Principles of Geography

Physical geography

Physical geography is the study if the physical characteristics of the earth: how they relate to each other, how they were formed, and how they develop. These characteristics include climate, land, and water, and how they affect human population in various area. Different landforms in combination with various climates and other conditions determine characteristics of various cultures.

Climates found in low latitudes (Rainforest)

Rainforest climates, near the equator, experience high average temperatures and humidity, as well as relatively high rainfall

Geographical Features (Deserts)

Receive less than ten inches of rain per year. They are usually large areas, such as the Sahara Desert in Africa or the Australian Outback

Theory of Plate Tectonics

According to the geographical theory of plate tectonics, the earth's crust is made up of ten major and several minor tectonic plates. These plates are the solid areas of the crust. They float on top of the earth's mantel, which is made up of molten rock. Because the plates float on this liquid component of the earth's crust, they move, creating major changes in the earth's surface. These changes can happen very slowly over a long time period, such as in continental drift, or rapidly, such as when earthquakes occur. Interaction between the different continental plates can create mountain ranges, volcanic activity, major earthquakes, and deep rifts.

Effect of Human Systems (Human Systems that have Shaped Russia)

After numerous conflicts, Russia became a Communist state, known as the USSR. With the collapse of the USSR in 1991, the country has struggles in its transition to a market-driven economy. Attempts to build a workable system have led to the destruction of natural resources as well as problems with nuclear power, including accidents such as Chernobyl. To complete the transition to a market economy, Russia needs to improve its transportation and communication systems, and find a way to more efficiently use its natural resources. The population of Russia is not distributed evenly, with three quarters of the population living west of the Ural Mountains. The people of Russia encompass over a hundred different ethnic groups. Over eighty percent of the population is ethnically Russian, and Russian is the official language of the country.

Climate

Aggregates information about daily and seasonal weather conditions in a region over a long period of time. The climate takes into account average monthly and yearly temperatures, average precipitation over long periods of time, and the growing season of an area. Climates are classified according to latitude, or how close they lie to earth's equator

Types of Projection used in Creating World Maps (Flat-plane projections)

Also known as a Gnomonic projection, this type of map is projected onto a flat piece of paper that only touches the globe at a single point. Flat-plane projections make it possible to map out Great-Circle Routes, or the shortest route between one point and another on the globe, as a straight line.

Equal Area Maps

An equal area map is designed such that the proportional sizes of various area are accurate. For example, if one land mass is one-fifth the size of another, the lines on the map will be shifted to accommodate for distortion so that the proportional size is accurate. In many maps, areas farther from the equator are greatly distorted; this type of map compensates for this phenomenon.

Geographical Features (Basins)

Areas of low elevation where rivers drain

How Communities Develop

Communities, or groups of people of people who settle together in a specific area, typically gather where certain conditions exists. These conditions include: -Easy access to resources such as food, water, and raw materials -Ability to easily transport raw materials and goods, such as access to a waterway -Room to house a sufficient work force People also tend to form groups with others who are similar to them. In a typical community, people can be found who share values, a common language, and common or similar cultural characteristics and religious beliefs. These factors will determine the overall composition of a community as it develops.

Three major divisions of Climate

-Low Latitudes -Middle Latitudes -High Latitudes

Climates found in middle latitudes

-Mediterranean -Humid-Subtropical -Humid-Continental -Marine -Steppe -Desert

Climates found in low latitudes

-Rainforest -Savannas -Desert

Role of a Cartographer

A cartographer is a mapmaker. Mapmakers produce detailed illustrations of geographic areas to record where various features are located with that area. These illustrations can be compiled into maps, charts, graphs, and even globes. When constructing maps, cartographers must take into account the problem of distortion. Because the earth is round, a flat map does not accurately represent the correct proportions, especially if a very large geographical area is being depicted. Maps must be designed in such a way as to minimize this distortion and maximize accuracy. Accurately representing the earth's features on a flat surface is achieved through projection.

Conformal Maps

A conformal map focuses on representing the correct shape of geographical areas, with less concern for comparative size.

