PSC 321 FINAL

How do Mormons vote?

for many decades, Mormons have voted overwhelmingly for Republican presidential candidates; makes them distinct from most other religious minorities

Mainline Protestants significant controversies

-politics have centered on same-sex marriage and related issues -within the mainline denominations, there has tended to be a divide between the leadership and the laity -After the Episcopalian Church installed an openly gay man as a bishop, many congregation seceded from the denomination

Why was Falwell already well known?

- TV program, Old-Time Gospel Hour -president of Liberty University -author of several books

The Bible furthermore has Old Testament examples of civil disobedience and non-violent resistance, as does early Christianity:

"Of course, there is nothing new about this kind of civil disobedience. It was evidenced sublimely in the refusal of Shadrach, Meshach and Abednego to obey the laws of Nebuchadnezzar, on the ground that a higher moral law was at stake. It was practiced superbly by the early Christians, who were willing to face hungry lions and the excruciating pain of chopping blocks rather than submit to certain unjust laws of the Roman Empire."

In response to the claim that his movement was breaking the law:

"One may well ask: 'How can you advocate breaking some laws and obeying others?' The answer lies in the fact that there are two types of laws: just and unjust. I would be the first to advocate obeying just laws. One has not only a legal but a moral responsibility to obey just laws. Conversely, one has a moral responsibility to disobey unjust laws. I would agree with St. Augustine that 'an unjust law is no law at all' "Now, what is the difference between the two? How does one determine whether a law is just or unjust? A just law is a man made code that squares with the moral law or the law of God. An unjust law is a code that is out of harmony with the moral law. To put it in the terms of St. Thomas Aquinas: An unjust law is a human law that is not rooted in eternal law and natural law. Any law that uplifts human personality is just. Any law that degrades human personality is unjust. All segregation statutes are unjust because segregation distorts the soul and damages the personality. It gives the segregator a false sense of superiority and the segregated a false sense of inferiority."

Early Christians were also considered dangerous "outside agitators":

"There was a time when the church was very powerful--in the time when the early Christians rejoiced at being deemed worthy to suffer for what they believed. In those days the church was not merely a thermometer that recorded the ideas and principles of popular opinion; it was a thermostat that transformed the mores of society. Whenever the early Christians entered a town, the people in power became disturbed and immediately sought to convict the Christians for being 'disturbers of the peace' and 'outside agitators.' But the Christians pressed on, in the conviction that they were 'a colony of heaven,' called to obey God rather than man. Small in number, they were big in commitment."

Argument for stricter churches

-Dean M. Kelley, author of Why Conservative Churches are Growing -By making heavy demands on their members, churches signal that they serve a serious purpose, and thus they are deserving of their members' commitment -However, churches that make the greatest demands on their members not only provide the greatest spiritual rewards to their members, they also provide the greatest tangible, material rewards

Fundamentalists on the Bible

-"As a whole, [fundamentalists] would unite in emphasizing the authority of the Bible." -Biblical literalism is the norm; Bible is treated as authoritative on all questions that the text touches upon

Historical meaning of fundamentalism

-"emphasizes authority and fixed creeds in religion" -"Modernism emphasizes freedom and progress in religious thought" -term has a lot of baggage; people have preconceived notions about what a "fundamentalist" is

Who was Francis Schaeffer?

-1912-1984 -evangelical theologian and philosopher -ran a religious community in Switzerland; was not initially favorable toward major American evangelicals -played a key role in bringing American evangelicals into pro-life activism

Phyllis Schlafly early life

-1924-2016 -not originally focused on social issues -first became famous for her support for Barry Goldwater -A Choice, Not an Echo (1964) -later focused on grassroots organizing -lifelong enemy of the Republican "establishment"

How was the religious right viewed later?

-1980s ended with the Religious Right in a difficult position; had little to show for their support for Reagan, and were more unpopular than ever -Pat Robertson's failed presidential run in 1988; lost GOP primary to Bush who never had much Christian Right support -Moral Majority collapsed at the end of the decade

How were Catholics associated with conservative politics?

-20th century, the Catholic Church tended to side with conservatives on a number of key issues -Catholic leaders were strongly anti-communist throughout the Cold War -Catholic leaders took conservative positions on most issues related to morality

What is the gender gap in U.S. politics?

-All other variables being equal, men are more likely to vote Republican than women, and women are more likely to vote Democratic than men -Within genders, however, there are many gaps: significant "religion gap" among women as secular women are much more likely to identify with the Democratic Party than religious women; Biblical literalism is associated with lower levels of gender consciousness among women; Women tend to be more religious than men, so if it were not for the religious gap, the gender gap would be larger than it is -religion is not an invariably conservative force; Women clergy, in denominations that have them, tend to be more liberal than other clergy -Politically organized religious women are also often involved in social justice causes

Landon Schnabel and Sean Bock thesis

-America is undergoing secularization, just like Europe, but it is playing out differently -fewer people identify as religious, but the religious are much more intense here than in Europe -percentage of people that very strongly identify with their religion has not changed very much -secularism is mostly growing that the expense of the nominally religious

Why was a "religious right" not necessary until the mid-1960s?

-American conservatism coalesced in 1950s-60s -Protestant were strongly underrepresented among conservative intellectuals -most important early conservative thinkers were Catholic, many Jewish -Barry Goldwater did not really focus on "culture war" issues

9/11 and War on Terror

-Anti-Muslim attitudes in U.S. spiked after September 11 terrorist attacks on New York and Washington -Beginning of the Global War on Terror -Invasion of Afghanistan in 2001, Iraq in 2003 -President George W. Bush insisted that war was not against Islam; Bush: "The face of terror is not the true faith of Islam. That's not what Islam is all about. Islam is peace." -Bush developed the argument that the GWOT would be won by democracy promotion: overturn dictators and replace them with democracies, and terrorism problem would go away -Made this argument most forcefully in 2005 Second Inaugural Address.

