prenatal health and individual development

epididymis

-it transports and stores sperm cells that are produced in the testes.

Fertilisation timeline

Day 1-5: fertilisation occurs: cell ~ zygote ~ movula Day 5-10: implantation: movula ~ blastocyst ~ divides into embo and placenta.

ectopic pregnancy

-An ectopic pregnancy occurs when an embryo implants somewhere else in the mothers reproductive system, not in the uterus. -The fallopian tubes are the most common site for implantation in an ectopic pregnancy. -In Australia, around five in every 1000 pregnancies are ectopic, and in most cases, the embryo doesn't survive. -Symptoms include cramping, abdominal pain and vaginal bleeding. -1 in 5 cases will cause the fallopian tube to rupture and bleed excessively, which is a medical emergency and needs immediate surgery.

anencephaly

-Anencephaly occurs when the neural tube doesn't close at the head, leaving part of the brain and skull partially or totally missing. These babies die at, or soon after birth.

parental income- social environment

-Educated parents are more likely to have a higher paying job and are more able to access a range of health-promoting resources during the prenatal stage of the lifespan. Income can improve the ability of parents to provide resources such as prenatal health care and adequate nutrition which can enhance outcomes for the unborn baby by promoting optimal growth, health and development. -Having an adequate income may also assist in decreasing stress levels as parents may be more comfortable knowing they can provide the necessary resources for their child.

encephalocele

-Encephalocele occurs when part of the brain is pushed through an opening in the skull. This condition is rarer than other neural tube defects and is usually treatable with surgery.

access to health care- social environment

-If parents have a sound understanding of the benefits of health care during pregnancy, they may be more likely to access these resources. -By accessing health care throughout the pregnancy, the mother's and baby's health and development can be monitored and interventions put in place if necessary.

parental health and disability- social environment

-In some cases, conditions experienced by the mother can directly impact on the development of the baby. -Health concerns for pregnant women include: --gestational diabetes --pre-eclampsia --stress --infections -Parental disability and health conditions, on the other hand, may limit the ability of parents to adequately care for themselves and their unborn baby. -If a parent requires care as a result of their illness or disability, this can further decrease the ability to provide resources for the mother.

down syndrome

-Is a condition caused by a chromosomal abnormality. -People with Down syndrome have three chromosomes on the 21st pair instead of the usual two. -The extra chromosome produces a number of symptoms common to many people with this condition.

pre-eclampsia

-Is a disorder of pregnancy characterised by hypertension, protein in the urine and fluid retention. -It is the most common pregnancy disorder in Australia, affecting between 5 and 10 percent of all pregnant women. -It usually occurs in the latter stages of pregnancy and is more common in first time mothers -The only cure for this condition is the delivery of the baby. The mothers blood pressure usually returns to normal after the baby and placenta have been delivered. -In severe forms, it can cause problems with the kidneys, liver, brain and blood.

parental education- social environment

-Knowledge of health behaviours can increase the probability of parents caring for themselves in ways that promote the health and development of their unborn baby.

prenatal morbidity

-Many causes of morbidity among unborn babies go undiagnosed until after birth. -Conditions that may be diagnosed in the prenatal stage include neural tube defects and Down Syndrome.

maternal mortality

-Maternal mortality relates to deaths among pregnant women where the cause of death is attributed to the pregnancy itself. -Pregnant women in Australia experience low maternal mortality rates compared to most countries, but there are variations between population groups in Australia. -Between 2006-2010 maternal mortality rates for Aboriginal or Torres Straight islander women were more than 3 times higher as for other women. -Causes for maternal mortality include cardiovascular conditions and haemorrhage.

spina bifida

-Occurs when part of the neural tube that will form the spinal cord fails to fuse. -As a result, the bones that develop into the spine are unable to form properly, leading to an opening in the part of the spine.

