PS111 Midterm 1 Study Guide
Meaning of the precautionary principle
The precautionary principle is a principle in decision-making that aims to prevent harm to human health or the environment in the face of uncertainty. It states that if an action or policy has the potential to cause harm to the public or the environment, in the absence of scientific consensus, the burden of proof falls on those who would advocate for the action or policy to demonstrate that it is not harmful. The precautionary principle is often invoked in debates around environmental and public health issues, such as the use of pesticides, genetically modified organisms, or nuclear power. In such cases, the principle suggests that if there is uncertainty about the potential harm of a particular technology or practice, decision-makers should err on the side of caution and take steps to minimize the risk of harm.
Hobbes' view of the state of nature and how it related to good government
Thomas Hobbes was a 17th-century English philosopher who believed that the state of nature, the hypothetical condition of human life without any form of government, was a state of war, chaos, and insecurity. In the absence of a government to establish and enforce laws, people would be in a perpetual state of conflict, each person fighting to protect their own interests. He believed that a powerful government, with the ability to make and enforce laws, was necessary to maintain social order and prevent individuals from reverting to their natural state of selfishness and aggression.In Hobbes' view, good government was one that was strong, centralized, and able to enforce laws and punish those who violated them. The government's primary function was to protect the safety and security of its citizens and maintain social order. Hobbes believed that in such a government, individuals would be free to pursue their own interests without fear of violence or coercion from others.
Dynamics that can support both authoritarian and democratic regimes
1. Economic development (In some cases, authoritarian regimes may promote economic development by using their power to make quick and decisive decisions, without having to worry about political opposition or democratic institutions. In other cases, democratic regimes may promote economic development by providing greater political stability and a more predictable business environment, which can attract foreign investment and foster economic growth.) 2. Nationalism (In some cases, authoritarian regimes may use nationalism to rally popular support and justify their rule, while democratic regimes may use nationalism to promote unity and solidarity among citizens.) 3. Political culture (In some societies, there may be a cultural preference for strong and decisive leadership, which can support authoritarian regimes. In other societies, there may be a cultural preference for democracy and pluralism, which can support democratic regimes.) 4. International relations (For example, democratic countries may support other democratic regimes through aid, trade, and diplomatic relations, while authoritarian regimes may support each other through alliances and cooperation.)
Core elements of fascism and distinctions relative to modern conservatism
Fascism is a political ideology that emerged in the early 20th century and emphasizes authoritarianism, nationalism, and a strong government role in the economy and society. Some of the core elements of fascism include: authoritarianism, nationalism, militarism. conservatism emphasizes individual liberty and limited government, while fascism emphasizes a strong, centralized government with extensive control over the economy and society. Additionally, conservatism tends to promote free market capitalism, while fascism supports corporatism and government control of the economy. Finally, conservatism generally supports political pluralism and the peaceful resolution of political differences, while fascism often seeks to suppress dissent and opposition through force.
Similarities between Islamist political concepts and past Christian political concepts
One similarity is the idea that religion and politics should be closely intertwined. Both Islamism and some forms of Christianity emphasize the importance of religious values and beliefs in guiding political decision-making, and argue that the state has a responsibility to promote and defend those values. Another similarity is the belief in the importance of moral and social conservatism. Both Islamism and some forms of Christianity emphasize the importance of traditional values and social structures, and argue that the state has a responsibility to enforce those values in society. However, there are also important differences between Islamist and Christian political concepts. One key difference is that Islamism emphasizes the role of Islamic law (sharia) as the basis for political governance, while Christianity has historically been more varied in its approaches to law and governance, ranging from theocracy to secular democracy.
Main arguments of How Democracies Die reading
The authors argue that democracy is under threat not only from overt authoritarianism, but also from more subtle forms of political manipulation and erosion of democratic norms and institutions. -The erosion of democratic norms and institutions is a gradual process that often goes unnoticed until it is too late. -The primary threat to democracy in the 21st century comes from elected leaders who use their power to weaken democratic institutions and consolidate their own power. -Political polarization and the rise of populist movements can contribute to the erosion of democracy by creating an environment in which democratic norms and institutions are not respected. -The erosion of democratic institutions often begins with attacks on the media, the judiciary, and other independent sources of power. Once these institutions are weakened, it becomes easier for politicians to consolidate their power and undermine democratic norms. -The survival of democracy depends on strong civil society organizations, including a free and independent media, an active and engaged citizenry, and independent political institutions.