Abortion politics before the 1970s

-By the early 1900s, every state had laws against abortion (whether induced via drugs or procedures) -loopholes to laws, whereby doctors had discretion to perform "therapeutic" abortions -1960s, liberalizing reforms at the state level -feminist movement increasingly argued that equality for women required that women have complete control over reproduction -Colorado changed its laws in 1967, as did California (Ronald Reagan was governor of California when this occurred); New York legalized abortion in 1970

How were Catholics associated with progressive politics?

-Catholic leaders have been consistently in favor pro-immigrant policies, economic support for developing countries, support for greater economic equality, and opposition to war -Throughout most of the 20th century, majorities of Catholics supported the Democratic Party -Democratic affiliation became less pronounced as Catholics assimilated and experienced upward mobility

Catholics representation in politics

-Catholics have been underrepresented in the presidency (just two Catholic presidents) -Catholics have lately been overrepresented in the Supreme Court; currently there are possible zero Protestant Supreme Court justices, rest are Catholic or Jewish

History of Catholicism in America

-Catholics were in what is now the U.S. beginning in colonial times; Maryland began as a haven for British Catholics. -Catholics became a significant part of the U.S. population during waves of immigration of mid-1800s and early 1900s -growing Catholic population prompted significant push-back from Protestants -Know-Nothing Movement called for an end to Catholic immigration

Did the Trump years lead to an increase in Islamophobia?

-Different data give us different evidence -One poll published by the Institute for Social Policy and Understanding showed a small but statistically significant increase in its Islamophobia index over -American National Election Survey data showed little evidence that this occurred -In the 2016 survey, conducted after then-candidate Trump called for a total ban on Muslim immigration, the mean score among all Republican identifiers was a bit higher — about 45; This is not a definitive finding, of course, but it does indicate that President Trump has not ushered in an unprecedented era of anti-Muslim animus, even among Republicans -On the other side of the spectrum, Donald Trump's presidency has both energized the American left and led to changing attitudes among Democrats; Specifically, Democrats have moved sharply to the left on questions of race and immigration, and they express increasingly positive feelings toward Muslims

How did different religious groups react to the Cold War?

-Different groups showed different levels of isolationism or internationalism throughout the period -Catholics tended to be strong Cold Warriors early in the conflict, less strong by the 1970s -Black Protestants were inclined toward isolationism -White Protestants tended to be more opposed to foreign aid

What was the Equal Rights Movement?

-ERA would guarantee that both men and women would enjoy the same rights and protections under the law -Congress proposed and amendment to the Constitution that read: "Equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by any State on account of sex"; easily passed in the House and Senate and was on its way to ratification -Conservative women's organizations effectively lobbied against the amendment; argued that the amendment would be used to end single-sex schools, unisex toilets, and to force women into combat roles in wartime

What religious traits were associated with greater militarism (anti-communism and greater defense spending)?

-Evangelical identity -Orthodoxy in doctrine -High religious commitment

What was the goal of Moral Majority?

-Falwell hoped to build a broad-based religious movement -in reality, mostly attracted conservative baptists -more than any other organization, Moral Majority helped launch the Christian Right

What is the argument for religion is not important to African Americans?

-For parts of American history, some people argued that religion was helping blacks cope with their oppression, and thus stifling efforts to change the system (Marxist "opiate of the masses") -similar to the broader Marxist critique of religion as an "opiate of the masses"

Different approach to religion and society (!!!)

-Fundamentalist: "Fundamentalism emphasizes evangelism and the next life" -Modernist: "Modernism emphasizes social service, education and this life" -key question= does religion exist to save souls and prepare them for the next life, or does it exist to improve this world right now? -both fundamentalists and modernists would say they are doing both, but they would clearly differ in their emphasis

Different approaches to sin and guilt

-Fundamentalist: "Fundamentalism emphasizes sin as guilt and condemnation, salvation as justification and regeneration" -Modernist: "Modernism emphasizes sin as imperfection and weakness, salvation as growth and attainment of character"

Different approaches to religion in the world

-Fundamentalist: "Many (if not most) fundamentalists are premillennialists. They hold that the kingdom has not yet been established or 'set up', and will not be until Christ returns to the earth" -Modernist: "Modernists emphasize the growth of Christianity as a social and spiritual power in the world. The coming of the 'kingdom' with them is identical with the progress of Christian principles in human society"

End of decade for religious right

-George W. Bush was the presidency in 2000 -born-again Christian with an agenda aligned with Christian Right -Bush's overall success was limited

How is immigration separate from the culture war?

-Immigration has nonetheless been somewhat separate from many of the "culture war" debates like abortion and SSM -still many Americans that fundamentally view America as a Christian nation, and may be uncomfortable with immigrants from other religious backgrounds -most immigration restrictionists do not appeal directly to Christian principles when making their arguments; Immigration is not treated as a "moral" issue in the same way -some religious groups have taken a strong pro-immigrant stance, and the "sanctuary movement" is led by religious organizations; on the other hand, Some churches have protected undocumented immigrants from deportation; Some denominations take a leading role in refugee resettlement

Religion Progressive Politics in US History

-In the 1800s, many churches embraced the "social gospel" approach to politics. -Rather than focusing on individual salvation, many churches sought to bring about social change, hoping to make society more aligned with religious values -Today, many of the religious groups most associated with progressive politics are predominantly made up of racial and ethnic minorities

What was the immigration pause?

-In the 1920s, new restrictive legislation brought immigration to an almost total halt -also halted immigration from East Asia, but that had already mostly ended because of restrictions a few decades earlier

What were the religious traditionalists attacks on abortion?

