psci 101d midterm #2

What are the limitations of Piaget's theory?

-Age of skill acquisition often younger than Piaget said -Required motor skills or language -New methods and technologies now available -Alternate explanations for development -Social interactions and cultural experiences critical to advance development -Children gradually build knowledge, they don't go through different qualitative stages

what is Overregularization?

-Application of rules of grammar even when exceptions occur -Makes language seem more "regular" than it actually is

What are the differences between bilinguals and monolinguals in theory of mind?

-Bilinguals are slightly more advanced in ToM tasks -By age 5, children know who understands which language and don't code switch w/ monolingual person- ex. Of ToM -Bilingual children get more experience with language-switch situations, like in modified ToM2) -Bilingual children have better executive functioning (e.g. inhibiting incorrect responses)

What are gender differences in emotion? How do different theories explain these differences (e.g., biological, cognitive, and social learning theories)?

-By age 2 ½, girls express and talk more abt most emotions -boys display more anger and are more aggressive -Girls emotional expressions more appropriate to the situation Biological theories: chromosome and hormones; starting before puberty, continuing through adulthood, boys have higher testosterone Cognitive theories: schemas, knowledge Social learning theory: modeling, imitation, rewards Children: w/ older sisters are more feminine w/ older brothers more masculine w/ moms who work outside the home hold less gender stereotypic beliefs =

2. How does the brain change, and when do the changes occur?

-By age 2, a child's brain weighs 75 percent of what it will in adulthood. -The brain reaches 90 percent of adult weight by age 6. -From ages 2 to 6, maturation of the prefrontal cortex has several notable benefits: Sleep becomes more regular, Emotions become more nuanced and responsive, Temper tantrums decrease or subside, Uncontrollable laughter and tears are less common -Amygdala is not well connected to the rational center of the brain, so kids experience heightened terror for non-terrible things (light turns off in room so child thinks a monster is going to eat them) Impulsivity and preservation

What are the brain changes during middle childhood (e.g., corpus callosum, myelination, prefrontal cortex)?

-Corpus callosum matures and enables balance and improved handedness -Myelination speeds up thoughts and behaviors -The prefrontal cortex develops which allows better control processes

What is Vygotsky's view of middle childhood?

-Education occurs everywhere and knowledge is acquired from social context. -Instruction is essential. -Guiding each child through the zone of proximal development is crucial. -Culture affects how children learn, not just what they learn -Children can be taught logic; they do not need to discover conservation, classification, seriation, and so on. -Vygotsky emphasized that the lessons a child learns depend on parents, teachers, and the social context, not merely maturation

What's the Flynn effect?

-Increase in population IQ observed throughout the 20th century -IQ scores increased by 3 points on average per decade -IQ gap between Blacks and Whites was closing (Blacks gained at faster rate -50%- than Whites since WWII) -We've learned how to classify the world intellectually -Cognitive revolution: we think abstractly and conceptualize things Hidden curriculum -Implicit values and assumptions of schools -Schedules, tracking, physical surroundings, teacher characteristics/ ethnicity/ expectations, discipline, teaching methods, sports competitions, school climate, student government, and extracurricular activities -Growth VS fixed mindset

What is theory of mind?

-Person's theory of what other people might be thinking -Understanding that others can have different thoughts and knowledge -Emergent ability, slow to develop but typically beginning in most children at about age 4 -Can be seen when young children try to escape punishment by lying -A person's theory of what other people might be thinking. In order to have a theory of mind, children must realize that other people are not necessarily thinking the same thoughts that they themselves are. That realization seldom occurs before age 4 -theory of mind depends not only on maturation but also on social experience

What is the role of "play" in development?

-Play helps children learn things like social and creative skills including how to interact with others and make oneself happy -Many developmentalists believe play is children's most productive/ enjoyable activity -Intrinsic -As children combine their imagination with other kids, they advance in theory of mind and gain emotional regulation -Physical health improves

What are pragmatics?

-Practical use of language, adjusting communication to audience and context -Difficult aspect of language -Demonstrated through role-playing

What is scaffolding?

-Temporary support to help children learn -Often adults, but anyone with knowledge or skills -Temporary support that is tailored to a learner's needs and abilities and aimed at helping the learner master the next task in a given learning process. -When providing scaffolding, a teacher or a peer tutor does not make the task easier but instead makes the learner's job easier by giving the child maximum support in the beginning stages and then gradually withdrawing this support as the child's mastery of a new skill increases. -encouraging children to look both ways before crossing the street (pointing out speeding trucks, cars, and buses while holding the child's hand) or letting them stir the cake batter (perhaps covering the child's hand on the spoon handle, in what Vygotsky called guided participation) Vygotsky

3. What is myelination and how does it relate to thinking/behavior?

-The extra 15% of the brain that grew includes dendrites, myelination, and the prefrontal cortex -Faster thinking thanks to myelination (myelin: fatty coating on axons that speeds transmission up between neurons) -Improving the rate of practice thus increasing mastery of skills -Myelin - white matter; neurons - grey matter (sometimes referred to as) Myelin is a fatty coating on the axons that protects and speeds signals between neurons -Myelin organizes the very structure of network connectivity ... and regulates the timing of information flow through individual circuits -myelination speeds impulses from one neuron to another improving the rate of practice and thus increasing mastery of skills

What is the zone of proximal development?