gestational diabetes

-Only occurs during pregnancy, in women who have not been previously diagnosed with diabetes. -Is characterised by high glucose levels. -Gestational diabetes usually goes away after pregnancy but can return in subsequent pregnancies. -It is more common in older women and those who are obese. -It increases the risk of many adverse outcomes for the baby including: --High birth weight. --Respiratory conditions and jaundice. -The impacts on women in a number of ways including: --High blood pressure. --Pre term labour. --Increased risk of developing type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease.

foetal mortality

-Relates to the death of babies over 20 weeks gestation or weighing at least 400 grams. -The main causes of foetal mortality are congenital abnormalities, followed by maternal conditions, spontaneous preterm birth and unexplained antepartum death.

characteristics of weeks 34-38- foetal stage

-• The foetus assumes the 'head down' position in preparation for birth. -• The lungs develop at a rapid rate during this time. -• The foetus is around 50 cm in length.

neural tube defects

-The neural tube is a casing that encloses the brain and spinal cord during the embryonic stage of development. -Neural tube defects are a group of conditions that occur when the neural tube does not fuse completely. -The part of the neural tube that does not fuse will determine the type of defect experienced. -E.g. spina bifida, Anencephaly & Encephalocele.

access to health care- physical environment

-The purpose of prenatal health care is to monitor the health of the mother and baby, monitor growth of the baby, provide health education and advice to the mother, identify any risks to the mother and baby, and provide medical interventions if necessary. -Geographical factors such as the location of relevant services can impact on a woman's ability to access prenatal health care. -Many women in rural and remote areas struggle to access health services during pregnancy due to the time taken to reach them.

maternal morbidity

-The vast changes that occur to a women's body during pregnancy can attribute to the development of a range of conditions. -These include gestational diabetes, mental health issues, pre-eclampsia and ectopic pregnancy.

parental smoking during pregnancy- behavioural

-Tobacco smoke contains thousands of chemicals, and acts to reduce oxygen flow to the placenta and exposes the developing foetus to numerous toxins. -Maternal smoking increases the risk of a range of health and developmental conditions of the unborn baby including: --spontaneous abortion --ectopic pregnancy --prematurity --complications of the placenta --birth defects --lung function abnormalities --respiratory conditions --foetal mortality

uterus

-accepts a fertilised ovum which becomes implanted in the endometrium, and derives nourishment from blood vessels which develop exclusively for this purpose.

cervix

-allows the flow of menstrual blood from the uterus into the vagina, and direct the sperms into the uterus during intercourse.

Ova

-at birth, the ovaries of a baby girl contain 1-2 million immature eggs that amount she will have for life. This number decreases over time to about 400,000 by the time the girl reaches puberty. -1 ovum or egg contains half of the individuals genetic material (23 chromosomes).

penis

-both a reproductive organ and an excretory organ. Penis becomes erect during sexual intercourse in order to deliver semen more effectively into the vagina. Semen travels through the urethra to the tip of the penis where it is ejaculated out of the body.

alcohol use during pregnancy- behavioural

-can cause problems for women even before pregnancy because it may interfere with fertility. -When alcohol is consumed by a pregnant woman, it crosses the placenta from the mother's blood to the baby's blood. This can result in foetal alcohol spectrum disorder. -foetus that is severely affected by foetal alcohol spectrum disorder is at risk of dying before birth.

fallopian tubes

-carries an egg from the ovary to the uterus.

uretha

-carries urine from the bladder to the outside of the body. Ejaculates semen, in males.

physical development

-changes to the body and its systems.

endometrium

-contains numerous uterine glands that open into the uterine cavity and are embedded in the cellular framework of the endometrium.

scrotum

-contains the testicles and has a protective function and acts as a climate control system for the testes.

vagina

-copulation (admitting the penis during sexual intercourse), allowing menstrual blood to leave the body, and giving birth.

maternal nutrition- behavioural

-ensuring a healthy balanced diet prior to becoming pregnant is important for preparing the body for the demands of carrying a baby. -Women who have nutritional deficiencies prior to conceiving a child are likely to have these deficiencies during pregnancy, particularly as the body faces additional nutritional demands because of the growing baby. -Although a balanced intake of all nutrients is required for optimal prenatal development, it is particularly important that women consume the required amount of folate, iron and calcium prior to and during pregnancy.