-It is a sign of moral decline, demonstrating hyper-individualism and selfishness -also a violation of the natural rights of the unborn

Neoconservatives

-Jewish Americans were a percentage of this group -mostly former liberals that became more conservative in the 1960s and 1970s -eventually became an influential faction within the conservative movement

Judaism and Politics

-Jews have always been a small percentage of the American electorate -nonetheless often been an influential group -disproportionately found in large and influential cities; also tend to be wealthier than other religious groups

How has Latin religious demographic changed?

-Latinos not as overwhelmingly Catholic as was once the case -Growing population of Protestant Latinos (especially evangelicals) and secular Latinos -In 1950, Latinos in U.S. were 80% Catholic; by 2013 they were 60% Catholic -Protestant Latinos tend to be more Republican than Catholic Latinos

Islam and foreign policy in 20th century

-Many Americans started developing negative attitudes toward Islam in the late 1970s during the Iranian hostage crisis -Islamic revolution against the American-backed Shah of Iran led to a breakdown in relations between the countries -bombing of a Marine barracks in Beirut, killing more than 300 people, including 241 U.S. military personnel, inspired new suspicion of Muslims

How does this cause tension?

-Many critics inside these churches wanted church to be about worship and fellowship, not politics -a lot of evangelicals also disapproved of their own churches getting involved in conservative politics

Religion and Political Tolerance

-Many people simply assume that strong religious beliefs lead to political intolerance; empirical research is mixed -One problem is that the results depend on how terms are defined

What was the first state to legalize gay marriage?

-Massachusetts, Nov 18,2003 -State Supreme Court Decision Makes Massachusetts First US State to Legalize Gay Marriage -Supreme Judicial Court of Massachusetts in a 4-3 ruling held that "barring an individual from the protections, benefits, and obligations of civil marriage solely because that person would marry a person of the same sex violates the Massachusetts Constitution..."

Possible explanations for secularization: People just don't believe it anymore

-Modern people no longer need to believe in anything supernatural -problems with this narrative: most people who say that their religion is "none" still have supernatural beliefs, including belief in God; religious non-believers are no less likely to believe that astrology is scientific; belief in life after death is holding steady -although may be becoming less religious, not becoming a nation of hyper-rational secular humanists

What major conflicts of 1990s were disconnects from religion?

-Most of the major conflicts -US did not focus on religious angle of: Somalia; Bosnia; Serbia-Kosovo; Iraq No-Fly Zone

How did Catholics play an outsized role in rise of post-war conservative intellectual movement?

-Of the major leaders of the conservative movement, Catholics were hugely overrepresented -Prominent Catholics included: William F. Buckley, Jr., L. Brent Bozell, Phyllis Schlafly, Paul Weyrich -Conservative converts to Catholicism included: Russell Kirk, Willmoore Kendall, James Burnham

George Romney

-One of the first Mormons considered a possible presidential contender was George Romney (Mitt Romney's father), Republican Governor of Michigan -was the frontrunner for the 1968 Republican nomination, but lost to Nixon -Mormonism never seemed to be a major issue; bigger problem was that he was prone to gaffes and had no coherent policy on the Vietnam War -had he won, it is not clear that he would have been eligible to be president, as he was not born in the U.S.

Religion and sexuality

-Opposition to the LGBT movement has often been framed in religious language; religious texts (from multiple religions) specifically condemn homosexual behavior -different religious groups have taken different approaches to the subject -3 different approaches to LGBT question: Liberal: God approves of and celebrates all love Moderate: Seeking to placate both sides Conservative: Homosexual behavior is inherently sinful

Theological divides between Mormons and others

-Other Christians do not believe the claims in the Book of Mormon (such as the migration of some ancient Israelites to North America); do not believe Joseph Smith was a prophet -Mormons have a slightly different view of God, especially the view of the Trinity; other Christians maintain the existence of a triune God (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, but all part of one being); Mormons believe these beings are separate.

Letter from Birmingham Jail

-Perhaps Martin Luther King's most famous written work -Responding to "A Call for Unity," an open letter published in Birmingham, Alabama, on April 12, 1963, by eight local white clergymen in response to civil rights demonstrations taking place in the area at the time -took issue with events "directed and led in part by outsiders", urging activists to engage in local negotiations and use the courts if rights were being denied rather than to protest

concept of political tolerance

-Political tolerance can be a confusing concept because it gets conflated with other subjects -Tolerance assumes disagreement -Political intolerance is not the same as prejudice; prejudice comes from negative attitudes toward a group -> prejudice may lead to intolerance; one can be prejudiced against a group but still be tolerant of their actions -subject most often comes up in discussions of free speech; most Americans say they support free speech when asked in an abstract way; When asked about specific groups they dislike, their support for free speech tends to drop

Question of Islam and relations with Muslims in early U.S. history

-Primarily an issue because of problem with Barbary Pirates, Muslim privateers that operated in North Africa -The United States, with some European allies, fought two wars against Barbary states nominally under the Ottoman Empire's control -It began when Thomas Jefferson refused to pay tribute in order to keep U.S. ships safe. Islam was not really a factor in the war, however

Different denominations on slavery 19th cent

-Quakers tended to be anti-slavery, though some Quakers owned slaves -Same for New England Puritans -Farther South, more American Christians make Biblical justifications for slavery

Religion and War on Terror

-Religion again became a salient issue in foreign policy after 9-11 and the question of radical Islam became a larger part of the conversation -President George W. Bush insisted that the conflict was not about Islam, and insisted that Islam was a "religion of peace" -However, a lot of conservatives (religious and not religious) argued that Islam itself was part of the problem

African American Protestants

-Religion has been a key element of the African American community for centuries -During the period of slavery, churches were some of the only independent black institutions - though these were quite restricted in some places -Religion provided a degree of cultural cohesion, and a way to organize both religious and secular pursuits

Measuring political tolerance

-Research on the subject began in the 1950s; question was which people would be willing to extend civil liberties to communists, atheists, etc. -Some problems with this approach= It may not have showed who was tolerant, only who liked certain groups more; of course a communist would believe communists should have civil liberties -solution was to ask people in the studies about groups that they disliked (how willing are they to tolerate the group they like the least)

Roe v. Wade

-Roe v. Wade decision legalized abortion in all 50 states (1973) -Pro-life activists emphasized the human rights element of the cause -Roe also caused the pro-life movement to become a national movement; had previously been a scattered movement, operating independently in different states

Ronald Reagan and anti-abortion

-Ronald Reagan ran for president on an explicitly pro-life platform, helping bring conservative evangelicals into his coalition against Jimmy Carter -Reagan sought support from groups like the National Right to Life Committee -During the Reagan years, Republicans in congress remained divided on the issue; many moderate Republicans continued to support legalized abortion

What was Schlafly's importance for the Religious Right?