-Things that someone is capable of doing, but can't do on their own -This zone will change throughout development as one gains competency (or loses competency) -an intellectual arena in which new ideas and skills can be mastered -Proximal means "near," so the ZPD includes the ideas and skills that children are close to mastering but cannot yet demonstrate independently. Vygotsky

What aspect of children's cognition did Vygotsky emphasize?

-Vygotsky believed that cognitive development is embedded in the social context at every age. He stressed that children are curious, observing and thinking about everything they see. -culture is transmitted from one generation to the next. social learning -Every aspect of children's cognitive development is embedded in the social context. Mentors: Provide guidance -Present challenges -Provide guidance as knowledgeable sources. -Offer assistance (without taking over). -Add crucial information.Encourage motivation. Private speech: talking to oneself Social mediation: language advances thinking by facilitating social interaction

How does memory change during childhood?

-Working memory improves gradually and markedly through processing -Culture differences -Information from working memory is transferred to long-term memory -Memory storage age expands over childhood, but more important is retrieval -Can be taught new strategies including visual cues and auditory hints -Benefit from organizing things to be remembered -Memory becomes adaptive and strategic as kids learn more memory techniques from mentors -Can organize material themselves and develop their own memory aids Knowledge base Broad body of knowledge in a particular subject that makes it easier to remember and understand new information and can judge: Accuracy What is worth remembering What is insignificant Vocabulary and language knowledge bases expand greatly

1. How does the body change during childhood?

-average BMI is lower at ages 5-6 yrs than any other time of life -each year of early childhood they grow 3 inches & gain almost 4.5 lbs -Weight and height increases and the relationship between these measurements changes -by age 6 average child is at least 3.5 ft tall, weigh between 40-50 lbs, look lean/ chubby, have adult like body proportions (legs make up about half of total height) -Children become slimmer as the lower body lengthens. -Center of gravity moves from the breastbone down to the belly button. -Baby teeth are replaced from ages 6-10

what are the obstacles to logic?

-centration: young child focuses (centers) on one idea, excluding all others (ex: young children may insist that Daddy is a father, not a brother, because they center on the role that he fills for them) -egocentrism: young children's tendency to think about the world entirely from their own personal perspective -a particular type of contrition -contemplate the world exclusively from their personal perspective -not selfishness -focus on appearance: young child ignores all attributes that are not apparent -For instance, a girl given a short haircut might worry that she has turned into a boy. -static reasoning: young child thinks that nothing changes; whatever is now has always been and always will be. -They believe that the world is stable, unchanging, always in the state in which they currently encounter it. -Many children cannot imagine that their own parents were once children. If they are told that Grandma is their mother's mother, they still do not understand how people change with maturation. -One child asked his grandmother to tell his mother not to spank him because "she has to do what her mother says." -irreversibility: young child thinks that nothing can be undone; a thing cannot be restored to the way it was before a change occurred. -A young girl might cry because her mother put lettuce on her sandwich and still reject the food when the lettuce is removed, because she thinks what is done cannot be undone.

When does Piaget's Preoperational Thought stage occur?

-early childhood -between ages of 2-6 (7) -second of Piaget's four periods of cognitive development

What are the rates of suicide in adolescence?

11.6% of girls and 5.5% of boys had suicide attempts in 2014 For girls: more than 22% thought about suicide For boys: 12% thought about suicide U.S. high school students (2019), 11% of girls, 7% boys attempted suicide in previous year Rates of completed suicide are uncommon Girls have higher rates of parasuicide, while boys have higher rates of completed suicide

What is the goal of middle childhood according to Erikson (e.g., industry versus inferiority)?

4th of Erikson's 8 psychosocial crises Tensions between productivity and incompetence, attempt to master culturally valued skills and develop a sense of themselves as either industrious or inferior, competent or incompetent Self-concept: ideas about self that include intelligence, personality, abilities, gender, and ethnicity

What are Tanner Stages?

5 stages of physical pubescent development used to chart progress (secondary sex characteristics)

CHAPTER 7 When is middle childhood?

6-11 years old

What is emotion regulation?

Ability to control expression and experience of emotion (effortful control) -"Of critical importance": ages 3-5 (no real critical period actually) -Emotional regulation helps kids boast less and appreciate modesty

What is fast mapping and when does it emerge?

An ability to acquire a word rapidly on the basis of minimal information from context used to narrow meaning. -Context (e.g., rest of sentence, other information) used to narrow meaning -Can learn after single exposure -Social-pragmatic cues help infer meaning indirectly (eye gaze) -Indirect learning as rapid as direct learning Early preschool years -Logical extension: after learning a word, kids use it to describe other objects in the same category

What are the different ways of "measuring the mind" (e.g. intelligence)?