Climates found in middle latitudes (desert)

Desert climates occur where steppe climates receive even less rainfall. Examples include the Gobi Desert in Asai as well as desert areas of Australia and the southwestern US

Three major divisions of Climate (middle latitude)

Found from approximately 23.5 to 66.5 degrees

Three major divisions of Climate (high latitude)

Found from approximately 66.5 degrees to the poles

Specific types of Map Projections

Four specific types of map projections that are commonly used today are: 1. Winkel tripel projection 2. Robinson projection 3. Goode homolosine projection 4. Mercator projection

Relief Maps

A relief map is constructed to show details of various elevations across the area of the map. Higher elevation are represented by different colors than lower elevations. Relief maps often also show additional details, such as the overall ruggedness or smoothness of an area. Mountains would be represented as ridged and rugged, while deserts would be shown as smooth. Elevation in relief maps can also be represented by contour lines, or lines that connect points of the same elevation. Some relief maps even feature textures, reconstructing details in a sort of miniature model.

Thematic Maps

A thematic map is constructed to show very specific information about a chosen theme. For example, a thematic map might represent political information, such as how votes were distributed in an election, or could show population distribution or climatic features.

Climates found in high latitudes (vertical climate)

A vertical climate exists in high mountain ranges. Increasing elevation leads to varying temperatures, growing conditions, types of vegetation and animals, and occurrence of human habitation, often encompassing elements of various other climate regions

Geographical terms Referring to Bodies of Water (Seas)

Generally also salt water, but are smaller than oceans and surrounded by land. Examples include the Mediterranean Seas, the Caribbean Sea, and the Caspian Sea

Geographical Features (Valleys)

Lie between hills and mountains. Depending on their location, their specific feature can vary greatly, from fertile and habitable to rugged and inhospitable

Geographical terms Referring to Bodies of Water (Rivers)

Moving bodies of water that flow from higher elevations to lower. They usually start at rivulets or streams, and grow until they finally empty into the sea or an ocean.

Physical Geography and Climates (Physical Geography and Climate of Russia)

Russia's area encompasses part of Asia and Europe. Form the standpoint of square footage alone, Russia is the largest country in the world. Due to its size, Russia encompasses a wide variety of climatic regions, including plains, plateaus, mountains, and tundra, Russia's climate can be quite harsh, with rivers that are frozen most of the year, making transportation of the country's rich natural resources more difficult. Siberia, in northern Russia, is dominated by permafrost. Native peoples in this area still follow a hunting and gathering lifestyle, living in portable yurts and subsisting largely on herds of reindeer or caribou. Other areas include taiga with extensive, dense woods in north central Russia and more temperate steppes and grasslands in the southwest.

Climates found in low latitudes (Savannas)

Savannas are found on either side of the rainforest region. Mostly grasslands, they typically experience dry winters and wet summers

Physical Geography and Climates (Physical Geography and Climate of South America)

South America contains a wide variety of geographical features including high mountains such as the Andes, wide plains, and high altitude plateaus. The regions contains numerous natural resources, but many of them have remained unused due to various obstacles, including political issues, geographical barriers, and lack of sufficient economic power. Climate zones in South America are largely tropical, with rainforests and savannas, but vertical climate zones and grasslands also exist in places.

Effect of Human Systems (Human Systems that Determine the Cultural Makeup of South Asia)

South Asia is home to one of the first human civilizations, which grew up in the Indus River Valley. With a great deal of disparity between rural and urban life, South Asia has much to do to improve their quality of life for its lower classes. The major religions, Hinduism and Buddhism, have their origins in this regions. Parts of South Asia, most notably India, were subjected to British rule for several decades, and are still working to improve independent governments and social systems. Overall, South Asia is very culturally diverse, with a wide mix of religions and languages throughout. Many individuals are farmers, but a growing number have found prosperity in the spread of high-tech industries. Industrialization is growing in South Asia, but continues to face environmental, social, religious and economic challenges.

Major Elements of Any Map

The five major elements of any map are: -Title -Legend -Grid -Directions -Scale

Important Ancient Geographers

The following are three important ancient geographers and their contributions to the study of geography: -Eratosthenes -Strabo -Ptolemy

Divisions of Geographical Study and Tools Used

The four divisions of geographical study and tools used are -topical -physical -regional -human Tools used in geographical study include special research methods like mapping, field studies, statistics, interviews, mathematics, and use of various scientific instruments.

Climates found in middle latitudes (Humid-continental)

The humid-continental climate produces the familiar four season typical of a good portion of the US. Some of the most productive farmlands in the world lie in these climates. Winters are cold, summers are hot and humid.

