PSY 105: Infant & Early Child Development CH 11-13 (Miele)
knowledge base
A body of knowledge in a particular area that makes it easier to master new information in that area.
dyslexia
Unusual difficulty with reading; thought to be the result of some neurological underdevelopment
People who are rejected by peers because of antagonistic, confrontational behavior are referred to as
aggressive-rejected
Based on her answers and her reactions, what would you say that Molly is focusing on when making her predictions?
the number of weights on either side of the fulcrum
Marisol knows she can use slang with friends but not with adults. She has learned
the pragmatics of language
1. According to one study cited in the text, even when children live in the same settings and attend the same schools, they follow family cultural traditions in the ways in which they learn. This is reflected in 2. Greg and Geoff live in the same setting and attend the same school. They follow family cultural traditions in the ways in which they learn. This is reflected in their
their academic achievement
1. At 6 years of age children know the names of _____ of objects and understand many parts of speech 2. Nima is almost 6 years old. According to the text, Nima and MOST children her age already know the names of _____ of objects and understand many parts of speech
thousands
Freud referred to middle childhood as the period of
latency
Which simile is MOST closely associated with the perspective of information-processing theories?
the child as a computer processing system
Learning disability refers to
difficulty in mastering a skill that others acquire easily
Preconventional moral reasoning
is similar to preoperational thought in that it is egocentric, with children most interested in their personal pleasure or avoiding punishment.
According to research, the MOST popular young children are
kind and cooperative
least restrictive environment (LRE)
A legal requirement that children with special needs be assigned to the most general educational context in which they can be expected to learn
Quiz: Which statement about education for the gifted is TRUE?
Each state has different selection and education practice for gifted students
acceleration
Educating gifted children alongside other children of the same mental, not chronological, age
home schooling
Education in which children are taught at home, usually by their parents
Consider this story of Angela from Zambia as well as the video from screen 8. How does education improve the lives of these girls? How does educating girls, in general, impact a community locally and society worldwide?
Through the positive experience of education, girls gain confidence and may be empowered to find new ways to help themselves, their families, and their communities thrive and/or to improve their economic status. In addition to noting that the equal education of girls is a fair and just action that respects the rights of children, education of girls is directly related to lower fertility rates, lower infant and child mortality rates, and lower maternal mortality rates, better protection from HIV/AIDS, trafficking, and abuse, and a higher likelihood that the next generation of children will go to school.
In theory, the potential to master a specific skill or to learn a certain body of knowledge is called
aptitude
More so than younger children, children ages 6 to 11:
are better at making plans, have longer attention spans and do not get frustrated as easily.
The practice of "no snitching" by middle school children is an example of
child culture
In which of Jean Piaget's stages of cognitive development do people become able to think abstractly and hypothetically?
formal operational
Erikson's _____ stage of psychosocial development is called industry versus inferiority
fourth
Quiz: According to research, the most popular young children are
friendly and cooperative
What is the MOST important item that affects personality as well as ability?
genes
1. Childhood weight positively correlates with 2. Eight-year-old Jamal's BMI is in the 85 percentile for his age. Which is MOST likely to contribute to his weight?
hours of television watched per day
Robert Sternberg and Howard Gardner criticized standard intelligence tests because the tests
ignore other types of intelligence
Seven-year-old Skyla is from Holland and speaks only Dutch. At her school in the United States, all subjects are taught entirely in English. This method of teaching a second language is called
immersion
Quiz: Like obesity, asthma is
the product of both nature and nurture
Ben's _____ memory retains an impression of a stimulus on his sensory organs
sensory
In an effort to increase competition between schools, some jurisdictions have issued _____ for students to allow parents to choose a private school. Once a child is enrolled, the school collects the money for that child's education
vouchers
Kohlberg's stage two of level one is also known as
look out for number one
metacognition
"Thinking about thinking," or the ability to evaluate a cognitive task in order to determine how best to accomplish it, and then to monitor and adjust one's performance on that task
_____ Americans under 18 are MOST likely to be diagnosed with asthma
African
Lev Vygotsky believed that children's learning was inhibited by
social isolation
Quiz: Kohlberg would expect a child whose thought processes are egocentric to display moral reasoning
with a punishment and obedience orientation
The Signs of Psychosocial Maturation over the Years of Middle Childhood* *Of course, culture is crucial. For example, giving a child an allowance has been typical for middle-class families in developed nations since about 1960. It was rare, or completely absent, in earlier times and other places.