Aptitude Ability to master a skill or know a certain body of language Achievement tests Mastery IQ tests; Stanford-Binet, WISC Thought to measure brain functioning Multiple intelligences: Gardner Linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalistic, and existential Each associated with an area of the brain Plasticity Neurodiversity Intelligence is not fixed

How does social comparison facilitate development?

Assess one's abilities, achievements, social status, and other attributes by measuring them against other people usually peers Children value the abilities they have now become more realistic, prompts inter-group bias and prejudice, self-concept becomes influenced by the opinions of others

What are the different parenting styles?

Baumrind Authoritarian parenting: characterized by high behavioral standards, strict punishment of misconduct, and little communication from child to parent -warmth: low -discipline: strict, often physical -expectations of maturity: high -communication parent to child: high -communication child to parent: low Permissive parenting: characterized by high nurturance and communication but little discipline, guidance, or control -warmth: high -discipline: rare -expectations of maturity: low -communication parent to child: low -communication child to parent: high Authoritative parenting: parents set limits and enforce rules but are flexible and listen to their children -warmth: high -discipline: moderate, with much discussion -expectations of maturity: moderate -communication parent to child: high -communication child to parent: high Neglectful/ uninvolved parenting: parents seem indifferent toward their children, not knowing or caring about their children's lives

What's the role of peers in middle childhood? How do friendships shift?

Become super important Concrete operational thought (awareness of reality) causes kids to become VERY aware of classmates' opinions, judgments, and accomplishments Help each other learn academic and social skills Loyalty to each other is good and bad Affected by each other's IQ ("smart" friends make u smarter, and vise versa) Friendships become more intense and intimate over the years of middle childhood, as social cognition and effortful control advance. They choose carefully, share secrets, expect loyalty, change friends less often, are upset when they lose a friend, and find it harder to make new friends. Older children tend to choose friends whose interests, values, and backgrounds are similar to their own. By the end of middle childhood, close friendships are usually between children of the same sex, age, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status.

CHAPTER 9 when does puberty occur and how do hormonal changes happen?

Begins before physical markers; hypothalamus tells pituitary gland to release hormone 8-9 in girls; 9-10 in boys Physical signs 10-11 girls; 11-12 boys Very large range

What are regulation strategies (e.g., behavior strategies, metacognitive strategies) and when do they develop?

Behavior strategies change emotional expression or what is happening "now" via Sanbehaviors; may or may not change internal feelings. Efforts to change expression or situation Metacognitive strategies change feelings so that emotional experience is different; change thoughts and feelings so that negative emotions go away, change a goal. Efforts to change emotion experienced. Can 5-6 year olds use metacognitive strategies to change their emotions?? Piaget: No, Static Reasoning/ irreversibility But evidence suggests otherwise: Yes, ( Davis, Levine,Quas et. al)

What developmental changes occur due to these brain changes (during middle childhood; e.g., corpus callosum, myelination, prefrontal cortex)? What are the benefits of physical activity in childhood? What are the potential concerns?

Benefits: advances in physical, emotional, and mental health; academic achievement improvement due to cerebral blood flow and more neurotransmitters; better mood and energy Concerns: not always beneficial; traumatic brain injury Fine motor skills in school Selective attention - executive function Visual-spatial memory developed most in kids in fine arts Memory, inhibition, and flexibility improve Embodied cognition - sensorimotor actions are closely linked to our thinking

What are the advantages of bilingualism?

Bilingual children get more experience with language switch situations Bilingual children have better executive functioning ( e.g. inhibiting incorrect responses) Many children learn to speak more than one language, gaining cognitive as well as social advantages Bilingual brain may even provide some resistance to Alzheimer's disease in old age

What is resilience and what factors contribute to resilience?

Capacity to adapt to adverts and overcome stress Kids' interpretation of events, family and community support, personal strengths (optimism, intelligence, etc.), avoidance/ parentification

What is theory-theory?

Children attempt to explain everything they see and hear. -Ask questions, develop hypotheses, gather data, draw conclusions -Example: "Mommy, do blueberries come from trees?"

How are peers organized (e.g. cliques, crowds)?

Clique: Cluster of close friends that are loyal and exclusive (ex. Mean girls Plastics) Crowd: Larger group that shares interests and values, not always friends; have signs of identity (ex. Group you have lunch with) -Both have guidance, support, and control via comments, exclusion, and admiration

What 5 strategies are effective for child literacy?