Types of Projection used in Creating World Maps (Conical projection)

The paper is shaped like a cone and contacts the globe only at the cone's base. This type of projection is most useful for middle latitudes.

Divisions of Geographical Study and Tools Used (Topical)

The study if a single feature of the earth or one specific human activity that occurs world-wide

Cultural geography

The study of how the various aspects of physical geography affect individual cultures. Cultural geography also compares various cultures: how their lifestyles and customs are affected by their geographical location, climate, and other factors, and how they interact with their environment.

Types of Projection used in Creating World Maps

The three major types of projection used in creating world maps are: -cylindrical projection -conical projection -flat-plane projections

Geographical Features (Foothills)

The transitional area between the plains and the mountains, usually consisting of hills that gradually increase in size as they approach the mountain range.

Divisions of Geographical Study and Tools Used (Physical)

The various physical features of the earth, how they are created, the forces that change them, and how they are related to each other and to various human activities

Consistent Scale Maps

With a consistent scale map, the same scale, such as one inch=10 miles, is used throughout the entire map. This is most often used for maps of smaller area, as maps that cover larger areas such as the full globe, must make allowances for distortion. Maps of very large areas often make use of more than one scale, with scales closer to the center representing a larger area than those at the edges.

Major Elements of Any Map (Directions)

a compass rose or other symbol is used to indicated the cardinal directions

Major Elements of Any Map (Legend)

also known as the key, the legend explains what symbols used on a particular map represent, such as symbols for major landmarks

Specific types of Map Projections (Robinson projection)

east and west sections of the map are less distorted, but continental shapes are somewhat inaccurate

Divisions of Geographical Study and Tools Used (Human)

how human activity affects the environment. This includes study of political, historical, social, and cultural activities.

Important Ancient Geographers (Eratosthenes)

lived in ancient Greek times, and mathematically calculated the circumference of the earth and the tilt of the earth's axis. He also created the first map of the world

Three major divisions of Climate (low latitudes)

lying from 0 to approximately 23.5 degrees latitude

Important Ancient Geographers (Ptolemy)

primarily an astronomer, was also an experienced mapmaker. He wrote a treatise entitled Geography, which was used by Christopher Columbus in his travels

Specific types of Map Projections (Goode homolosine projection)

sizes and shapes are accurate, but distances are not. This projection basically represents a globe that has been cut into connected sections so that it can lie flat

Major Elements of Any Map (Grid)

this most commonly represents the Geographic Grid System, or latitude and longitude marks used to precisely locate specific locations

Major Elements of Any Map (scale)

this shows the relation between a certain distance on the map and the actual distance. For example, one inch might represent one mile, or ten miles, or even more depending on the size of the map

Major Elements of Any Map (Title)

this tells basic information about the map, such as the area represented

Important Ancient Geographers (Strabo)

wrote a description of the ancient world called Geographica in seventeen volumes

Geographical Features

-mountains -hills -plains -valleys -plateaus -deserts -deltas -mesas -basins -foothills -marshes and swamps

Geographical terms Referring to Bodies of Water

-oceans -seas -lakes -rivers -canals

Climates found in high latitudes

-tundra -taigas

Factos Affecting Climate

Because the earth is tilted, its rotation brings about changes in seasons. Regions closer to the equator, and those nearest to the poles, experience very little change in seasonal temperatures. Mild-range latitudes are most likely to experiences distinct seasons. Large bodies of water also affect climate. Ocean currents and wind patterns can change climate for an area that lies in typically cold latitudes, such as England, to a much more temperate climate. Mountains can affect both short-term weather and long-term climates. Some deserts occur because precipitation is stopped bu the wall of a mountain range. Over time, established climate patterns can shift and change. While the issue is hotly debated, it has been theorized that human activity has also led to climate change.

Climates found in low latitudes (Desert)

Beyond the Savannas lie the desert regions, with hot, dry climates, sparse rainfall, and temperature fluctuations of up to fifty degrees from day to night.

Geographical terms Referring to Bodies of Water (Lakes)

Bodies of freshwater found inlands. Sixty percent of all lakes are located in Canada.