-Children responsibly perform specific chores -Children make decisions about a weekly allowance -Children can tell time, and they have set times for various activities -Children have homework, including some assignments over several days -Children are less often punished than when they were younger -Children try to conform to peers in clothes, language, and so on -Children voice preferences about their after-school care, lessons, and activities -Children are responsible for younger children, pets, and, in some places, work -Children strive for independence from parents
Piaget believed that both of these possibilities are true and suggested three aspects that influence the process of cognitive development
1. Maturation of the brain; 2. Active experience with objects in the environment; 3. Social interaction with other children and adults
The Needs of Children in Middle Childhood
1. Physical necessities. Although 6- to 11-year-olds eat, dress, and go to sleep without help, families provide food, clothing, and shelter. Ideally, children live in a household where adults meet their basic needs. 2. Learning. These are prime learning years: Families support, encourage, and guide education. 3. Self-respect. Because children at about age 6 become much more self-critical and socially aware, families provide opportunities for success (in academic pursuits, in sports, in the arts, or whatever). 4. Peer relationships. Families choose schools and neighborhoods with friendly children and then arrange play dates, group activities, overnights, and so on. 5. Harmony and stability. Families provide protective, predictable routines in a home that is a safe, peaceful haven.
In the United States, more than 2 million people younger than age 18 take prescription drugs to regulate their emotions and behavior. In 2013, the rate for 6- to 11-year-olds was about _____ percent
10
The typical child can add, subtract, multiply, and divide multi-digit numbers at about age
10
According to the DSM-5, symptoms for ADHD must start before age _____
12
Ten-year-old Mindy's IQ score on the Stanford-Binet Intelligence test was 130. It is MOST likely that her mental age is _____ years old
13
In a survey of elementary schools nationwide, it was found that about one-third of the children had less than _____ minutes of recess each day
15
Mrs. Henderson is in charge of a toddler daycare and is considering introducing early reading to her pupils. She has pupils with mothers with a college education and pupils whose mothers didn't finish high school. About how many of the 2-year-old children in each group can she expect to be involved in daily reading at home?
24 percent of children of mothers with less than a high school education and 70 percent of children of mothers with at least a college degree
Quiz: The percentage of U.S. 18- to 24-year-olds who say that they had no arts education as children is
50 percent
Howard Gardner originally described _____ intelligences. He added two more after further thought
7
Quiz: In the past year, a survey indicates that ____ percent of children saw a dentist and ______ percent had good teeth
75; 70
About _____ percent of 5- to 9-year-old children in the United States in 2013 suffer from asthma
9
By age 10, the brain is what percent of its adult size?
95 percent
Quiz: According to the text, brain scans
>>A. All of the answers are correct<< B. have found that a thick cortex correlates with higher ability. C. are not entirely reliable. D. have found that a thinner cortex correlates with greater vocabulary.
Quiz: Which of the following has been correlated with asthma attacks?
>>A. All of these answers are correct<< B. cockroaches C. dust mites D. airtight windows
ESL (English as a Second Language)
A U.S. approach to teaching English that gathers all the non-English speakers together and provides intense instruction in English. Their first language is never used; the goal is to prepare them for regular classes in English.
No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB)
A U.S. law enacted in 2001 that was intended to increase accountability in education by requiring states to qualify for federal educational funding by administering standardized tests to measure school achievement.
multifinality
A basic principle of developmental psychopathology that holds that one cause can have many (multiple) final manifestations
equifinality
A basic principle of developmental psychopathology that holds that one symptom can have many causes.
attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
A condition characterized by a persistent pattern of inattention and/or by hyperactive or impulsive behaviors; ADHD interferes with a person's functioning or development.
autism spectrum disorder (ASD)
A developmental disorder marked by difficulty with social communication and interaction—including difficulty seeing things from another person's point of view—and restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities.
individual education plan (IEP)
A document that specifies educational goals and plans for a child with special needs
polygamous family
A family consisting of one man, several wives, and their children.
nuclear family
A family that consists of a father, a mother, and their biological children under age 18.
single-parent family
A family that consists of only one parent and his or her biological children under age 18.
specific learning disorder (learning disability)
A marked deficit in a particular area of learning that is not caused by an apparent physical disability, by an intellectual disability, or by an unusually stressful home environment.
achievement tests
A measure of mastery or proficiency in reading, mathematics, writing, science, or some other subject.
automatization
A process in which repetition of a sequence of thoughts and actions makes the sequence routine, so that it no longer requires conscious thought
voucher
A public subsidy for tuition payment at a nonpublic school. Vouchers vary a great deal from place to place, not only in amount and availability but also in restrictions as to who gets them and what schools accept them
private school
A school funded by tuition charges, endowments, and often religious or other nonprofit sponsors.
immersion
A strategy in which instruction in all school subjects occurs in the second (usually the majority) language that a child is learning.
bilingual schooling
A strategy in which school subjects are taught in both the learner's original language and the second (majority) language.
sociocultural perspective
A theory that how the social and cultural environments in which a person is raised interact with an individual is an influential force in human development.
hypothetical-deductive thought
A thought process characteristic of teenagers in which they can imagine variables and hypothetical aspects that may influence an outcome and can understand how the altering of any these variables or aspects may change the outcome.