Code-focused teaching. In order for children to read, they must "break the code" from spoken to written words. One step is to connect letters and sounds (e.g., "A, alligators all around" or "B is for baby"). Book-reading. Vocabulary and print-awareness develop when adults read to children. Parent education. When parents know how to encourage cognition (listening and talking), children become better readers. Adult vocabulary expands children's vocabulary. Language enhancement. Within each child's zone of proximal development, adults help children expand vocabulary. That requires mentors who know each child's zone and individualize conversation. Early-education programs. Children learn from teachers, songs, excursions, and other children. (We discuss variations of early education next, but every study finds that preschools advance language acquisition.)

What are the different types of control (e.g., coercive, monitoring)?

Coercive: Slapping, yell, take privileges away, grounding, screaming after disobeying or disapproval Monitoring: Teens communicating with parents where they are going, with who, and what time to go on their own (sometimes some lying...)

What are the four aspects of family closeness?

Communication: Do family members talk openly with eachother? Support: Do they rely on each other? Connectedness: How close are they emotionally? Control: Do parents encourage or limit teen autonomy?

What is Piaget's perspective on cognitive abilities in middle childhood (concrete operational thought, classification, class inclusion, seriation)? What is concrete operational thought and when does it occur?

Concrete operational thought -New logical abilities; emphasis on productive thinking -Allows kids to understand math -the ability to reason logically about direct experiences and perceptions -7-11 yrs? Conservation -Preoperational kids focus on appearance which prevents them from grasping conservation, but concrete operational children understand it -Can apply conservation to liquids, length, volume, number, matter Classification -Logical principle that things can be organized into groups according to common characteristics -Organizing things into groups, categories, or classes according to common characteristics -Mental operation of moving up and down the hierarchy of categories is beyond preoperational children but aids learning in school children --Class inclusion: what gets included at a given level of a category. -Major challenge all the way through middle childhood (e.g. subclasses vs. superclasses). EX: bacon is pork, and meat, and food Class inclusion What gets included at a given level of a category Seriation Knowledge that things can be arranged in a logical series such as the alphabet or number sequence -crucial for understanding number sequence "Concrete operational thinkers begin to understand that 15 is always 15 (conservation), that numbers from 20 to 29 are all in the 20s (classification), that 134 is less than 143 (seriation), and that because 5x3=15, it follows that 15/5 must equal 3 (reversibility). By age 11, children use mental categories and subcategories flexibly, inductively, and simultaneously, unlike at age 7"

What are conflict and cohesion?

Conflict When you and your mother discussed XX (chores, cursing, etc), how intense was the discussion? 1 = very calm to 5 = very angry Cohesion My mother/father and I are supportive of each other during difficult times 1 = almost never to 5 = almost always

What are identity and identity achievement?

Consistent definition of one's self as a unique individual in terms of roles, attitudes, aspirations, and beliefs Identity achievement -Erikson's term for the attainment of identity, or the point at which a person understands who he or she is as a unique individual in accord with past experiences and future plans -Emotional separation from childhood + reliance of family and community -Difficult for teens who are conflicted about the clash between family values and society norms

How do hormonal changes affect emotional responses in adolescence?

Cortisol raises making adolescents quick to react with passion, fury, shame, or ecstasy Sudden and intense emotional responses

What role does culture play in psychological maturation?

Cultures and families differ in which attitudes and accomplishments they value -The same expectations can be very different Five functions of Supportive family -children's physical needs; to encourage learning; to support friendships; to protect self-respect; and to provide a safe, stable, and harmonious home

What is the "culture of children"?

Customs, rules, and rituals passed down to younger children by slightly older ones; a child's goal is to join a culture/ be in a group (the in-group), more value in independence Jump-rope rhymes, insults, superstitions Everchanging but not always benign 1) Defend your friends 2) Don't snitch to adults 3) Conform to peer standards

How does attachment change?

Despite drive for independence, parents are still primary attachment, parents move from problem solvers to resources. Parents move from proximity to availability.

What is deviance training?

Destructive peer support in which one person shows another how to rebel against authority or social norms

What influences friendships?

Developmental changes, family, and culture

What influences emotion regulation?

Dramatic changes in childhood; number and duration of emotional outbursts decrease Heavily influenced by adults (scaffolding; provide comfort, label emotions, direct attention)

What is adolescent egocentrism and what does it lead to (e.g., imaginary audience, personal fable)?

Egocentrism: a characteristic of adolescent thinking that leads young people (ages 10-13) to focus on themselves to the exclusion of others (David Elkind) Imaginary audience: the other people who, in a teen's egocentric belief, are watching and taking note of his or her appearance, ideas, and behavior. This makes teens very self-conscious Personal fable: an aspect of adolescent egocentrism characterized by an adolescent's belief that their thoughts, feelings, and experiences are unique, more wonderful, or more awful than anyone else's Rumination: thinking obsessively about self-focused concerns, worrying about what they might say or do which can make them fearful of action (ruminate on it)

What role does evolution play in risk taking in adolescence?

Engaging in risk-taking behv might help teens break away from their original family and find their mates Risk-taking -> develop reproductive status which can be reached through social status, controlling resources, mating success, and other relevant outcomes

What are episodic and autobiographical memories? How does autobiographical memory develop?