Differences Between Cities in Various Areas of the World

Cities develop and grow as an area develops. Modern statistics show that over half of the world's people live in cities That percentage is even higher in developed areas of the globe. Cities are currently growing more quickly in developing regions, and even established cities continue to experience growth throughout the world. In developing or developed areas, cities often are surrounded by a metropolitan area made up of both urban and suburban sections. In some places cities have merged into each other and become a megalopolis - a single, huge city. Cities develop differently in different areas of the world. The area available for cities to grow as well as cultural and economic forces, drives how cities develop. For example, North American cities tend to cover wider areas. European cities tend to have better developed transportation systems. In Latin America, the richest inhabitants can be found in the city centers, while in North American wealthier inhabitants tend to live in suburban areas. In other parts of the world, transportation on communication between cities is less developed. Recent technological innovations such as the cell phone have increased communication even in these areas. Urban areas must also maintain communication with rural areas in order to procure food, recourses, and raw materials that cannot be produced within the city limits.

Geographical Features (Mesas)

Flat, steep-sided mountains or hills. The term is sometimes used to refer to plateaus.

Physical Geography and Climates (Geography and Climate of East Asia)

East Asia includes North and South Korea, Mongolia, China, Japan, and Taiwan. Mineral resources are plentiful but not evenly distributed throughout. The coastlines are long, and while the population is large, farmlands are sparse. As a result, the surrounding oceans have become a major source of sustenance. East Asia is large enough to also encompass several climate regions. Ocean currents provide milder climates to coastal areas, while monsoons provide the majority of rainfall for the region. Typhoons are somewhat common, as are the earthquakes, volcanoes, and tsunamis. The latter occur because of the tectonic plates that meet beneath the continent and remain somewhat active.

Geographical Features (Mountains)

Elevated areas that measure 2,000 feet or more above sea level. Often steep and rugged, they usually occur in groups called chains or ranges. Six of the seven continents on Earth contain at least one range.

Geographical Features (Plateaus)

Elevated, but flat on top. Some plateaus are extremely dry, such as the Kenya Plateau, because surrounding mountains prevent them from receiving moisture.

Effect of Human Systems (Human Systems Influencing Europe)

Europe contains a wife variety of cultures, ethnic groups, physical geographical features, climates, and resources, all of which have influences the distribution of its varies population. Europe in general is industrialized and developed, with cultural differences giving each individual country its own unique characteristics. Greek and Roman influences played a major role in European culture, as did Christianity. European countries spread their beliefs and cultural elements throughout the world by means of migration and colonization. They have has significant influences on nearly every other continent in the world. While Western Europe has been largely democratic, Eastern Europe functioned under communist rule for many years. The recent formation of the European Union (EU) has increased stability and positive diplomatic relations among European nations. Like other industrialized regions, Europe is now focusing on various environmental issues.

Physical Geography and Climates (Physical Geography and Climate of Europe)

European spans a wide area with a variety of climate zones. In the east and south are mountain ranges, while the north is dominated by a plains region. The long coastline and the island nature of some countries, such as Britain, mean the climate is often warmer than other lands at similar latitudes, such as the area is warmed by ocean currents. Many areas of western Europe have a moderate climate, while areas of south are dominated by the classic Mediterranean climate. Europe carries a high level of natural resources. Numerous waterways help connect the inner regions with the coastal areas. Much of Europe is industrialized, and agriculture has been developed for thousands of years.

Human-Environment Interaction

Geography also studies the ways people interact with, use, and change their environment. The effects, reasons, and consequences of these changes are studied, as are the ways the environment limits or influences human behavior. This kind of study can help determine the best course of action when a nation of group of people are considering making changes to the environment, such as building a dam or removing natural landscape to build or expand roads. Study of the consequences can help determine if these actions are manageable and how long-term, detrimental results can be migrated.

Geography

Geography literally means the study of the earth. Geographers study physical characteristics of the earth as well as man-made borders and boundaries. They also study the distribution of life on the planet, such as where certain species of animals can be found or how different forms of life interact. Major elements of the study of geography include: -location -regional characteristics -spatial relations -natural and manmade forces that change elements of the earth the elements are studied from regional, topical, physical and human perspectives. geography also focuses on the origins of the earth as well as the history and backgrounds of different human population

Effect of Human Systems (Human Systems Shaping the Culture of East Asia)

Governments in East Asia are varied, ranging from communist to democratic governments, with some governments that mix both approaches. Isolationism throughout the area limited the countries' contact with other nations until the early twentieth century. The unevenly distributed population of East Asia consists of over one and a half billion people with widely diverse ethnic backgrounds, religions, and languages. More residents live in urban areas than in rural areas, creating shortages of farm workers at times. Japan, Taiwan and South Korea are overall more urban, while China and Mongolia are more rural. Japan stands as the most industrial country of East Asia. Some areas of East Asia are suffering from major environmental issues. Japan has dealt with many of these problems and now has some of these strictest environmental laws in the world.