Quiz: Which statement is TRUE?
A. A higher percentage of students attend religious schools in Japan than in any other country. >>B. U.S. fourth-grade teachers taught more math definitions than applications when compared to teachers in Japan and Germany.<< C. Home schooling is illegal in the United States. D. In all nations, every child receives free public education through college.
Quiz: According to the text, which statement regarding health habits for children is TRUE?
A. Children's health habits are strongly influenced by peers and parents. B. Children who have poor health are typically more vulnerable throughout their life span. C. It is vital to establish good health habits before adolescence >>D. ALL OF THE ABOVE<<
Quiz: Vygotsky believed that children learn from their
A. culture B. peers. C. teachers. >>D. All of these answers are correct<<
Quiz: Sophia and Jackson are planning to marry soon and have children within the next few years. According to the text, some advantages of this nuclear family should be
A. education. >>B. All of these answers are correct.<< C. earning potential. D. emotional maturity.
Which of the following groups may be responsible for recruiting child soldiers or informants in Colombia?
A. government forces B. leftist guerillas C. paramilitary death squads >>D. All of the Above<<
Quiz: The 10- to 17-year-old "child soldiers" in Sierra Leone who were interviewed when the war ended were found to have pathological depression and anxiety. Two to six years later, however, many were functioning normally, without the previous symptoms. Which of the following increased that likelihood?
A. if their daily routines were resumed B. if at least one caregiver survived >>C. All of these answers are correct.<< D. if their community didn't reject them
Quiz: Christi is a single mother with two kids. She fills many roles as a single parent, such as
A. lover (seeking a new partner). B. daughter. >>C. All of these answers are correct.<< D. wage earner.
Special Education Summary
About 13 percent of all school-age children in the United States receive special education services. These services begin with an IEP (individual education plan) and assignment to the least restrictive environment (LRE), usually the regular classroom. A strategy to reduce the number of children with special needs is to notice when children are having difficulty and then providing special help. This strategy, called response to intervention, allows most children to learn. Some children are unusually intelligent, talented, or creative. Many states and nations provide special education for them. The traditional strategy—skipping a grade—no longer seems beneficial. Instead, in the United States, gifted and talented children are usually educated as a special group.
Does cognition improve naturally with age, or is teaching crucial to its development?
According to Piaget, children shift from preoperational to concrete operational thinking between ages 5 and 7. This shift happens naturally, and results in thinking that is more systematic, objective, scientific, and educable. According to Vygotsky, school can be crucial for cognitive growth. Peers and teachers provide the bridge between developmental potential and needed skills via guided participation and scaffolding in the zone of proximal development.
Building on Theory Summary
According to Piaget, middle childhood is the time of concrete operational thought, when egocentrism diminishes and logical thinking begins. School-age children can understand classification, conservation, and seriation. Vygotsky stressed the social context of learning, including the specific lessons of school and learning from peers and adults. Culture affects not only what children learn but also how they learn. An information-processing approach examines each step of the thinking process, from input to output, using the computer as a model. This approach is useful for understanding memory, perception, and expression. Memory begins with information that reaches the brain from the sense organs. Then, selection processes, benefiting from past experience, allow some information to reach working memory. Finally, long-term memory indefinitely stores images and ideas that can be retrieved when needed. A broader knowledge base, logical strategies for retrieval, and faster processing advance every aspect of memory and cognition. Control processes are crucial. Children become better at controlling and directing their thinking as the prefrontal cortex matures. Metacognition and executive processing improve over the years of middle childhood and beyond.
Video Activity: Child Soldiers and Child Peacemakers-According to the video, how do children become participants in war? What is the effect of war on the lives of children?
Adults teach children to hate, and they let children handle weapons as if the weapons are something wonderful. Children become frightened, saddened, and physically hurt by the violence of war
Video Activity: Child Soldiers and Child Peacemakers- Refer back to the video on the previous screen and consider the reasons why these Colombian teenagers began the special election that encouraged children country-wide to vote for peace. Do you see evidence of hypothetical-deductive thought in the video from this screen and/or the video from the previous screen? Please support your answer with specific examples.