Episodic Memory Memory of episodes placed in time Example: What I had for lunch on Sunday Autobiographical Memory (subtype of episodic memory) Memory of personally significant events, placed in time, important for defining oneself development: -Emerges gradually across preschool years -through interactions with others, children learn what is important, how to organize memories, and how to recount experiences (tell stories)

How do societal demands facilitate development?

External motivations -> internal motivations EX: responsibly perform specific chores, manage a weekly allowance and activities

How and why does conflict harm children?

Family conflict harms children especially when fights are about the kids; more common in step-families, divorcees, and extended families Genes have less of an effect

How do family structure and function interact?

Genetic and legal connections among related people are usually measured by who lives in the household EX: nuclear family, single parent, stepparent family, adoptive, same-sex, SNAF, etc. Function refers to how people in a family actually care for each other >>Needs of kids (physical, learning, peer relationships, etc.) Family can act as a buffer to trauma, specifically resilient parents Function is more important than structure but it is harder to measure

What are the predictors of pubertal onset?

Genetic! Stress (chronic) Parental divorce Weight (over - sooner; under - later) Race Where and when you were born

What are the effects of early versus late puberty onset in boys and girls?

Girls Harsher mental effects; more risks; teen pregnancy; poor academics; not fitting in with peers; sexual attention too early; lack of sex ed Boys Aggression; poor academics; risk-taking; increased attention; increased maturity expectation

CHAPTER 10 What is Erikson's fifth stage of development?

Identity VS role confusion Person tries to figure out who they are but is confused as to which of many possible roles to adopt

CHAPTER 8 What is incremental vs. entity growth?

Incremental: growth mindset (wanting to change to be better; having a difficult challenge but doesn't give up after that challenge) -intelligence is malleable/ can change with effort Entity: fixed mindset (have a hard time wanting to better; would rather cheat than to improve self) -intelligence is fixed/ cannot change with effort

What is social exclusion?

Individuals are unable to fully participate in full economic, social, political, and cultural life (exclusion from group activities) Increases as children form group memberships (roots of prejudice and group bias start as early as 3 YO)

What are inductive and deductive reasoning?

Inductive reasoning from one or more specific experiences or feats to reach (induce) a general conclusion (also called bottom-up reasoning) Deductive reasoning from a general statement, premise, or principle, through logical steps, to figure out (deduce) specifics (also called top-down reasoning) >>Hypothetical-deductive reasoning: think of possibility; transforms perceptions but not always for the better. Criticizing everything "Here and now" is less interesting than "there and then," "long, long ago," "some future day," and "never"

What is moral development (e.g., cognition/judgement, emotion, behavior)?

Innate values of fairness, kindness, and equality Intellectual maturation advances moral thinking (Kohlberg) Children's growing interest in moral issues is guided by three forces (1) child culture (2) empathy (3) education Culture affects morality Differentiating intentions and actions

How do brain changes relate to risk taking?

Instinctual and emotional areas develop ahead of the reflective and analytic areas

What factors influence familial dysfunction?

Low income/ poverty Family stress model(v) Wealth (^)

How does maltreatment affect emotional competence?

Maltreated kids have lower emotional competence, hyper-sensitivity to others' emotions, overreacting with hostility and aggression, difficulty understanding others' emotions

What is code mixing?

Mixing words from two languages in same sentence

Know types of bullying and how to reduce bullying.

Most bullies are not rejected, but are sometimes quite popular (not an outburst of frustration, but an attempt to gain status during middle childhood) Physical Verbal Relational Cyberbullying What does not work (increases aggression) Increasing student awareness of bullying 0 tolerance for fighting Putting bullies together in therapy groups/ classrooms Alerting parents of bullying (parent may abuse child) Telling authorities (breaking code of child culture: no snitching) Thinking of bullies as unhappy, unloveable, insecure people with a bad home life What works Entire school, kids, and parents should be involved and taught to recognize bullying and reduction tactics Convivencia: culture of cooperation and positive relationships within a community Easier when kids are younger Encouraging multicultural sensitivity

Know factors impacting child popularity and categories of unpopular children.

Neglected Not rejected or shunned, just ignored Aggressive-rejected antagonistic/ confrontational Withdrawn-rejected -Timid and anxious -Both aggressive-rejected and withdrawn-rejected children have three difficulties: They often (1) misinterpret social situations, (2) lack emotional regulation, and (3) experience mistreatment at home. All three problems not only cause rejection, but the rejection itself makes the other problems worse -Popularity also depends on cultural norms, which change over time.

What is gender identity?

One's self perception as either male, female, both, or neither

What does parental conflict/closeness look like during adolescence?

Parent-child conflict is less evident in cultures that stress familism, the belief that family members should sacrifice personal freedom and success to care for one another

What are the various types of play?

