you sketch out your relationships with the people upon whom your career depends. Power and politics are a part of organizational life. To decide not to play is deciding not to be effective. Better to be explicit about it with a political map than to proceed as if power and politics didn't matter.

How to applying power tactics:

People differ in terms of their political skill: their ability to influence others to enhance their own objectives. The politically skilled are more effective users of all influence tactics. Political skill also appears more effective when the stakes are high. Cultures within organizations differ markedly: some are warm, relaxed, and supportive; others are formal and conservative.

Nine influence tactics and their contingencies:

People in different countries prefer different power tactics . Individualistic countries see power in personalized terms and as a legitimate means of advancing their personal ends . Collectivistic countries see power in social terms and as a legitimate means of helping others.

Which power is most effective?

Personal sources are most effective. Both expert and referent power are positively related to employees' satisfaction with supervision, their organizational commitment, and their performance, whereas reward and legitimate power seem to be unrelated to these outcomes. Coercive power usually backfires.

what are causes and consequences of power?

Sexual harassment: any unwanted activity of a sexual nature that affects an individual's employment and creates a hostile work environment. Organizations have generally made progress in the past decade toward limiting overt forms of sexualharassment. Generally, sexual harassment is more prevalent in male-dominated societies.. Most studies confirm that the concept of power is central to understanding sexual harassment. Managers have a responsibility to protect their employees from a hostile work environment, but they also need to protect themselves.

Nine power or influence tactics and their contingencies?

Some tactics are more effective than others. Rational persuasion, inspirational appeals, and consultation are most effective when the audience is highly interested in the outcomes. Pressure tends to backfire. Both ingratiation and legitimacy can lessen the negative reactions from appearing to "dictate" outcomes. You can also increase your chance of success by using more than one type of tactic at the same time or sequentially, as long as your choices are compatible. Using both ingratiation and legitimacy can lessen the negative reactions from appearing to "dictate" outcomes, but only when the audience does not really care about the outcomes of a decision process or the policy is routine.

what is Role of dependence in power relationships?

The General Dependency Postulate When you possess anything that others require but that you alone control, you make them dependent upon you and, therefore, you gain power over them. Dependence, then, is inversely proportional to the alternative sources of supply.

general dependence postulate

The general dependency postulate says the greater B's dependency on A, the greater the power A has over B. When you possess anything that others require but that you alone control, you make them dependent upon you and, therefore, you gain power over them. Dependency, then, is inversely proportional to the alternative sources of supply. This is why most organizations develop multiple suppliers rather than using just one. It also explains why so many of us aspire to financial independence.

what are defensive behaviors?

The politics-performance relationship appears to be moderated by an individual's understanding of the "hows" and "whys" of organizational politics. Political behavior and work moderates the effects of ethical leadership. When employees see politics as a threat, they often respond with defensive behaviors — reactive and protective behaviors to avoid action, blame, or change. Exhibit 13-5 provides some examples of these behaviors. Defensive behaviors are often associated with negative feelings toward the job and work environment. In the short run, employees may find that defensiveness protects their self-interest, but in the long run it wears them down. People who consistently rely on defensiveness find that, eventually, it is the only way they know how to behave. At that point, they lose the trust and support of their peers, bosses, employees, and clients.

For managers: power

To maximize your power, you will want to increase others' dependence on you. You can, for instance, increase your power in relation to your boss by developing knowledge or a skill she needs and for which she perceives no ready substitute. You will not be alone in attempting to build your power bases. Others, particularly employees and peers, will be seeking to increase your dependence on them, while you are trying to minimize it and increase their dependence on you. The result is a continual battle. Try to avoid putting others in a position where they feel they have no power.