All teenage leaders of this movement had experienced personal loss because of the violence in their lives, yet they believed that there had to be a better way to solve the problems in their country. They realized that adults were unable to take the needed action to begin a dialogue about peace. Because of their abilities to conceive of other ways of life, these teenage leaders were not willing to settle for the status quo and thought about other possibilities, namely peace. Furthermore, they were also able to actualize their ideas to achieve their goals for peace.
The Nature of the Child Summary
All theories of development acknowledge that school-age children become more independent and capable in many ways. Erikson emphasized industry, when children busily strive to master various tasks. If they are unable to do so, they feel inferior. Freud described latency, when psychosexual needs are quiet. Children develop their self-concept during middle childhood, basing it on a more realistic assessment of their competence than they had in earlier years. Self-respect is always helpful, but high self-esteem may reduce effort and is not valued in every culture. Low self-esteem is also harmful. Both daily hassles and major stresses take a toll on children, with accumulated stresses more likely to impair development than any single event on its own. Resilience is aided by the child's interpretation of the situation and the availability of supportive adults, peers, and institutions.
response to intervention (RTI)
An educational strategy intended to help children who demonstrate below-average achievement in early grades, using special intervention.
Trends in Math and Science Study (TIMSS)
An international assessment of the math and science skills of fourth- and eighth-graders. Although the TIMSS is very useful, different countries' scores are not always comparable because sample selection, test administration, and content validity are hard to keep uniform.
National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP)
An ongoing and nationally representative measure of U.S. children's achievement in reading, mathematics, and other subjects over time; nicknamed "the Nation's Report Card."
Quiz: ___________ thinking, which gives children the ability to observe and use logic, propels them to think about morality
Concrete operational
Why are IQ tests not used as often as they were a few decades ago?
Because researchers have realized that IQ scores can change over time, many have lost confidence in IQ tests. Newer thinking focuses on the idea that intelligence is comprised of many abilities. Older IQ tests measured a single intelligence factor, g. More modern models, such as Gardener's theory of multiple intelligences, assert that there are a variety of skills that reflect intelligence. Another criticism of classic IQ tests is that they are culturally specific. A child who comes from another culture may score poorly because of his or her lack of cultural understanding rather than because of low intelligence.
What would happen if more parents let their children "go out and play"?
Besides physical fitness benefits, body movement improves brain functioning through improved cerebral blood flow and increased neurotransmitters. Neighborhood play is particularly beneficial because it is flexible. The play is active, interactive, and inclusive—ideal for children. It teaches ethics and cooperation. Many parents fear "stranger danger," so they keep their children inside instead of allowing free play in the neighborhood. However, the risks of obesity are greater than the risk that a child would be abducted.
Brain Development Summary
Brain development continues during middle childhood, enhancing every aspect of development. Notable are advances in reaction time and automatization, allowing faster and better coordination of many parts of the brain and body. Experience enhances coordination of brain impulses. IQ tests quantify intellectual aptitude, which increases in middle childhood. Most such tests emphasize language and logic ability and predict school achievement. IQ scores may change over time, as culture and experience enhance particular abilities. Achievement tests measure accomplishment, often in specific academic areas. Aptitude and achievement are correlated, both for individuals and for nations, and have risen in the past decades. Critics of IQ testing contend that intelligence is manifested in multiple ways, which makes conventional IQ tests that assume g, too narrow and limited. Multiple intelligences include creative and practical abilities as well as many skills not usually valued in typical North American schools.
Health Problems in Early Childhood Summary
Childhood obesity is a worldwide epidemic. Although genes are part of the problem, too little exercise and the greater availability of unhealthy foods are the main reasons today's youth are heavier than their counterparts of 50 years ago. Parents and policies share the blame. The incidence of asthma is increasing overall, with notable ethnic differences. The origins of asthma are genetic; the main triggers are specific environmental allergens, although research on asthma finds marked variation in causes, triggers, and consequences. Preventive measures include longer breast-feeding, increased outdoor play, and less air pollution, particularly from motor vehicles.