Parten's stages of play Solitary pretend: child plays alone Social: with playmates -Rough n tumble play: play wrestling -Sociodramatic play: role-playing, rehearse social roles, practice emotional regulation, develop self-concept in a non-threatening context Onlooker: child watches other children play Parallel: children play near but not together Associative: children interact. Share materials, but do not take turns Cooperative: children play together and take turns

How do social relations change in middle childhood (e.g., parents, peers)?

Peer: short interactions, minimal commitment, may be one-sided Friend: regular sustained interactions, reciprocal liking, and respect Dyads: interactions between pairs of kids

How do peers influence risk taking behavior?

Peers encourage risk-taking behv since teen brains are more attuned to immediate admiration from their peers/ activating the reward center in their brain

What is formal operational thought and when does it occur?

Piaget states the 4th and final stage of cog dev is characterized more by systematic logical thinking and by the ability to understand and systematically manipulate abstract concepts; starts ~12YO

What is Kohlberg's cognitive theory of moral judgement?

Pre-conventional level Preoperational thought; egocentric, children most interested in personal pleasure/ avoiding punishment 2 stages (1) Punishment-obedience orientation: The most important value is to maintain the appearance of obedience to authority, avoiding punishment while still advancing self-interest. Don't get caught! (2) Instrumental and relativist orientation: Everyone prioritizes their own needs. The reason to be nice to other people is so that they will be nice to you Conventional level Concrete operational thought; current, observable practices, kids watch their peers and follow suit 2 stages (3) Good girl and nice boy: The goal is to please other people. Social approval is more important than any specific reward. (4) Law and order: Everyone must be a dutiful and law-abiding citizen, even when no police are nearby. Post-conventional level Formal operational thought; uses abstractions, willing to question what is in order to decide what should be 2 stages (5) Social contract: Obey social rules because they benefit everyone and are established by mutual agreement. If the rules become destructive or if one party doesn't live up to the agreement, the contract is no longer binding. Under some circumstances, disobeying the law is moral. (6) Universal ethical principles: Universal principles, not individual situations (level I) or community practices (level II), determine right and wrong. Ethical values (such as "life is sacred") are established by individual reflection and religious ideas, which may contradict egocentric (level I) or social and community (level II) values.

How does the brain change during puberty?

Prefrontal cortex matures gradually Explains why adolescents are more emotional and less analytical (prefrontal cortex still developing) HPA (hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal) axis HPG (hypothalamus-pituitary-gonad) axis (sex hormones) Circadian rhythm

What is Piaget's theory of moral judgement?

Premoral >5 YO; little concern for rules Moral realism 5-10 YO; great respect for rules Moral absolutism: rigid application of rules to all individuals. Immanent justice: any deviation from rules will inevitably result in punishment Moral reciprocity +11 YO; rules may be questioned and altered, consider the feelings and views of others, and believe in equal justice for all Moral issues Whether punishment should seek retribution Whether punishment should seek restitution Retribution vs. restitution: should punishment seek revenge or restoring what was lost? -Ages 8 to 10 morally advance from retribution to restitution, thinking about the given dilemma and discussing it more led more kids to choose restitution -It is important to encourage kids to think about behavior and talk to peers

What is the difference between peer pressure and peer support?

Pressure -Encouragement to conform to one's friends or contemporaries in behavior, dress, and attitude; usually considered a negative force, as when adolescent peers encourage one another to defy adult authority. -refers to someone being pushed by their friends to do something that they would not do alone. -Friends choose, teach, and encourage each other. This is shown in coercive joining, when two people join together in making derogatory comments about a third person. Support -Process of giving and receiving encouragement and assistance to achieve long-term recovery -Friends help adolescents cope with ups and downs. They also influence sexual activity, more by what they say than by what they do

What is conservation?

Principle stating that the amount of a substance remains the same (i.e., is conserved) despite changes in its appearance -one glass is poured into a taller, narrower glass -Before age 6, most children say that the narrower glass (with the higher level) has more -According to Piaget, until children grasp the concept of conservation at (he believed) about age 6 or 7, they cannot understand that the transformations shown here do not change the total amount of liquid, candies, cookie dough, and pencils. -All four characteristics of preoperational thought are evident in this mistake. Young children fail to understand conservation because they focus (center) on what they see (appearance), noticing only the immediate (static) condition. They do not realize that they could pour the lemonade back into the wider glass and re-create the level of a moment earlier (irreversibility). -Children can indicate via eye movements or gestures that they understand conservation although they can't put that into words -Children's curiosity -Stressed discovery and child's need to explore and figure ideas out on their own (little/ no scaffolding)

CHAPTER 6 What is social-emotional development?