-Schlafly was a Catholic at a time when evangelical Protestants were still distrustful of Catholics -demonstrated the potential of cross-denominational cooperation for religious traditionalists

How have churches helped African Americans build social capital?

-Social capital refers to "interpersonal trust, access to networks, and beliefs about responsibilities to the community" -help the community bond and work together for shared objectives, leading to more, and more effective, political participation

Scholarly explanation for Jewish liberalism

-Some claim that this is due to specific elements of Jewish religion -Some argue that it is part of the desire to maintain a separate ethnic identity -Some argue that it comes from a fear of anti-Semitism, and the belief that the left tends to be better for minorities

U.S. Conservatives and Islam

-Some conservatives have engaged in Muslim outreach; Back in the 1990s, Muslim Americans largely backed Republican candidates; support declined after 9-11 and start of GWOT -Grover Norquist of Americans for Tax Reform was a major voice calling for pro-Muslim conservative talking points -Dinesh D'Souza argued that conservative Christians and conservative Muslims should ally with each other against the secular left -Among U.S. conservatives, suspicion of Islam was more common -common theme among conservatives was that Islam was inherently violent and expansionist; major conservatives making this argument include Ann Coulter, Glenn Beck, David Horowitz, and Pamela Geller -Many of these conservatives framed the subject in larger historical terms, discussing the GWOT as though it is just another chapter in the long history of conflict between Muslim world and the West; others have argued that Islam is illiberal, and not compatible with feminism, democracy, and gay rights -Many conservatives slammed President Obama for being soft on the war on terror; accused him of going on an "apology tour."

Religion and women's rights in the 1800s

-Some early feminists thought religious doctrines were a direct challenge to women's advancement -Elizabeth Cady Stanton, an early proponent of suffrage for women, was an agnostic who thought the Bible was used to oppress women; She authored The Women's Bible, which sought to reinterpret scripture to remove those elements that placed women in a subservient position to men; book was controversial and frequently denounced. Even Stanton's allies, such as Susan B. Anthony, thought the project was a mistake and hindered the movement's goals -temperance movement (the movement to ban alcohol) was from the beginning perceived as a woman's movement -heavy drinking among men resulted in widespread abuse and neglect of their families; solving this problem was perceived as a critical issue for women and children

What did the Roe v. Wade decision establish?

-States may not regulate abortion in the first trimester; At this stage, it is up to the woman and her physician -In the second trimester, states may impose some restrictions that are reasonably related to the woman's health -In the third trimester, after the fetus reaches the point of "viability," states may impose restrictions, as long as exceptions exist for cases when the woman's health is in danger

Immigration and religion

-Today, religion does not seem to be the most salient concern people have when it comes to their immigration attitudes -Immigration does not appear to be something they often hear about during religious services -To the extent that religion is considered a major factor, concerns that Muslim immigration is associated with terrorism is one of the key points - rather than concern that immigrants are not Christian

Religion and immigration in earlier historical periods

-United States did not start to receive a large number of non-Protestant immigrants until the 1840s -> led to a burst of anti-Catholic nativism -Another wave of non-Protestant immigration began in the 1890s -> led to a burst of anti-Catholic and anti-Jewish nativism

Islam and President Trump

-Unlike President Bush, Donald Trump campaigned on an explicitly anti-Muslim platform in the 2016 presidential election; called for a complete ban on Muslim immigration -Trump also rejected the premises of Bush's foreign policy; rejected the idea that democracy promotion was the solution, suggesting that terrorism was more of an immigration problem -After being elected, President Trump sought to put his "Muslim ban" into effect by banning migration from several majority-Muslim countries; move was easily blocked by the courts; much later, a more watered-down version was put into effect

Anti-Abortion movement in late 70s-80s

-abortion soon became a signature issue of groups like Moral Majority and Focus on the Family -Ronald Reagan presidency -attempts to amend the Constitution to ban abortion failed -over time, the issue would become more partisan: Democrats became more consistently pro-choice, Republicans became more consistently pro-life

What role have mainline protestants played in politics?

-always played an important role -once dominant in America, producing most the American elite -currently in a period of decline, both in terms of numbers and cultural and political influence -Examples of mainline denominations: Episcopalian, United Methodist Church, Presbyterian Church (USA), Evangelical Lutheran Church of America -denominations played important roles during Civil Rights Movement and anti-war movements

What was Steve Bruce's view?

-argued that Stark was wrong -true that we don't have great data from long swaths of history, so some of Stark's claims are hard to disprove -data from past 150 years presents a different picture than Stark suggests; shows massive decline in church attendance; true across denominations -number of children that attend Sunday School has also plummeted -percentage of the population employed as religious clergy has similarly dropped -fewer people possess even basic Christian beliefs, or even know what they are

Why was Schlafly against the ERA?