ELL's (English Language Learners)
Children in the United States whose proficiency in English is low—usually below a cutoff score on an oral or written test. Many children who speak a non-English language at home are also capable in English; they are not ELLs
Developmental Psychopathology Summary
Developmental psychopathology uses an understanding of normal development to inform the study of unusual development. Four general lessons have emerged: Abnormality is normal; disability changes over time; a condition may get better or worse in adolescence and adulthood; diagnosis depends on context. Children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) have potential problems in three areas: inattention, impulsiveness, and activity. Stimulant medication often helps children with ADHD to learn, but any drug use by children must be carefully monitored. People with a specific learning disorder have unusual difficulty in mastering a specific skill or skills that other people learn easily. The most common learning disorders that impair achievement in middle childhood are dyslexia (unusual difficulty with reading), dyscalculia (unusual difficulty with math), and dysgraphia (unusual difficulty with writing and spelling). Children with autism spectrum disorder typically have problems with social interactions and language. They often exhibit restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, and activities. Many causes are hypothesized. ASD is partly genetic; no one now views ASD as primarily the result of inadequate parenting. Treatments are diverse and controversial.
Why do children use slang, curse words, and bad grammar?
Due to gains in pragmatics, children learn to adjust their language to their audience. The informal code that children use with their peers often includes slang, curse words, and bad grammar because use of those things helps to differentiate peers from older people or strangers with whom the formal code would be appropriate.
1. _____ is a basic principle of developmental psychopathology that holds that one symptom can have many causes 2. Eight-year-old Randy has behavioral difficulty in school and is overly aggressive with the other children. His parents seem to ignore his problems and blame the school and the other children. His parents are convinced that Randy has attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. When they take him to a child psychiatrist, the psychiatrist is reluctant to give the diagnosis after observing the unhealthy interactions between the family members and between the parents. The psychiatrist's reluctance to give this diagnosis is based on the _____ related to the cause and diagnosis
Equifinality
Families and Children Summary
Families influence children in many ways, as do genes and peers. Although most siblings share a childhood home and parents, each sibling experiences different (nonshared) circumstances within the family. The five functions of a supportive family are to satisfy children's physical needs, to encourage learning, to support friendships, to protect self-respect, and to provide a safe, stable, and harmonious home. The most common family structure worldwide is the nuclear family, usually with other relatives nearby. Other two-parent families include adoptive, same-sex, grandparent, and step-families, each of which is capable of functioning well for children. However, each also has vulnerabilities. On average, children have fewer emotional problems and learn more in school if they live with two parents rather than one, especially if the two have a good parental alliance, so that both adults are caregivers. Single-parent families have higher rates of change—for example, in where they live and who belongs to the family. On average, such families have less income, which may cause stress. Nonetheless, some single parents are better parents than they would be if the child's other parent were in the household. Income affects family function, for two-parent as well as single-parent households. Poor children are at greater risk for emotional and behavioral problems because the stresses that often accompany poverty hinder effective parenting. No matter what the family SES, instability and conflict are harmful. Children suffer even when the conflict does not involve them directly, but their parents or siblings fight.
latency
Freud's term for middle childhood, during which children's emotional drives and psychosexual needs are quiet (latent). Freud thought that sexual conflicts from earlier stages are only temporarily submerged, bursting forth again at puberty.
childhood overweight
In a child, having a BMI above the 85th percentile, according to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control's 1980 standards for children of a given age
childhood obesity
In a child, having a BMI above the 95th percentile, according to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control's 1980 standards for children of a given age
Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS)
Inaugurated in 2001, a planned five-year cycle of international trend studies in the reading ability of fourth-graders
Which of the following is primarily responsible for the brain's increase in size during middle childhood?
Increase in the number of dendrites
_____ claim to measure the potential to learn or master a particular skill or body of knowledge
Intelligence tests
child abuse
Intentional neglect or physical, emotional, or sexual injury to a child.
An important contribution of the theory of cognitive development proposed by _____ is the realization that school-age children become concrete in their understanding, less egocentric, and more eager to learn
Jean Piaget
How would you determine whether or not parents treat all their children the same?
Proof is very difficult when human interaction is the subject of investigation, since random assignment is impossible. Ideally, researchers would find identical twins being raised together and would then observe the parents' behavior over the years.
1. Many people have criticized _____ for not taking cultural or gender differences into account. For example, caring for family members is much more important to people in some cultures than in others, which might make them avoid postconventional actions even as they are acting according to the highest morals of their society 2. Intellectual maturation advances moral thinking, according to
Kohlberg
A negative aspect of _____ approach is that he did not seem to recognize that although children's moral values differ from those of adults, they may be equally valid and strong
Kohlberg's
Language Summary
Language learning advances in many practical ways, including expanded vocabulary. Words are logically linked together and an understanding of metaphors begins. Children excel at pragmatics during middle childhood, often using one code with their friends and another in school. Many children become fluent in the school language while speaking their first language at home. Children of low SES are usually lower in linguistic skills, primarily because they hear less language at home and because adult expectations for their learning are low. This is not inevitable for low-SES families, however.