Effect of Human Systems (Human Systems that Geographers Incorporate into the Study of the Earth)

Human systems affect geography in the way in which they settle, form groups that grow into large-scale habitations, and even create permanent changes in the landscape. Geographers study movements of people, how they distribute goods among each other and to other settlements or cultures, and how ideas grow and spread. Migrations, wars, forces relocations, and trade can all spread cultural ideas, language, goods, and other practices to wide-spread areas. Some major migrations or the conquering of one people by another have significantly changed cultures throughout history. In addition, human systems can lead to various conflicts or alliances to control access to and the use of natural resources.

Climates found in middle latitudes (humid-subtropical)

Humid-subtropical regions are located on southeastern coastal areas. Winds that blow in over warm ocean currents produce long summers, mild winders, and a long growing season. These areas are highly productive, and support a larger part of the earth's population than any other climate.

Ways Geographers Analyze Areas of Human Population

In cities, towns, or other areas where many people have settled, geographers focus on distribution of populations, neighborhoods, industrial areas, transportation, and other elements important to the society in question. For example, they would map out the locations of hospitals, airports, factories, police stations, schools, and housing groups. They would also make note of how these facilities are distributed in relation to the areas of habitations, such as the number of schools in a certain neighborhood, or how many grocery stores are located in a specific suburban area. Another area of study and discussion is the distribution of towns themselves, from widely spaced rural towns to large cities that merge into each other to form a megalopolis.

Physical Geography and Climates (Geography and Climate of Australia, Oceania, and Antartica)

In the far southern hemisphere of the globe, Australia and Oceania present their own climatic combinations. Australia, the only island on earth that is also a continent, has extensive deserts as well as mountains and lowlands. The economy is driven by agriculture, including ranches and farms, and minerals. While the steppes bordering extremely arid inland areas are suitable for livestock, only the coastal areas receive sufficient rainfall for crops without using irrigation. Oceania refers to over 10,000 Pacific islands created by volcanic activity. Most of these have tropical climates with wet and dry seasons. New Zealand, Australia's nearest neighbor, boasts rich forests as well as mountain ranges and relatively moderate temperatures, including rainfall throughout the year. Antartica is covered with ice. Its major resource consists of scientific information. It supports some wildlife, such as penguins, and little vegetations, mostly mosses or lichens.

Effect of Human Systems (Human Systems that Shape South America)

Including Brazil (largest in area and population), Colombia, Argentina, Venezuela, Peru, and 10 more countries or territories, South America is largely defined by its prevailing languages. The majority of countries in South America speak Spanish or Portuguese. Most of South America has experiences a similar history, having been originally dominated by Native cultures, conquered by European nations. The countries of South America have since gained independence, but there is a wide disparity between various countries' economic and political factors. Most South American countries rely on only one or two exports, usually agricultural, with suitable lands often controlled by rich families. Most societies in South America feature major separations between classes, both economically and socially. Challenges faces by developing South American countries include geographical limitations, economic issues, and sustainable development, including the need to preserve the existing rainforests.

Weather

Involves daily conditions in the atmosphere that affect temperature, precipitation (rain, snow, hail, or sleet), wind speed, air pressure, and other factors. Weather focuses on the short-term - what the conditions will be today, tomorrow, or over the next few days.

Geographical Features (Plains)

Large, flat areas and are usually very fertile. The majority of Earth's population is supported by crops grown on vast plains.

Geographical Features (Hills)

Lower elevation than mountains, at about 500-2,000 feet. Hills are usually more rounded, and are found throughout every continent.

Geographical Features (Marshes and swamps)

Lowlands, but they are very wet and largely covered in vegetation such as reeds and rushes.