types of maternal morbidity

-gestational diabetes -pre-eclampsia -ectopic pregnancy

seminal vesicle

-holds the liquid that mixes with sperm to form semen.

tobacco smoke in the home- physical environment

-increases the risk of passive smoking among pregnant women. -Exposure to environmental tobacco smoke can contribute to the same health and development effects as maternal smoking including: --spontaneous abortion. --ectopic pregnancy. --prematurity. --complications of the placenta. --birth defects. --lung function abnormalities. --respiratory conditions including asthma. --foetal mortality.

IVF (In-Vitro Fertilsation)

-involves extracting ova from the woman's ovaries and mixing them with sperm outside the woman's body, often in a petri dish. If a zygote is created in this way, it can be implanted in the woman's uterus using a long, hollow needle, or frozen to be implanted in the future.

low birth weight babies

-low birth weight= below 2500 grams. -very low birth weight= between 1000 and 1500 grams. -extremely low birth weight= below 1000 grams.

drug use during pregnancy- behavioural

-may have a significant effect on the health and individual human development of the foetus. -Some medications or drugs will cross the placenta and potentially harm the unborn child. -The types of drugs that may be harmful include: -medicines. -caffeine. -illegal drugs (e.g. cannabis, heroin, -cocaine, amphetamines). -other substances used as inhalants.

types of prenatal morbidity

-neural tube defects: --spina bifida --anencephaly --encepholy -down syndrome

vaccination- behavioural

-plays an important role in reducing the spread of many conditions in Australia. -Specific diseases and their possible impact on the unborn baby include: --rubella --chickenpox --measles --mumps --hepatitis B --influenza -- whooping cough

ovary

-produce the female egg cells, called ova or oocytes.

prostate

-secretes prostate fluid, one of the components of semen. helps propel this seminal fluid into the uretha during ejaculation.

Sperm

-sperm production begins at puberty in boys. The release of FSH and LH promotes sperm production and the secretion of testosterone. Sperm is produced in the testes and stored i the epididymis to mature for up to four weeks. It takes 74 days from start to finish for sperm to develop. -semen is made up of 2.5% sperm, 65-70% seminal fluid and 25-30% prostate fluid. Each ejaculation contains more than 40 million sperm. 1 sperm cell contains half of the individuals genetic material (23 chromosomes).

male reproductive systems

-testes -scrotum -epididymis -vas deferens -seminal vesicle -prostate -uretha -penis

birth

-the emergence and separation of a neonate from the body of the mother.

fertilisation

-the formation of a viable zygote by the union of the male sperm and female ovum.

genetics- biological

-the genes that a child inherits from their biological parents have a significant impact on the child's health and individual human development. -Genes are the blueprint of the body because they control growth, development and how the body functions. -An unborn baby's genetic make-up determines: --the rate and timing of development in the uterus as a result of the excretion of hormones from the glands of the endocrine system. --whether the unborn baby is male or female. --the development of genetic conditions such as haemophilia. --the development of chromosomal abnormalities including Down syndrome.

implantation

-the group of cells that will become the embryo attaches itself to the endometrium.

conception

-the joining of the sperm and the egg when genes from the mother and father combine to form a new life.

foetal stage

-the stage of prenatal development that starts at the ninth week and ends at work.

germinal stage

-the stage of prenatal development that starts with fertilisation and ends with implantation.

embryonic stage

-the stage of prenatal development that starts with implantation and ends at the eighth week.