What causes remodeling, or pruning, during middle childhood? How is this process different in each individual child?
Maturation in the form of synaptic pruning, or remodeling, is a spontaneous process. In addition, the brain develops in large part due to the unique experience of each child because synapses that are used more frequently tend to be retained, and those that are not are lost.
control processes
Mechanisms (including selective attention, metacognition, and emotional regulation) that combine memory, processing speed, and knowledge to regulate the analysis flow of information within the information-processing system. (Also called executive processes.)
_____ refers to the ability to evaluate a cognitive task to determine how best to accomplish it and then to monitor and adjust one's performance on that task
Metacognition
A Healthy Time Summary
Middle childhood is a time of steady growth and few serious illnesses. Increasing independence and self-care allow most school-age children to be relatively happy and competent. Advances in medical care have reduced childhood sickness and death. During these years, health habits, including daily oral care, protect children from later health problems. Physical activity aids health and joy in many ways. However, current social and environmental conditions make informal neighborhood play rare. School physical education is less prevalent than it was formerly. Children who most need physical activity may be least likely to have it.
What can be done to stop a bully?
Most victimized children find ways to halt ongoing bullying by ignoring, retaliating, defusing, or avoiding. Friends can defend each other and restore self-esteem. The school community as a whole needs to change. When the school climate encourages learning and cooperation, children with high self-esteem are unlikely to become bullies. If peers within a school are encouraged to notice bullying and to empathize with the victim and learn to stop admiring the bully, this aggression decreases.
_____ is a basic principle of developmental psychopathology that holds that one cause can have many final manifestations
Multifinality
Teaching and Learning Summary
Nations and experts agree that education is critical during middle childhood. Almost all the world's children now attend primary school. Schools differ in what and how they teach, especially with regard to religion, languages, and the arts. International assessments are useful as comparisons, partly because few objective measures of learning are available. Reading is assessed with the PIRLS, math and science with the TIMSS. On both measures, children in East Asia excel and children in the United States are in the middle ranks. In the United States, the No Child Left Behind Act and the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) attempt to raise the standard of education, with mixed success. The Common Core, developed with the sponsorship of the governors of the 50 states, is an effort to raise national standards and improve accountability. Nations differ in how much overall control the central government has on education and how much choice and influence parents have. Unlike almost all other countries, in the United States, each state, each district, and sometimes each school retains significant control. Education is a political issue as much or more than a developmental one. Disagreements about the best type of school are frequent; some parents choose charter schools, others prefer private schools, and still others opt for home schooling. However, some parents value particular aspects of schooling (class size, homework) more than do many educators. More research is needed to discover what is best.
The U.S. law that requires annual standardized achievement tests for public school students is called the
No Child Left Behind Act
6. Can you think of any common "real-life" situations in which an understanding of conservation would allow a concrete operational child to react differently than a preoperational child? Provide several examples in the space below.
Older children who understand conservation would be less likely to be distracted by changes in the appearance of an object. Some typical examples: (1) Older children realize that breaking a cookie in half does not increase the amount of cookie available to eat; (2) Older children realize that pouring a bad-tasting liquid medicine into a wider glass does not decrease the amount that they need to drink; (3) Older children realize that spreading pieces of candy over a larger area does not increase the amount of candy.
The Peer Group Summary
Peers teach crucial social skills during middle childhood. Each cohort of children has a culture, passed down from slightly older children. Close friends are wanted and needed. Popular children may be cooperative and easy to get along with or may be competitive and aggressive. Children's judgment of popularity is affected by culture as well as the age of the children. Rejected children may be neglected, aggressive, or withdrawn. Aggressive and withdrawn children have difficulty with social cognition; their interpretation of the normal give-and-take of childhood is impaired. Bullying is common among school-age children and has long-term consequences for both bullies and victims. Bullies themselves may be admired, which makes their behavior more difficult to stop. Overall, a multifaceted, long-term, whole-school approach—with parents, teachers, and bystanders working together—seems the best way to halt bullying.
bully-vicitims
People who attack others and who are attacked as well. (Also called provocative victims because they do things that elicit bullying.)