Climates found in middle latitudes (Marine)

Marine climates are found near water or on islands. Ocean winds help make these areas mild and rainy. Summers are cooler than humid-subtropical summers, but winters also bring milder temperatures due to warmth of the ocean winds

Effect of Human Systems (Human Systems that have Influenced Southeast Asia)

Much of the Southeast Asia was colonized by European countries during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, with the exception of Siam, now known as Thailand. All Southeast Asian countries are now independent, but the twentieth century saw numerous conflicts between communist and democratic forces. Southeast Asia has been heavily influences by both Buddhist and Muslin religions. Industrialization is growing, with the population in large numbers from rural to urban areas. Some have moved to avoid conflict, oppression, and poverty. Natural disasters, including volcanoes, typhoons, and flash flooding, are fairly common in Southeast Asia, creating extensive economic damage and societal disruption

Effect of Human Systems (Human Systems that Form the Basis of Cultures in North America)

North America consists of 23 countries, including (in decreasing population order) the United States of America, Mexico, Canada, Guatemala, Cuba, Haiti, and the Dominican Republic. The US and Canada support similarly diverse cultures, as both were formed from groups of native races as well as large numbers of immigrants. Many North American cultures come from a mixtures of indigenous and colonial European influences. Agriculture is important to North American countries, while service industries and technology also play a large part in the economy. On average, North America supports a high standard of living and a high level of development and supports trade with countries throughout the world.

Geographical Features (Deltas)

Occur at river mouths. Because the rivers carry sediment to the deltas, these areas are often very fertile.

Effect of Human Systems (Human Systems that Affect the Development and Culture of Australia, Oceana and Antartica)

South Pacific cultures originally migrated from Southeast Asia, creating hunter-gatherer or sometimes settled agricultural communities. European countries moved in during later centuries, seeking the plentiful natural resources of the area. Today, some South Pacific islands remain under the control of foreign governments, and culture in these areas mixes modern, industrialized society with indigenous cultures. Population is unevenly distributed, largely due to the inhabitability of many parts of the South Pacific, such as the extremely hot desert areas of Australia. Agriculture still drives much of the economy, with tourism growing. Antartica remains the only continent now claimed by a single country. There are no permanent human habitations in Antartica, but scientists and explorers visit the area on the temporary basis.

Effect of Human Systems (Human Systems that Shape and Influence the Culture of Sub-Saharan Africa)

South of the Sahara Desert, Africa is divided into a number of culturally diverse nations. The inhabitants are unevenly distributed due to geographical limitations that prevent settlement in vast areas. AIDS has becomes a major plague throughout this part of Africa, killing millions, largely due to restrictive beliefs that prevent education about the disease, as well as abject poverty and unsettled political situations that make it impossible to manage the pandemic. The population of this area of Africa is widely diverse due to extensive migration. Many of the people still rely on subsistence farming for their welfare. Starvation and poverty are rampant due to drought and political instability. Some areas are far more stable than others due to greater availability of resources. These have been able to begin the process of industrialization.

Physical Geography and Climates (Physical Geography and Climate of the Southern Portion of Africa)

South of the Sahara Desert, the high elevations and other geographical characteristics have made it very difficult for human travel or settlement to occur. The geography of the area is dominated by a series of plateaus. There are also mountain ranges and a large rift valley in the eastern part of the country. Contrasting the wide desert areas, sub-Saharan Africa contains numerous lakes, rivers, and world-famous waterfalls. The area has tropical climates, including rainforests, savannas, steppes, and desert areas. The main natural resources are minerals, including gems and water.

Physical Geography and Climates (Geography of Southeast Asia)

Southeast Asia lies largely on the equator, and roughly half of the countries of the region are island nations. These countries include Indonesia, the Philippines, Vietnam, Thailand, Myanmar, and Malaysia (which is partially on the mainland and partially on the island country). The island nations of Southeast Asia feature mountains that are considered part of the Ring of Fire, an area where tectonic plates remain active, leading to extensive volcanic activity as well as earthquakes and tsunamis. Southeast Asia boasts many rivers as well as abundant natural resources, including gems, fossil fuels and minerals. There are basically two seasons- wet and dry. The wet season arrives with the monsoons , In general, Southeast Asia consists of tropical rainforest climates, but there are some mountain areas and tropical savannas.

Divisions of Geographical Study and Tools Used (Regional)

Specific characteristics of individual places and regions

Climates found in middle latitudes (steppe)

Steppe climates, or prairie climates, are found far inland on large continents. Summers are hot and winters are cold, but rainfall is sparser than in continental climates.