-argued that this amendment would remove all the privileges women enjoy, and give them nothing of value in return -argued: it would lead to women being drafted into combat roles in the military; it would mean the end of gender-specific bathrooms; it would lead to the end of child-support and alimony from divorced men

Northern abolitionist

-began preaching that slavery was sinful -leaders like Charles Finney made anti-slavery a religious crusade -religious anti-slavery movements really took off in the 1830s -leading figures included William Lloyd Garrison, Arthur and Lewis Tappan, and Theodore Weld -debate among abolitionists was how slavery should be eliminated -some favored recolonization - return of blacks to Africa, other leading abolitionists called for "immediatism" (no time to waste on debating what to do for or about freed slaves; moral evil of slavery needed to be ended immediately) -Anti-slavery publications included William Lloyd Garrison's newspaper, "The Liberator", published continuously from 1831 until the Civil War

How did Schaeffer form lasting impact?

-both of Schaeffer's films were turned into books, which became best-sellers -worked with Focus on the Family, which gave away tens of thousands of copies of the books -films were screened to evangelical audiences across the country; was a major event in evangelical circles - though largely ignored by the mainstream media, which seemed not to notice -Jack Kemp was shown the films and was strongly influenced, soon seeking to make opposition to abortion a key part of the Republican Party platform

Religion and the 20th Century Civil Rights Movement

-both secular and religious inspirations; would be disingenuous to give religion all the credit -religious groups provided crucial organization to the movement -Black pastors were organizing protests well before Martin Luther King, Jr. entered the arena

What were the results of the Anti-Abortion movement?

-despite many Republican presidents since the pro-life movement was created, its successes, at least at the national level, have been limited -despite a majority of Supreme Court justices appointed since 1980 being Republican appointees, Roe v. Wade was not finally overturned until 2022 -decision at odds with public opinion, but did represent a big win for the movement -political and policy consequences of this development are still not entirely clear

Why distrust of Mormonism from other Christians?

-did not just offer a new interpretation of the Bible, added holy scripture with the Book of Mormon -some argue that Mormonism isn't really part of Christianity (Mormons say that it is)

Mormon social practices

-early Mormons raised the most eyebrows with their practice of plural marriage (polygamy) -still associate this practice with Mormonism, even though Mormon leadership banned the practice in 1890 -only a small number of splinter groups still believe in this practice

What do early studies show about the relationship between religion and political tolerance?

-early studies showed that religious behavior and religious affiliation influenced political tolerance -regular church attenders appeared less tolerant than others; Southern Protestants were less tolerant than Northern Protestants, Catholics, and Jews -later studies also showed that the non-religious showed the highest levels of political tolerance

How did Schlafly fight the ERA?

-extremely adept at organizing conservative religious women -turned previously apolitical women into a major force within conservative politics -extremely effective organizer, responsible for the Religious Right's most significant long-term victory

What was the DOMA?

-federal law that denies federal recognition of same-sex marriages and authorizes states to refuse to recognize same-sex marriages licensed in other states found unconstitutional -other states should be able to ignore marriages lawfully entered by same-sex couples; federal government similarly does not have to recognize or honor those marriages -states can offer SSM if they choose, but other states do not, and can disregard arrangements made elsewhere

How are marriage trend harming religious denominations?

-fewer people are getting married, and thus less likely to raise children in the context of a religious family -those who are not married are increasingly unlikely to attend worship services -however, does NOT explain why religion and marriage are so strongly correlated -regardless of the reason for the relationship, evidence shows that marriage leads to a greater church involvement for men; for men, getting married is both associated with attending worship more frequently and taking part on other church-sponsored groups and events

political explanation for declining religiosity

-findings underscore the degree to which politics is not just about public policy; for many, being a Republican or a Democrat is a critical component of our self-conception, overwhelming other sources of identity -extremely important because can explain a lot of the apparent paradoxes of American politics, like how we can be so angry about politics even though we are also typically ignorant of policy

South on religion and slavery

-general (but not uniform) belief that enslaved people should have some religious instruction -Ministers who preached to enslaved people were often very limited in what they could preach -African Americans developed their own Christian denominations, first in the North and later across the nation

Possible explanations for secularization: churches and other religious bodies become insufficiently strict

-have churches and other religious bodies become insufficiently strict? -paradoxically, what if people are leaving religion precisely because religions no longer ask enough from people? -some scholars have argued that all successful religious movements make high demands on their members and are actively and unapologetically exclusionary; do not want members who do not participate fully in the life of the church -rather than provide a casual, entertaining, and welcoming atmosphere, churches may benefit from being ostentatiously demanding

Dispensationalism

-holds that both the Old Testament and New Testament are interpreted using literal grammatical-historical interpretation -entered popular culture with Hal Lindsey's 1970s mega-bestseller The Late Great Planet Earth -Left Behind series also followed this tradition

Why was the pro-life movement formed?

-in response to pro-choice reforms -began with small groups of Catholic doctors, nurses, lawyers, and other activists -1967, the National Council of Catholic Bishops assisted in the creation of the National Right to Life Committee -mostly Catholic movement for a time, but from the beginning it included some non-Catholics -new pro-life movement was starting to enjoy some successes at the state level in the early 1970s

Religious debates about slavery

-internal debates within denominations, sometimes causing splits -In early 1800s, tensions were mounting between Baptists in the North and South -In 1845, the Southern Baptist Convention was formed as a result of this split - the SBC fully supported slavery -Methodist Church also split over slavery before the Civil War; church would later reunite -Catholic Bishops were not united on the question of slavery -Maryland and Louisiana had some of the largest Catholic populations, but both were slave states

What did the Federal Constitutional Marriage Amendment?

-introduced May 21, 2003 -"Constitutional Amendment - Declares that marriage in the United States shall consist only of the union of a man and a woman. Prohibits the Constitution or any State constitution, or State or Federal law from being construed to require that marital status or its legal incidents be conferred upon unmarried couples or groups" -At that time, majorities of Americans continued to oppose the legal recognition of same-sex marriages

Anti-abortion as a human rights cause

-key aspect of the pro-life movement was to present human fetuses as complete human beings (and thus entitled to the same rights as anyone else) -John and Barbara Willke's Handbook on Abortion showed pictures of aborted fetuses, with the goal of demonstrating their humanity -use of such pictures has since become common in the pro-life movement

How do protestant leaders and members differentiate?