A noteworthy contribution of the theory of cognitive development proposed by _____ is the realization that school-age children become more flexible in their use of logic
Piaget
1. _____ refers to the practical use of language, including the ability to adjust language communication according to audience and context 2. According to the text, shy 6-year-old children who are adept at _____ cope far better with the social pressures of elementary school than do those who are not as adept 3. Many children use codes in their text messages, such as "LOL" and "411." The use of these codes in this context indicates that the child understands
Pragmatics
comorbid
Refers to the presence of two or more unrelated disease conditions at the same time in the same person
aggressive-rejected
Rejected by peers because of antagonistic, confrontational behavior.
withdrawn-rejected
Rejected by peers because of timid, withdrawn, and anxious behavior
bullying
Repeated, systematic efforts to inflict harm through physical, verbal, or social attack on a weaker person. types of bullying: -Physical (hitting, pinching, shoving, or kicking) -Verbal (teasing, taunting, or name-calling) -Relational (destroying peer acceptance) -Cyberbullying (using electronic means to harm another)
What helps some children thrive in a difficult family, school, or neighborhood?
Resilience has been defined as "a dynamic process encompassing positive adaptation within the context of significant adversity." The social context, especially supportive adults who do not blame the child, is crucial. In general, a child's interpretation of a family situation determines how it affects him or her. Religious faith can be crucial in helping children cope because it provides hope and meaning.
Children's Moral Values Summary
School-age children seek to differentiate right from wrong. Peer values, cultural standards, and family practices are all part of their personal morality. Children advance in moral thinking as they mature. Kohlberg described three levels of moral reasoning, each related to cognitive maturity. His description has been criticized for ignoring cultural and gender differences and for stressing rationality at the expense of emotions. When values conflict, children often choose loyalty to peers over adult standards of behavior. As children grow older, especially when they discuss moral issues, they develop more thoughtful answers to moral questions, considering intentions as well as consequences.
How helpful are diagnosis, special education, and medication for children with special needs?
Specifics of diagnosis, prognosis, medication, and education are debatable; no child learns or behaves exactly like another, and no educational strategy always succeeds. Various strategies are apparent not only for children with disabilities but also for those who are unusually gifted and talented.
A person from _____ is MOST likely to value high self-esteem
The United States
selective attention
The ability to concentrate on some stimuli while ignoring others.
resilient
The ability to recover from adversity, difficulty, or challenge to return to a healthy emotional state and healthy level of functioning
resilience
The capacity to adapt well to significant adversity and to overcome serious stress.
executive function
The cognitive ability to organize and prioritize the many thoughts that arise from the various parts of the brain, allowing the person to anticipate, strategize, and plan behavior.
working memory
The component of the information-processing system in which current conscious mental activity occurs. (Formerly called short-term memory.)
sensory memory
The component of the information-processing system in which incoming stimulus information is stored for a split second to allow it to be processed.
long-term memory
The component of the information-processing system in which virtually limitless amounts of information can be stored indefinitely.
seriation
The concept that things can be arranged in a logical series, such as the number sequence or the alphabet.
child neglect
The failure to provide a child's necessary, age-appropriate care, including health care, nutrition, housing, education, supervision, and emotional nurturing.
developmental psychopathology
The field that uses insights into typical development to understand and remediate developmental disorders.
formal operational stage
The fourth and final stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development that is characterized by the new ability to think abstractly and to utilize logical and methodical ways to solve a problem. Formal operational thinkers can reason about ideas or objects that are not present.
industry versus inferiority
The fourth of Erikson's psychosexual crises of development when children discover that hard work brings results and praise. For those children who cannot master the work, feelings of inferiority and lack of self-esteem arise.
child maltreatment
The general term to describe all types of abuse to a child under the age of 18, including neglect and physical, sexual, emotional abuse.
Educating the Girls of the World: According to the video, which of the following statements is false?
The girls do not seem to want to go to school.
multiple intellegences
The idea that human intelligence is composed of a varied set of abilities rather than a single, all-encompassing one.
neurodiversity
The idea that people have diverse brain structures, with each person having neurological strengths and weaknesses that should be appreciated, in much the same way diverse cultures and ethnicities are welcomed. A person who is adept at numbers and systems but inept in social skills and metaphors might be recognized as having unusual gifts, rather than pitied for having an autism spectrum disorder
social comparison
The tendency to assess one's abilities, achievements, social status, and other attributes by measuring them against those of other people, especially one's peers.
family structure
The legal and genetic relationships among relatives; includes nuclear family, extended family, stepfamily, and so on.
Should parents marry, risking divorce, or not marry, and thus avoid divorce?