Geographical terms Referring to Bodies of Water (Canals)

Such as the Panama Canal and the Suez Canal, are manmade waterways connecting two large bodies of water

Climates found in high latitudes (Taigas)

Taigas lie south of tundra regions, and include the largest forest areas in the world, as well as swamps and marshes. Large mineral deposits exist here, as well as many animals valued for their fur. In the winter, taiga regions are colder than the tundra, and summers are hotter. The growing season is short.

Climates found in middle latitudes (Mediterranean)

The Mediterranean climate occurs between 30 and 40 degrees latitude, both north and south, on the western coasts of continents. Characteristics include a year-long growing season, hot, dry summers followed by mild winters, and sparse rainfall that occurs mostly during the winter months.

Effect of Human Systems (Human Systems that have Shaped North Africa, Southwest and Central Asia)

The largely desert climate of these areas has led most population centers to rise around sources of water, such as the Nile River. This area is home of the earliest known civilizations and the origin of Christianity, Judaism, and Islam. After serving as the site of huge, independent civilizations in ancient times, North Africa and Southwest and Central Asia were largely parceled out as European colonies during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The beginning of the twentieth century saw many of these countries gain their independence. Islam has served as a unifying force for large portions of these areas, and many of the inhabitants speak Arabic. In spite of the arid climate, agriculture is a large business, but the most valuable resource is oil. Centuries of conflict throughout this area have led to ongoing political problems. These political problems have also contributed to environmental issues.

Physical Geography and Climates (Physical Geography and Climate of North America)

The largest amount of North America is the US and Canada, which have a similar distribution of geographical features, mountain ranges in both east and west, stretches of fertile plains through the center, and lakes and waterways. Both areas were shaped by glaciers, which also deposited highly fertile soil. Because they are so large, Canada and the US experience several varieties of climate, including continental climates with four seasons in median areas, tropical climates in the southern part of the US, and arctic climates in the far north. The remaining area of North America is comprised primarily of islands, including the Caribbean Isles and Greenland.

Geographical terms Referring to Bodies of Water (oceans)

The largest bodies of water on Earth. They are salt water, and cover about two-thirds of the earth's surface. The four major oceans are the Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, and Arctic.

Physical Geography and Climates (Physical Geography and Climate of South Asia)

The longest alluvial plain, a plain caused by shifting floodplains or major rivers and river systems over time, exists in South Asia. South Asia boasts three major river systems in the Ganges, Indus, and Brahmaputra. It also has large deposits of minerals, including iron ore that is in great demand internationally. South Asia holds mountains, plains, plateaus, and numerous islands. The climates range from tropical to highlands and desert areas. South Asia also experiences monsoon winds that cause a long rainy season. Variations in climate, elevation and human activity influence agricultural production.

Physical Geography and Climates (Physical Geography and Climate of North Africa, Southwest, and Central Asia)

This area of the world is complex in its geographical structure and climate, incorporating seas, peninsulas, rivers, mountains, and numerous other features. Earthquakes are common, with tectonic plates in the area remaining active. Much of the world's oil lies in this area. The tendency of the large rivers of North Africa, especially the Nile, to follow a set pattern of drought and extreme fertility, led people to settle there from prehistoric times. As technology has advances, people have tamed this river, making its activity more predictably and the land around it more productive. The extremely arid nature of many other parts of this area has also led to human intervention such as irrigation to increase agricultural production.

Types of Projection used in Creating World Maps (Cylindrical projection)

This is created by wrapping the globe of the Earth in a cylindrical piece of paper, then using a light of project the globe onto the paper. The largest distortion occurs at the outmost edges.

Specific types of Map Projections (Winkle triple projection)

This is the most common projection used for world maps, since it was accepted in 1998 by the National Geographic Society as a standard. The Winkle triple projection balances size and shape, greatly reducing distortion

Specific types of Map Projections (Mercator projection)

Though distortion is high, particularly in areas farther from the equator, this cylindrical projection is commonly used by seafarers.

Climates found in high latitudes (tundra)

Tundra means "marshy plain." Ground is frozen throughout long, cold winters, but there is little snowfall. During the short summers, it becomes wet and marshy. Tundras are not amenable to crops, but many plants and animals have adapted to the conditions

Weather vs. Climate

Weather and climate are physical systems that affect geography. Through they deal with similar information, they way this information is measured and compiled is different.