Justifications for illiberal democracy and relationship to cases like Singapore, Venezuela
The concept of "illiberal democracy" is a political term that describes a form of government in which there is democratic rule, but individual liberties and rights are restricted or not fully protected. Some political leaders argue that illiberal democracy is a necessary step towards economic development or social stability, while critics argue that it is a violation of basic human rights and democratic principles. In the case of Singapore, the government has been criticized for restricting freedom of speech, limiting the independence of the media, and imposing restrictions on political opposition. Supporters of the Singaporean government argue that these measures are necessary for economic development and social stability, and point to the country's rapid economic growth as evidence of the success of this approach. In the case of Venezuela, the government of Hugo Chavez and later Nicolas Maduro has been accused of violating democratic principles through the suppression of political opposition, the restriction of freedom of speech, and the manipulation of elections. Supporters of the government argue that these measures are necessary to protect the country from foreign interference and to advance social justice.
The core idea of Adam Smith's "invisible hand" and why it was significant for classical liberal thought
Adam Smith, an 18th-century Scottish economist, developed the idea of the "invisible hand" to explain how the free market operates in a capitalist economy. According to Smith, individuals acting in their own self-interest in a competitive market will inadvertently promote the good of society as a whole, even though they may not have intended to do so. Smith believed that when individuals pursue their own economic interests, they are led by an invisible hand to engage in productive economic activities that benefit society as a whole. This is because when individuals produce goods or services that others value, they can exchange these goods or services for other goods or services that they need, leading to mutually beneficial transactions and increasing overall economic welfare. The concept of the invisible hand is significant for classical liberal thought because it suggests that economic growth and prosperity can be achieved without government intervention or central planning. According to Smith, the market can regulate itself, with the price mechanism serving as the guide for resource allocation and distribution.
Relationship between the Western world and the origins of political Islamism
An important factor is the influence of modernization and globalization, which have created a sense of dislocation and fragmentation in many Muslim societies. As traditional ways of life have been disrupted and replaced by modern Western institutions and values, many Muslims have turned to political Islamism as a way of reclaiming their cultural identity and resisting what they see as Western cultural imperialism. The relationship between the Western world and political Islamism has also been shaped by geopolitical factors, such as the Cold War and the US-led invasions of Afghanistan and Iraq. These conflicts have fueled anti-Western sentiment and provided a rallying cry for Islamist movements that seek to resist Western military intervention and defend Muslim sovereignty.
Different principles of authoritarianism across its four main forms
Authoritarianism is a form of government characterized by a concentration of power in the hands of a single leader or ruling party. There are four main forms of authoritarianism: totalitarianism, military dictatorship, absolute monarchy, and one-party state. 1. Totalitarianism: Totalitarianism is a form of authoritarianism in which the state seeks to control all aspects of society, including the economy, the media, and even the thoughts and beliefs of its citizens. The ruling party or leader has complete control over all institutions and individuals within the state, and dissent is not tolerated. Examples of totalitarian regimes include Nazi Germany, Stalinist Russia, and North Korea. 2. Military dictatorship: Military dictatorship is a form of authoritarianism in which the military holds power and controls the government. The military leaders are usually in charge of the executive branch and often suppress political opposition and dissent. Examples of military dictatorships include Chile under Augusto Pinochet and Myanmar under the current military junta. 3. Absolute monarchy: Absolute monarchy is a form of authoritarianism in which a monarch holds absolute power over the government and society. The monarch has complete control over all institutions and individuals within the state, and there is little or no political opposition or dissent. Examples of absolute monarchies include Saudi Arabia and Brunei. 4. One-party state: A one-party state is a form of authoritarianism in which a single political party holds all or most of the power in the government. The ruling party usually controls all institutions and suppresses political opposition and dissent. Examples of one-party states include China, Cuba, and Vietnam.
Relationship between Donald Trump's most salient political positions and those ofRonald Reagan
Donald Trump and Ronald Reagan were both Republican presidents who appealed to conservative voters in the United States. Ronald Reagan was a champion of free market capitalism, limited government, and a strong national defense. He believed in cutting taxes and reducing government regulations to promote economic growth and job creation. Reagan also supported traditional values, such as a strong family unit and a belief in personal responsibility. Donald Trump, on the other hand, has taken a different approach to economic and social policy. While he has advocated for tax cuts and reduced regulation, he has also embraced a more populist approach that includes protectionist trade policies and government intervention in certain industries. Trump has also been more vocal in his support for a stronger federal government role in social policy, such as his opposition to abortion rights and his attempts to repeal the Affordable Care Act. Another key difference between the two presidents is their approach to foreign policy. Reagan was a strong supporter of American leadership on the global stage and believed in a robust military presence abroad. Trump, by contrast, has been more skeptical of U.S. involvement in international conflicts and has pursued a more isolationist foreign policy.