-leaders of these churches tend to be liberal, members tend to be moderate or conservative -leadership tends to embrace the "social gospel" tradition, calling for progressive reforms

How did the religious right change in the 1990s?

-learned from its mistake; less sectarian -different Christian groups, as well as some Jews, became more willing to work toward a shared political end -new strategy= taking over the Republican Party from the bottom up

How did religion affect public policy?

-less relevant to foreign policy, with the exception of the long-standing Israel-Palestine conflict -Jewish Americans have been consistently pro-Israel -Certain Protestants have also taken extreme interest in the Israel question -Much of this has to do with beliefs about "End Times" Prophesies

How did Francis Schaeffer impact the pro-life movement?

-made two major documentary series that made the case for the pro-life cause -How Should We Then Live?: series showed how Western Civilization had (as Schaeffer understood it) declined over recent centuries; argued that the retreat from Christian values was responsible for many of the 20th century's worst horrors (WWII, etc.) -Whatever Happened to the Human Race?: documentary series was more explicitly about abortion; argued that the practice of abortion demonstrated the West's slide toward barbarism; Co-creator was C. Everett Koop (who would later become Ronald Reagan's Surgeon General)

Why could these religious ideas be consequential?

-many believers in these prophesies believe the creation of the state of Israel after WWII was evidence that the End Times were approaching -This religious view of Israel, some critics have argued, has made it hard to view the issue of Israel's relationship with its neighbors as an ordinary foreign policy issue

Possible explanations for secularization: General social disengagement

-maybe people aren't abandoning churches per se, perhaps people are leaving all institutions that meet in person like this perhaps the decline of organized religion is coming from the same source as the decline of social capital more broadly -withdrawal from communal life is especially pronounced among young people, who, on average, do not belong to voluntary organizations, give money to charity, or volunteer in their communities

What is secularization?

-mean the decline of religion; weakening of social and political power of religions -could mean a few different things: Separation between church and state; Decline of religious institutions; Rejection of traditional religious doctrines; Rejection of any kind of supernatural beliefs -tend to assume that all of these things are occurring

How do Modernists differ from Fundamentalists?

-modernists are more likely to emphasize human freedom -"[The modernist] insists on the right of criticizing and judging the Bible as we criticize and judge all other literature"

What followed women gaining the right to vote?

-period of minimal gender-specific activism -still a broad cultural consensus that there were specific gender roles for men and women, and relatively little push for a broader cultural change -start to change in a significant way in the 1960s and 1970s, as policies that specifically and overtly impacted women became politically noticeable

What do recent studies show about the relationship between religion and political tolerance?

-more recent studies found less of a difference between Protestants, Catholics, and Jews, but the empirical evidence was mixed -one 1982 study found that, after controlling for other variables, religion had NO independent effect on political tolerance -when it comes to political tolerance, religion has received less attention from political scientists than variables like education; scholars of religion have considered the question in greater detail -trends can be context dependent; in the 1950s, there was less tolerance for communists -may not mean we have become more tolerant; may just mean that no one feels threatened by communists anymore -most recent quality research challenges the assumption that religiosity leads to intolerance; included sufficient measures and controls, fixing some of the problems with earlier research -people with more orthodox religious beliefs did not differ from other subjects; religious believers and secularists did not differ in their willingness to tolerate their least-liked group; religious commitment had a direct positive impact on political tolerance -maybe some of the things we thought we knew about religion and tolerance were wrong

What did Christian Coalition acheive?

-more successful than Moral Majority -helped conservative Christians achieve important positions within the Republican Party -focused on taking over state parties and winning local races -eventually, the leadership of the Republican Party was increasingly dominated by conservative Christians

Where are immigration skeptics found?

-most Christian parts of the country tend to be where we find the most skepticism about immigration -it is not clear that Christianity is causing their opposition to immigration; may just be more conservative in a general sense

César Chávez

-most famous organizer for Latino interests -religion was an important part of his movement -goal was to achieve better conditions for Latino laborers who were being exploited -his community organizing for farm workers used similar non-violent approach as movement for African American Civil Rights -drew heavily on Catholicism and Latino religious traditions - though also received pushback from Catholic establishment

Mitt Romney

-most well-known Mormon politician in America today -Former Governor of Massachusetts -2012 Republican presidential nominee -Current U.S. Senator from Utah -many people assumed that Romney's Mormonism would hurt his political prospects; Conservative evangelicals and secular liberals have both expressed prejudice toward Mormons - though for different reasons -In 2012, anti-Mormon prejudice may have hurt Romney a little, but not enough to sway the election

What was the "New Right" movement?

-new generation of conservative activist calling for more populist approach to politics in 1970 -leaders like Paul Weyrich and Richard Viguerie wanted to take more adversarial approach to the "culture war" to bring new voters to Rep. party -hoped traditionally Dem. groups, like Northern white Catholics, could be brought to GOP

What pushed Religious Right's growth in the 70s?

-new generation of political evangelical Christians became prominent (Jerry Falwell, Southern Baptist; Pat Robertson, Pentacostal) -evangelical literature (The Late Great Planet Earth, Hal Lindsy, 1970, End Times prophesies) -apocalyptic literature would become mainstay of Christian publishing -"Mega Church" phenomenon taking off

How does age affect declining religiosity?