Human fertilisation

-the union or joining of the egg and the sperm, resulting in a fertilized egg, otherwise known as a zygote. But the process of human fertilization is very complicated and comprised of many steps and components necessary to achieve the ultimate result of human life. Read on to learn how such small things work together to make a fertilized egg.

testes

-they are glands where sperm and testosterone are produced.

vas deferens

-transports mature sperm to the uretha, from the epididmis.

female reproductive systems

-vagina -cervix -uterus -endometrium -fallopian tubes -ovary

The process of fertilisation

-when sperm and ovum meet in the Fallopian tube, fertilisation occurs. Half of the females genetic material and half of the males genetic material join together to create a complete cell (46 chromosomes) called a zygote. -when sperm reach the ovum after intercourse, they compete to break through the eggs membrane. They do this by releasing an enzyme that breaks down the outer barrier of the egg. Once a sperm had penetrated the membrane, all other speed are blocked from entering by electrical impulses released by the egg.

characteristics of week 2- germinal stage

-• Around a week after fertilisation, and while smaller than a grain of rice, the blastocyst begins to implant into the endometrium.

characteristics of week 7- embryonic stage

-• Blood cells are being made in the liver. -• Facial features such as the eyes and mouth are forming. -• Tiny muscles have formed which allow the embryo to move.

characteristics of week 5- embryonic stage

-• Buds appear on each side of the embryo that will become the limbs. The heart begins to beat. -• The placenta has begun to develop and attach to the endometrium so it will be able to access oxygen and nutrients from the mother's bloodstream. It will be a number of weeks until it is fully functional. -• Brain cells are being generated at a rate of 100 per minute.

characteristics of week 3- embryonic stage

-• Implantation is complete and the developing baby is referred to as an embryo. -• Cells continue to divide rapidly and start taking on specialised roles as the organs begin to develop.

characteristics of weeks 9-13- foetal stage

-• The developing baby is now known as a foetus. -• All of the body's organs are formed but not all are functioning at this point. -• The foetus is around 7 cm in length in week 11. -• Teeth are beginning to form in the gums. -• Eyelids are fused over the eyes.

characteristics of week 8- embryonic stage

-• The embryo is around 2.5 cm in length. -• Fingers and toes are starting to form. -• The brain is now active.

characteristics of weeks 19-23- foetal stage

-• The foetus is around 14 cm in length in week 14. -• The tongue develops taste buds. -• Ears are fully functioning and the foetus can hear muffled sounds from the outside world. -• The sex of the foetus can be distinguished via an ultrasound. -• The eyelids separate into upper and lower lids and the foetus can open and shut its eyes.

characteristics of weeks 14-18- foetal stage

-• The foetus is around 14 cm in length in week 14. -• The tongue develops tastebuds. -• Ears are fully functioning and the foetus can hear muffled sounds from the outside world. -• The sex of the foetus can be distinguished via an ultrasound.

characteristics of weeks 24-28- foetal stage

-• The foetus is around 37 cm long and weighs approximately 1 kg. -• The fingers and toes grow nails -• The foetus's body has grown and it is now more in proportion with the size of the head but will take until childhood to completely catch up.

characteristics of weeks 29-33- foetal stage

-• The foetus spends most of its time asleep. -• Eyebrows and eyelashes grow. -• Fat is laid down under the skin to assist with adjusting to life outside the uterus. -• The foetus moves in a strong and coordinated way.

characteristics of week 4- embryonic stage

-• The tissues that will become the brain and spine (called the neural tube) start to develop. -• Around 3 mm in length, the embryo secretes hormones to maintain the endometrium and to prevent the mother from having a menstrual period.

characteristics of week 1- germinal stage

-• Thirty hours after fertilisation, the cell divides for the first time. This process of cell division will continue for life. -• After three days, the zygote consists of 16 cells. -• The zygote travels down the fallopian tube and into the uterus.

characteristics of week 6- embryonic stage

-•Brain cells are being generated at a rate of 100 per minute. -• The spinal cord looks like a tail and the head is large in relation to the rest of the body. -• The embryo is approximately 1.3 cm long.

determinants of health and development- prenatal stage

Biological: -genetics Behavioural: -maternal nutrition -parental smoking -alcohol use during pregnancy -drug use during pregnancy -vaccination Physical Environment: -tobacco smoke in the home -access to health care Social Environment: -parental education -parental income -parental health and disability -access to healthcare