Edmund Burke's view of the French Revolution
Edmund Burke was a British statesman, philosopher, and writer who was an outspoken critic of the French Revolution. He viewed the French Revolution as a dangerous and misguided attempt to overthrow established institutions and replace them with an abstract and unrealistic vision of society. Burke argued that the revolutionaries' attempt to create a new society based on abstract principles would inevitably lead to chaos, violence, and the destruction of the social order. He believed that such revolutionary change should be gradual and based on a respect for the inherited wisdom of tradition, rather than violent and sudden upheaval. Burke also criticized the revolutionaries for their rejection of religion and their attacks on the established Church. He believed that religion was essential for the moral and social order of society, and that the revolutionaries' attempt to abolish it would only lead to greater disorder and conflict.
Role of external recognition in state sovereignty and relationship to "failed states" or the case of Taiwan
External recognition plays an important role in state sovereignty, as it provides a formal recognition of a state's political legitimacy and allows it to participate in international relations as a full member of the international community. Without external recognition, a state may struggle to assert its sovereignty and secure its position in the global order. Failed states are typically defined as states that are unable to provide basic services and security to their citizens, and are often characterized by weak or nonexistent state institutions and widespread violence and lawlessness. In such cases, external recognition can be a critical factor in helping to stabilize the situation and restore some degree of order and legitimacy to the state. Taiwan has functioned as a de facto independent state since the end of the Chinese Civil War in 1949, but it is not officially recognized by the United Nations or many other countries due to pressure from the People's Republic of China, which claims Taiwan as a part of its territory. Taiwan is able to function as a sovereign state in many respects, but is unable to fully participate in international relations as a recognized member of the international community.
The roles of rights in liberal democracy, the notion of "tyranny of the majority," and what it suggests about democratic governance
In liberal democracy, individual rights play a crucial role in limiting the power of the government and protecting the freedom and autonomy of citizens. The government is seen as a protector of individual rights, and its powers are limited by the constitution and other legal and institutional safeguards. The notion of "tyranny of the majority" refers to the possibility that in a democratic society, the majority can use its power to oppress or discriminate against minority groups, violating their rights and freedoms. This can happen when the majority, through democratic means, enacts laws or policies that disadvantage or discriminate against a minority group, whether based on race, religion, gender, sexual orientation, or other factors. The idea of the tyranny of the majority suggests that democratic governance is not just about the rule of the majority, but also about protecting the rights and interests of minority groups. To prevent the tyranny of the majority, democratic societies must have checks and balances to ensure that the government does not abuse its power and violate the rights of minority groups. This includes the protection of individual rights and freedoms, as well as mechanisms for minority representation and participation in the political process. In short, democratic governance must ensure that the majority does not have unchecked power to impose its will on the minority, but instead works to promote the interests of all citizens and protect their rights and freedoms.
Relationship between the term "classic liberal" and the common use of "conservative" in the US and elsewhere today
In some cases, the term "conservative" may be used interchangeably with "classical liberal" to describe a political philosophy that emphasizes individual liberty, free markets, and limited government intervention. However, there are also important differences between these two terms, particularly in the areas of social and cultural values. The term "classical liberal" refers to a political philosophy that emphasizes individual liberty, free markets, and limited government intervention. In the United States and elsewhere today, the term "conservative" is often used to describe a political position that is similar to classical liberalism in some respects. However, the term "conservative" can also have a broader and more complex meaning that encompasses a wide range of political beliefs and positions. In the United States, for example, self-identified conservatives may include individuals who support free market economics, limited government intervention, and individual liberty, as well as those who hold more traditional or religious values, or who advocate for a strong national defense.
Relationship between the term "classic liberal" and common use of "liberal" in US today
In the United States today, the term "liberal" is commonly used to describe a political position that emphasizes social equality, civil rights, and government intervention to promote social welfare. This position is often associated with the Democratic Party and left-leaning political beliefs. While there are some similarities between the classical liberal and modern liberal positions, there are also important differences. For example, classical liberals tend to emphasize individual liberty and free markets, while modern liberals are more likely to support government intervention to promote social equality and civil rights. Moreover, the term "liberal" has evolved over time, and its meaning can vary depending on context and political culture. In some cases, the term may be used more broadly to describe any political position that emphasizes individual freedom and social progress, regardless of whether it aligns with classical liberalism or modern liberalism.