Process by which children become integrated into the larger society and differentiated as distinctive individuals How children learn standards, rules, knowledge of societyb) How children develop their own unique patterns of feeling, thinking, and behaving Erikson's 3rd developmental stage Initiative VS guilt -Initiative includes saying something new, beginning a project, and expressing an idea. Depending on what happens next, children feel proud or guilty. Gradually, they learn to rein in boundless pride and avoid crushing guilt -Protective optimism helps young children try new things and protects them from guilt/ shame by encouraging initiative Motivation Intrinsic motivation -From within, doing something for the joy of doing it (ex playing the piano for fun) -All of Erikson's psychosocial needs are intrinsic -Imaginary friends Extrinsic motivation -Outside the person. External praise or reinforcement is the goal -If the reward is removed, behv might stop

Why are drugs both attractive and destructive in adolescence?

Psychoactive drugs are most common Every hazard is more common when teens use psychoactive drugs Even more dangerous since the prefrontal cortex is not developed; wait till adulthood! Marijuana seems harmless partly because users are more relaxed than verbose but marijuana can still decrease academic performance, lower rates of employment, and higher rates of depression. Attractive: adolescents are influenced by each other, attracted to risks, less experienced, and must cope with new moods and social pressures. Novelty is exciting. Destructive: adolescent bodies and brains are not yet formed, so artificial stimulation can interfere with rational thinking

What are cohort trends in drug use?

Rates are decreasing across all drugs except marijuana, which is seeing a rising trend in usage Drug use increases from ages 10-25, then decreases because adult maturation makes drugs less attractive Adolescent drug use in the U.S. has declined, except for vaping.

What are the benefits of providing basic information about puberty?

Reduces negative reactions and fears; increases positive feelings post-puberty

What is gender socialization?

Reinforcement/ criticism -Parents: big boys don't cry -Peers: shun boys for being emotional more than girls for being tomboys Modeling/ imitation -Siblings: children with older sisters are more feminine/ children with older brothers are more masc -Children whose mom works outside home hold less gender stereotypic beliefs and girls have higher career aspirations

How do relationships change during adolescence?

Relationships increase with peers and romantic partners -Increased attention to social interactions -Focus on important relationships -Concerns about fitting in with friends and other's evaluations It is a myth that adolescents prefer peers and reject parents; usually both are supportive

What is bullying?

Repeated systematic efforts to inflict physical, verbal, or social harm on a weaker person; REPETITION AND POWER!

Why do adolescents engage in risky behaviors?

Reward center in brain responds stronger than and faster than the inhibition part Impulse control center not fully developed Combination leads to high risk-taking esp in situations where decisions are made quickly

What is the difference between sadness and depression in adolescence?

Sadness is a normal human emotion and an unavoidable part of life while depression is psychopathological Sadness: moments of sadness are common but do not last Depression: lasts weeks or months and halts socializing, schoolwork, and self-care

What are the roles of selection and facilitation?

Selection Teens select friends whose values and interests they share and abandon friends who follow other paths Facilitation Peers facilitate both destructive and constructive behaviors in one another Makes it easier to do both the wrong thing and the right thing Helps individuals do things they would be unlikely to do on their own

What is stress and how can it hinder development?

Stressors threaten individual's life or physical integrity and elicit a subjective response of fear and helplessness Major stressors Daily hassles Impact of stress may lag

what is Grammar of language?

Structures, techniques, and rules that communicate meaning

What causes delinquency in adolescence?

Stubbornness, shoplifting, bullying, substance use, poor academic performance Externalizing and internalizing behavior Limbic system is activated, while prefrontal cortex is maturing more gradually Heightened activity in striatum-more inclined to imagine success than to fear failure Peer acclaim and rejection is deeply felt: adolescent crime often occurs in groups Absent mother and unsupportive family relationship

What is the role of technology in friendships and learning about sex during adolescence?

The internet allows romantic interaction with no chance of STI or pregnancy Texting 100x a day Sexting Popular students maintain their status with online posts that can be both antisocial and prosocial, and thus they often become victims as well as bullies

What is dual processing (intuitive and analytical thought)?

The notion that 2 networks exist within the human brain, one for emotional processing of stimuli and 1 for analytical reasoning Intuitive thought begins with a belief, assumption, or general rule (heuristic) rather than logic. Quick, powerful, and what "feels right" Analytic thought is the formal, logical, hypothetical-deductive thinking described by Piaget. Involves rational analysis of many factors with calculated interactions

What is metacognition?

Thinking about thinking

What is the information processing perspective?

Thinking is like a computer program; select relevant units of info, analyze and connect, express conclusions

What did Stubbs' study show about reactions to puberty?

Those who were more knowledgeable about their first period were less stressed on onset and felt better post-menarche

What's the role of self-esteem in middle childhood?

Too high: reduces effortful control, more aggression, less conscientious Too low: lower achievement, increased aggression Must find balance between too self-critical and not self-critical enough Self-conscious emotions guide social interactions but may overcome a child's self-concept, leading to psychopathology Onset of concrete thinking leads kids to notice material possessions and superficial items (brands)

How do parents monitor technological use for tweens versus teens?