More about IM:

We know that people have an ongoing interest in how others perceive and evaluate them. Being perceived positively by others should have benefits for people in organizations. The process by which individuals attempt to control the impression others form of them is called impression management (IM). Who engages in IM—mostly the high self-monitors. Low self-monitors tend to present images of themselves that are consistent with their personalities, regardless of the beneficial or detrimental effects for them. High self-monitors are good at reading situations and molding their appearances and behavior to fit each situation. IM does not imply that the impressions people convey are necessarily false. Excuses and acclaiming, for instance, may be offered with sincerity. You can actually believe that ads contribute little to sales in your region, or that you are the key to the tripling of your division's sales. However, misrepresentation can have a high cost. If the image claimed is false, you may be discredited. Research shows that the particular situation also appears to influence the effectiveness of IM. For example, self-promotion tactics may be more important to interviewing success. Applicants who work to create an appearance of competence by enhancing their accomplishments, taking credit for successes, and explaining away failures do better in interviews. In terms of performance ratings, however, the picture is quite different. Ingratiation is positively related to performance ratings, meaning those who ingratiate with their supervisors get higher performance evaluations. However, self-promotion appears to backfire in this situation.

Difference between leadership and power

What is the difference between leadership and power? Leaders use power as a means of attaining group goals. Power doesn't require goal compatibility, just dependence. In contrast, leadership requires some congruence between the goals of the leader and those being led. The direction of influence for leaders is downward. Leadership research, for the most part, emphasizes style. The research on power focuses on tactics for gaining compliance. It goes beyond the individual as the exerciser of power, because groups as well as individuals can use power to control other individuals or groups.

Questions about ethics of behaving politically:

What is the utility of engaging in politicking? For example, what is the utility of engaging in politicking? Sometimes we engage in political behavior for little good reason. Major league baseball player Al Martin claimed he played football at USC when in fact he never did. As a baseball player, he had little to gain by pretending to have played football. Outright lies like this may be a rather extreme example of impression management, but many of us have distorted information to make a favorable impression. One thing to keep in mind is whether it's really worth the risk. When faced with an ethical dilemma regarding organizational politics, one question to ask is, "How does the utility of engaging in the political behavior balance out any harm (or potential harm) it will do to others?" Complimenting a supervisor on his or her appearance in order to curry favor is probably much less harmful than grabbing credit for a project that others deserve. Also, does the political activity conform to standards of equity and justice? Sometimes it is difficult to weigh the costs and benefits of a political action, but its ethicality is clear. The department head who inflates the performance evaluation of a favored employee and deflates the evaluation of a disfavored employee—and then uses these evaluations to justify giving the former a big raise and nothing to the latter—has treated the disfavored employee unfairly. Unfortunately, powerful people can become very good at explaining self-serving behaviors in terms of the organization's best interests. They can persuasively argue that unfair actions are really fair and just. Our point is that immoral people can justify almost any behavior. Those who are powerful, articulate, and persuasive are most vulnerable to ethical lapses because they are likely to be able to get away with unethical practices successfully. If you have a strong power base, recognize the ability of power to corrupt. Remember that it's a lot easier for the powerless to act ethically, if for no other reason than they typically have very little political discretion to exploit.

What Is power?

capacity that A has to influence the behavior of B, so that B acts in accordance with A's wishes.

How important is politics in work

its actually 51 percent moree than creativity, initiative and hard work

Diagram of influence:

rational persuasion is the only tactic effective across organizational levels. Inspirational appeals work best as a downward influencing tactic with subordinates. When pressure works, it's generally downward only. Personal appeals and coalitions are most effective as lateral influence. Other factors that affect the effectiveness of influence include the sequencing of tactics, a person's skill in using the tactic, and the organizational culture.

How to apply power tactics part 2:

some encourage reason, and still others rely on pressure. People who fit the culture of the organization tend to obtain more influence. Specifically, extraverts tend to be more influential in team-oriented organizations, and highly conscientious people are more influential in organizations that value working alone on technical tasks. Part of the reason people who fit the culture are influential is that they are able to perform especially well in the domains deemed most important for success. In other words, they are influential because they are competent. So the organization itself will influence which subset of power tactics is viewed as acceptable for use.

Consequences of political behavior: IM( Impression management)

the process by which individuals attempt to control the impression others form of them. Mostly high self-monitors. Impressions people convey are not necessarily false - they might truly believe them. Intentional misrepresentation may have a high cost. The effectiveness of IM depends on the situation.