-people from all religious traditions see a significant drop-off in religious activity during their young adult years and do not typically return to high levels of religious involvement until they form families of their own; Young adulthood is also when many of us are most passionate about partisan politics and become likely to surround ourselves with copartisans and social networks become partisan echo chambers -both Republicans and Democrats from religious households decrease their religious activities in the first years of adulthood, but show different rates of return; Democrats are less likely to return to their religious fold; the opposite is true for Republicans; party identification reason for both cases

African Methodist Episcopalian Church

-perhaps most historically significant African American denomination -grew out of the Free African Society, founded in 1787 -sought from an early date to be free from white influence -denomination spread throughout Northern cities, eventually reaching the West Coast in the 1850s -managed to make some inroads in the South before the Civil War

What do African American religious institutions tend to promote?

-progressive political positions, focusing on racial justice and economic redistribution -Jesus is often presented as a liberating figure who brings justice to the world -despite the fact that, in terms of theology, African Americans tend to be more "conservative" on questions about the inerrancy of the Bible and the need to be "born again" to achieve salvation -place on a heavy emphasis on "family values"

What was the Equal Rights Amendment?

-proposed constitutional amendment to guarantee legal gender equality for women and men -was very close to entering the Constitution when Schlafly got involved

What did Moral Majority allow Falwell to do?

-pursue partisan politics; not have been possible with his others organizations bc required to stay focused on religious ministry -Moral Majority quickly began giving money to Republican candidates

Reasons for religious right's growth

-pushback against the counter-culture and rising secularism -pushback against the gay liberation movement -new interest in abortion -fight against the Equal Rights Amendment -disappointment with President Carter

When did immigration revamp?

-reforms in 1965 began a new period of large scale immigration -quota system that was biased toward Northern Europe ended; family reunification became a priority; new immigrants began coming from Latin America, Asia, and Africa causes: -Cold War politics -Civil Rights Movement and trend away from radical discrimination

Religion in the Cold War

-religion loomed large during the Cold War -nature of communism caused many to view the conflict through a religious lens -Communism was formally and explicitly atheist

Possible explanations for secularization: decrease of shared cultural understanding

-religion used to be one of the few cultural traits that was commonly shared among Republicans and Democrats -religion could be a de-politicized space, where Republicans and Democrats could be together in a non-partisan setting -decline of religion on just one side of the political divide will likely only make Republicans and Democrats even farther apart, politically

What is the argument for religion is important to African Americans?

-religious groups have been important for African American civil rights victories -strong argument to be made that religion has helped foster group consciousness among African Americans, and helped them develop the resources they needed to challenge their marginality

What was the official beginning of Mormonism?

-roots during 2nd Great Awakening, period of great religious innovation -official beginning claimed in 1820 in New York, when Joseph Smith claimed he had a vision from God -Smith began the Mormon Church in 1830. -faced major persecution; Smith was killed by a mob in 1844 -Brigham Young became the new leader; moved followers to Utah in 1847

Obergefell v. Hodges (2015)

-same-sex couples have a constitutional right to marry -groups of same-sex couples sued their relevant state agencies in Ohio, Michigan, Kentucky, and Tennessee to challenge the constitutionality of those states' bans on same-sex marriage or refusal to -Court held that the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment guarantees the right to marry as one of the fundamental liberties it protects, and that analysis applies to same-sex couples in the same manner as it does to opposite-sex couples

What was Rodney Stark's thesis?

-secularization is not occurring; instead, should not assume earlier eras were ever very religious -never been a religious "golden age" -most people never very religious -assume that there were periods when Europe was absolutely dominated by the church; but the truth (according to Stark) is that religious attendance was always low -general public's knowledge of Christian doctrine was limited, almost non-existent -growth of organized Christianity didn't actually do very much to shape the beliefs and practices of ordinary people

One Conservative view on declining religiosity

-some conservatives have argued that liberal denominations have declined precisely because they are liberal -Dave Shiflet's book, Exodus: Why Americans are Fleeing Liberal Churches for Conservative Christianity, argued that liberal churches have abandoned biblical teachings in favor of more fashionable political causes -problem= conservative denominations are now also shrinking

How can political beliefs predict the attitude toward religion in the future?

-some evidence that people's political beliefs can predict their likelihood to abandon their religion in the future; policy preferences that are closely tied to religious beliefs appear to be significant predictors of future behavior regarding religion -in his study of religious disaffiliation, Nicholas Vargas found that political attitudes predicted religious behaviors; specifically, support for same-sex marriage increased the probability that an individual would consider leaving his or her religion in the future, and the probability that such a person would actually do so; exhibiting support for Christian political groups had the reverse effect -problem= If the religious right is to blame for American secularization, why has secularization gone farther and faster in countries that never had a religious right?; answer may be that the politicization of religion led to a partisan divide in secularization; argument made by Michelle Margolis in her book, From Politics to the Pews

Is the Religious Right contributing to declining religiosity?

-some groups argue that Christianity declined because of the Religious Right; argues, as Christianity became increasingly associated with conservatism, progressives abandoned Christianity -as groups such as the Moral Majority and the Christian Coalition flexed their political muscles and sought to influence American political discourse, liberal Americans who were only weakly attached to their religious identities renounced organized religion altogether in response -promoted by scholars like Michael Hout and Claude Fischer

How have Catholics viewed abortion?

-some of the most vociferous opponents of legalized abortion -pro-life when many evangelical denominations were still pro-choice -Catholic doctrine holds that abortion is equivalent to murder because fetuses are human and thus entitled to the right to life -Abortion is no longer considered a uniquely Catholic issue

How did the religious right view Ronald Reagan early?

-strongly supportive of Reagan in the 1980 election and continued to support him throughout his presidency -believed they were responsible for his victory, and expected concessions -Republican leaders never really liked Falwell and others like Falwell; didn't appreciate that they thought they could push them around -Very little of the Christian Right's social agenda was put in place during the Reagan Administration

Why have Latin religious identity not received as much scholarly attention as religion and civil rights for African Americans?