Tweens may be bullied face-to-face pre-social media, but when they become teens the bullying can come from the different social dynamics in high school (online reputation, popularity, cyberbullying) Parents of tweens are more likely to monitor their technological use than parents of teens Prearming: conversations with teens about safely engaging with media (involves parent/child connection and regulation) Cocooning: restricting how media is used (more effective for young children than teens) Deference: giving teen autonomy and trusting their judgment on media use (ineffective for adolescents)

What language developments occur in middle childhood?

Understanding metaphors Adjusting language to context Pragmatics >>Change styles of speech (linguistic codes) Less language development in lower SES families

What is emotional competence?

Understanding, expressing, and regulating one's feelings, and recognizing emotions in others -Essential to mental health and self-control -Low competence predicts host of problems like aggressiveness and difficulties with peers -Emotional intelligence suggests intrapersonal and interpersonal understanding are among the essential aspects of intelligence that begin in early childhood -Ability to postpone gratification

What factors put family functioning at risk?

War, disasters, racism, and national policies may separate families Moving to another town upsets schoolchildren (not rly infants) Divorce/ conflict Low SES Low stability, high change Not having a stable peer support network

What is parentification and how does it relate to coping?

When a child is given parental responsibilities such as taking care of younger siblings, cooking meals, driving siblings to places, disciplining younger siblings, etc. It is the opposite reaction of cognitive coping: Child's interpretation of events and family situations are crucial. Children feel responsible for the entire family and claims family responsibilities Robs kids of being kids themselves at a young age; hurts inner-child psyche

What are the differences between bilingual and monolingual child language development?

bilingual Bilingual children ◦ Slightly more advanced in theory-of-mind tasks ◦ A little better in understanding others' perspectives, desires ◦ Enhanced sensitivity to some aspects of communication Bilingual adults ◦ Slight advantage on task switching and response inhibition tasks

What can children do during Piaget's Preoperational Thought stage?

it includes language and imagination (which involve symbolic thought), but logical, operational thinking is not yet possible at this stage. -think in symbols (symbolic thought: an object or a word can stand for something else, including something out of sight or imagined), not just via senses and motor skills -rapid acquisition of vocabulary -do not yet understand logical operations -Recognize that object/word can stand for something else -Use symbols to learn & interact with world -Symbols need to be present, visible -Cannot reason with symbols -Explains interesting limitations in children's abilities -explain animism, the belief that natural objects (such the sun and clouds) are alive and that nonhuman animals have the same characteristics as the child. Children's stories often include animals or objects that talk and listen -making such stories compelling because it is symbolic and magical, not logical and realistic. -2-7 yrs

Understand why obesity and asthma are increasing.

obesity: -Many 6- to 11-year-olds eat too much, exercise too little, and become overweight or obese as a result. -Finding play places may be difficult. ́Modern life challenges neighborhood play. ́Indoor activities often replace outdoor play. ́Economic barriers may limit participation in league and club activities. ́Time for school physical activities and recess is reduced in many schools. -Infants and preschoolers have lower rates than schoolchildren, which suggests that nurture is more influential than nature. -Nurture is more influential than nature with regard to obesity, so even if kids are more active they are eating more and moving less at home -Kids are more depressed and have fewer friends -Preterm birth -Formula instead of breast-feeding -TV in kids bedrooms -Soda instead of milk or water -Not enough sleep -High screen time -Less outside time -A depressed mother figure -Genetic influences >>Dozens of genes affect weight by influencing activity level, hunger, food preference, body type, and metabolism. -Parenting practices that increase obesity: >>Infants—No breast feeding and solid foods before 4 months >>Preschoolers—Bedroom TV watching and soda consumption >>Schoolagers—Insufficient sleep, extensive screen time, little active play Pester power Ability of kids to get adults to do what they want asthma: -Hygiene hypothesis: Children raised in very clean environments do not have as strong of an immune system, leading to higher cases of asthma since they are not exposed to airborne contaminants -Combination of genetic sensitivity to allergies, early URI, compromised lung functioning

What are role confusion, foreclosure, and moratorium?

role confusion Also known as identity diffusion or the opposite of achievement; situation in which a teen does not seem to know or care what their identity is foreclosure Erikson's term for premature identity formation which occurs when a teen adopts parents' or society's roles and values wholly without questioning or analysis Some follow every custom from their parents or culture, never exploring alternatives, taking on traditional values, roles, identities Some do the opposite: foreclosing on an oppositional, negative identity; rejecting all their elders' values and routines, again without thoughtful questioning moratorium A teen's choice of a socially acceptable way to postpone making identity-achievement decisions (ex. college)

How do children understand gender identity across development?

stagelike Gender identity: I'm a girl (age 2) Gender stability: Girls grow up to be mommies (age 4) Gender constancy: I will always be a girl (age 7) What is the difference between stability and constancy? Gender stability: A stage in which children aged four to five years recognize that gender is stable over time, but not necessarily stable in situations. For example, boys may become girls if they wear a dress. Gender constancy: The stage in which children realize that gender is consistent over time and in situations. KOHLBERG