Logic and significance of John Rawls' "veil of ignorance" argument
John Rawls was a prominent political philosopher who proposed the "veil of ignorance" argument as a way of developing a theory of justice that would be fair and impartial. Rawls believed that if people were ignorant of their own social status, they would be more likely to agree on principles of justice that would benefit everyone, regardless of their individual characteristics. This is because they would not be biased by their own self-interest, and would instead be more likely to prioritize the interests of the wider society. The significance of the "veil of ignorance" argument is that it provides a way of thinking about justice that is impartial and objective. Rawls argued that by considering justice from the perspective of an impartial observer, we can develop principles of justice that are fair and just for everyone. Moreover, Rawls believed that the "veil of ignorance" argument provides a powerful justification for the redistribution of wealth and resources in society. If we consider justice from behind the veil of ignorance, we would see that it is only fair to distribute wealth and resources in a way that benefits everyone, rather than just a privileged few.
Relationship between libertarianism and other conservatisms in the US
Libertarianism is a political philosophy that emphasizes individual liberty, free markets, and limited government intervention. In the United States, libertarianism is often associated with the Libertarian Party, which advocates for smaller government, lower taxes, and fewer regulations. Some conservatives may view libertarianism as too extreme or ideologically rigid, while libertarians may view other forms of conservatism as too compromising or insufficiently committed to individual freedom and limited government.
Locke's view of the state of nature and how it related to good government
Locke believed that the state of nature was a state of freedom, equality, and peaceful coexistence. Locke argued that in the state of nature, humans had natural rights, including the right to life, liberty, and property. Unlike Hobbes, Locke believed that individuals had the ability to govern themselves and live together in peace without a strong central government. However, he also recognized that conflicts and disputes could arise, and thus, individuals might voluntarily come together to form a government to protect their natural rights and to enforce the law impartially. Good government was one that protected individuals' natural rights and was based on the consent of the governed. The government's primary function was to secure the rights of its citizens, including their property rights, and to promote the public good. Locke believed that the government should be limited in its power and should only intervene when necessary to protect individuals' rights and to promote the common good.
Why Machiavelli is sometimes called the father of political science
Machiavelli is often called the father of political science because he was one of the first political thinkers to approach politics as a science. He wrote extensively about political theory and practice, analyzing the actions of historical figures and drawing conclusions about how political power can be acquired, maintained, and exercised. He argues that the ends justify the means and that a ruler must be willing to use any means necessary to maintain power and protect the state.
Definition of populism and distinctions relative to fascism
Populism is a political ideology that emphasizes the needs and desires of ordinary people, particularly those who feel marginalized or excluded from the political process. Populist leaders often claim to represent the will of the people and seek to challenge the established political and economic elite. Populism tends to emphasize democracy and the will of the people, while fascism often seeks to suppress democratic institutions and the free expression of political opposition. Populism often emphasizes the importance of cultural and ethnic diversity, while fascism often promotes a homogenous national identity and seeks to suppress minority groups. Populism tends to reject violence and emphasizes peaceful, democratic means of achieving political change, while fascism often embraces violence as a means of achieving political goals. Populist leaders often challenge the established political and economic elite, while fascist leaders seek to consolidate power and suppress political opposition.
Core principles of socialism and key differences with modern liberalism
Socialism is a political and economic theory that emphasizes collective or community ownership and control of the means of production and distribution of goods and services, with the goal of promoting social and economic equality. In contrast, modern liberalism, also known as social liberalism, is a political philosophy that emphasizes individual liberty, equality, and social justice, but does not advocate for collective ownership of the means of production or economic planning. -Socialists advocate for collective ownership of the means of production, while modern liberals do not. Instead, modern liberals tend to support a mixed economy in which both private and public enterprises coexist. -Socialists believe that economic activity should be planned and coordinated by the state or democratic institutions, while modern liberals support a market-based economy with some degree of government regulation and intervention. -While modern liberals support some degree of wealth redistribution through progressive taxation and social welfare programs, they do not advocate for the radical redistribution of wealth that is central to socialist theory. -Modern liberals tend to place greater emphasis on individual rights and civil liberties than socialists, who prioritize collective interests over individual ones.
Socrates' criticisms of democracy
Socrates was a philosopher who lived in ancient Greece and is known for his critical questioning and examination of the beliefs and practices of his contemporaries. One of his most famous criticisms was of democracy, which was the dominant form of government in Athens at the time. Socrates argued that democracy was flawed because it placed too much emphasis on the opinions and desires of the majority, rather than on the knowledge and wisdom of the few. Socrates believed that the majority of people were easily swayed by persuasive orators and were prone to making decisions based on their passions and emotions, rather than on reason and logic. Socrates also criticized democracy for its tendency to foster political corruption and instability.