-subject has been harder to study because there was comparatively little variation in Latino religious identity -Latinos majority Catholic -Some critics argued that the Catholic Church has done little to advance social action -historically, Catholicism has played an important role in Latino political mobilization

How was same-sex marriage originally viewed?

-subject of SSM is mostly quiet now, but for a time it was perhaps the most contentious issue in the "culture wars" -Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA) from 1996 was an early high-profile political event -Response to marriage equality developments in Hawaii; Some members of Congress were worried that, if same-sex couples won the right to marry in Hawaii, the federal government and other states might have to start honoring those marriages so passed DOMA in an effort to prevent that

What was the religious right's view of segregation?

-support for segregation one of many elements driving creation -white parents withdrawing their children from desegregated public school and sending them to private, segregated Christian schools -organized to defend IRS from denying these schools tax exempt status -major issue for Christian Right in early years

What political side does Jewish population lean?

-tend to be more liberal than other groups, especially groups with comparable levels of economic success -Jewish Americans made up a disproportionate share of the white supporters of the Civil Rights Movement

Differs from use of religion in questions of race

-the Bible was used effectively by all sides of the debate during the country's many controversies over race -different biblical passages could be interpreted in various ways; modern concepts of race did not exist at the time the Bible was written -situation is a bit different when it comes to gender and sexuality. Relations between men and women, as well as acceptable sexual behavior, are addressed specifically, multiple times; easier to reach conservative conclusions directly from the text itself -feminist interpretations of Christianity, and some denominations have followed that path

Possible explanations for secularization: decline of family

-unambiguous relationship between trends in the family and trends in religion: less religion --> fewer babies -arrow points both directions: less religion --> smaller families; smaller families --> less religion -Sociologist Robert Wuthnow found that married young Americans remain very likely to be involved in religious congregations; likelihood that young married Americans will attend religious services has not changed since the 1970s -unmarried Americans are both becoming much less likely to attend worship services and they are growing as a percentage of the population; unmarried young men are particularly unlikely to attend worship services

What is the relationship between women, religion, and politics?

-women have been involved in politics from the beginning, though they were not guaranteed equal right to the vote until 1920 -women were important players in political causes such as the abolition of slavery and the prohibition of alcohol -religious revivalism was sometimes directly related to new political activism from women -recall that egalitarianism was a key element of the Second Great Awakening of the 1800s

Content‐Controlled Political Tolerance Scale Items

1. Members of the (subject‐selected least‐liked group) should be banned from being president of the United States. 2. Members of the (least‐liked group) should be allowed to teach in public schools. 3. The (least‐liked group) should be outlawed. 4. Members of the (least‐liked group) should be allowed to make a speech in this city. 5. The (least‐liked group) should have their phones tapped by our government. 6. The (least‐liked group) should be allowed to hold public rallies in our city.

When was the National Association of Evangelicals founded?

1942

Successful Anti-SSM initatives

2002 - Nevada votes to approve a state constitutional ban on same-sex marriage 2004 - Voters in Arkansas, Georgia, Kentucky, Michigan, Mississippi, Montana, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon and Utah pass a ban 2005 - Kansas and Texas pass similar bans 2006 - SSM banned in Alabama 2008 - SSM rejected by voters in California

Where are most Mormons located?

Because of history of Mormon migration, Mormons are still found in the greatest number in Utah and surrounding states

Who was the face of the evangelical movement in the second half of 20th centruy?

Billy graham (1918-2018)

Premillennialism

Christ will return prior to the millennium

Postmillennialism

Christ's Kingdom has already begun

What was the new group called in the 90s?

Christian Coalition

Different views on Biblical Prophesies

Different Christian groups have taken different approaches to the prophetic books of the Bible (especially The Book of Revelation and The Book of Daniel)

What was the first state to offer partnership?

Hawaii; May 1997 becomes the first state to offer domestic partnership benefits to same-sex couples

Drew from Christian tradition to make his case

In response to "outsider" critique, King noted that the "Apostle Paul left his village of Tarsus and carried the gospel of Jesus Christ to the far corners of the Greco Roman world, so am I compelled to carry the gospel of freedom beyond my own home town. Like Paul, I must constantly respond to the Macedonian call for aid"

What was the state of Christian Right organizations by end of the 1970s?

Moral Majority was joined by other key organizations, such as the National Christian Action Coalition, the Religious Roundtable, Concerned Women for America, the Freedom Council, and the American Coalition for Traditional Values

prominent Mormon politicians

Sen. Harry Reid (D-NV), former Senate Majority Leader Sen. Orrin Hatch (R-UT) Sen. Jeff Flake (R-AZ) Gov. Jon Huntsman (R-UT)

Amillennialism

There will not be a literal kingdom in this world ruled by Christ

What created the Moral Majority?

Weyrich and Falwell chance meeting in 1979

What was Schaeffer's message to conservative evangelicals?

called on conservative evangelicals to set aside their hostility toward Catholics, Mormons, and Jews for the sake of building a broad-based anti-abortion movement

white evangelical Christians typically associated with ________ politics

conservative

Would religion still be a factor, now that "godless communism" was no longer the main opponent?

hard to measure the direct effects of religion, given that religion is often associated with other relevant variables (party identification, for example)

Millennialism

idea that there will be a golden age on Earth prior to the final judgment

What caused the immigration pause?

many things came together to make these immigration reforms happen: -Post-WWI isolationism -The Red Scare and fear of communism -Eugenic ideas about the superiority of "Nordic" immigrants -The desire to maintain the "Anglo-Protestant" character of the U.S.

Dispensational Premillennialism

more literal interpretation of scripture; Christ will return and rule for 1,000 years; Satan will be bound; After 1,000 years, Satan will be released, the final rebellion against Jesus will occur, and the final judgment will determine who is found in the Book of Life; associated with belief in the "rapture" (day believers will be take from the earth before the tribulation begins)

black Protestants typically associated with ________ politics

progressive