The legal status of the parents is not the most important factor. Instead, it is the stability that parents can provide that is critical. Marriage should be entered into slowly and carefully, and couples need to work to keep their relationship strong. If a divorce is the only solution to a troubled marriage, parents need to minimize transitions and strive to maintain the child's relationship with each parent.
classification
The logical principle that things can be organized into groups (or categories or classes) according to some characteristic they have in common.
child culture
The particular habits, styles, and values that reflect the set of rules and rituals that characterize children as distinct from adult society.
middle childhood
The period between early childhood and early adolescence, approximately from ages 6 to 11
aptitude
The potential to master a specific skill or to learn a certain body of knowledge
Flynn effect
The rise in average IQ scores that has occurred over the decades in many nations
preoperational stage
The second stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development (approximately between the ages of 18-24 months and 7) when a child is still focused on him/herself and cannot apply logic but develops the ability to engage in role-playing and symbolic play.
concrete operational stage
The third stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development (approximately between the ages of 7 and 11) when children begin to think logically but continue to struggle with understanding abstract or hypothetical concepts. Concrete operational thinkers can use inductive logic, which is the ability to make general assumptions based on specific experience, and reversibility.
reaction time
The time it takes to respond to a stimulus, either physically (with a reflexive movement such as an eyeblink) or cognitively (with a thought)
hidden curriculum
The unofficial, unstated, or implicit rules and priorities that influence the academic curriculum and every other aspect of learning in a school
What type of school is best during middle childhood?
The vast majority of students attend public schools, but there are growing numbers of charter schools, private schools, and home school options. Unfortunately, people disagree about the best education for a 6- to 11-year-old. Developmentalists do not agree on whether class size, daily homework, or a particular curriculum is preferable.
family function
The way a family works to meet the needs of its members. Children need families to provide basic material necessities, to encourage learning, to help them develop self-respect, to nurture friendships, and to foster harmony and stability.
Should the epidemic of childhood obesity be blamed on parents, schools, or policies?
There are "hundreds if not thousands of contributing factors" for childhood obesity. Genetic factors contribute to metabolism, body type, and appetite. In addition to contributing their child's genes, parents play a role through feeding decisions (such as breast-feeding or not and allowing their children to drink soda or not), exercise patterns, and family size. Children play a role in their own body size by utilizing their pester power over food and physical activity. There are cultural factors that contribute to food choices and activity levels, as well. Schools that require significant homework may deprive children of opportunities for physical activity, and the food choices available in the cafeteria and vending machines influence children's diets. Policies that affect the prevalence of parks, bike paths, and sidewalks can encourage or discourage physical activity, and subsidies for certain food commodities can make healthy or unhealthy food more or less expensive and available. In short, a dynamic-systems approach is needed to explain the epidemic of childhood obesity.
dyscalculia
Unusual difficulty with math, probably originating from a distinct part of the brain.
When would children lie to adults to protect a friend?
When child culture conflicts with adult morality, children often align themselves with peers. Peer values may outweigh adult values. There are three moral imperatives in middle childhood: Protect your friends; don't tell adults what is happening; conform to peer standards of dress, talk, and behavior.
Relatively few (7.6%) high school students said that they rarely or never wore a seat belt, whereas 41.4% reported having texted or emailed while driving during the 30 days prior to taking the survey. What factors might account for this significant discrepancy, especially since texting while driving is arguably much riskier than not wearing a seat belt?
Your answer might address the teenager's early-maturing amygdala (instinctual thinking and poor impulse control) and/or the immaturity of the prefrontal cortex (lack of decision-making skills and inability to measure risks). You could also touch on the invincibility fable, teenagers' need for social connectedness, or even the longevity of public intervention programs and ad campaigns promoting seat-belt use versus the relative recency of state bans on cell-phone use while driving.
4. There is clear evidence for age-related changes in logical reasoning on the balance scale task. How does Piaget explain these changes? In the space below, explain in your own words why older children perform better on the task.
Your answer should have touched on at least two of the three factors that Piaget claims are essential for cognitive development: 1. Maturation of the brain; 2. Active experience with objects in the environment; 3. Social interaction with other children and adults.
extended family
a family of three or more generations living in one household.
All of the following EXCEPT _____ arise primarily from genes and nonshared environment
abuse
Rita, who is unpopular among her peers, frequently ridicules and antagonizes other children. Her behavior suggests that she is a(n)
aggressive-rejected child
Michael went to high school in the United States from 1980 to 1984. His son Andrew went to same high school from 2008 to 2012. Michael likely received more _____ education than Andrew
art
According to Erikson's crisis of industry versus inferiority, children
attempt to master many skills
Quiz: According to the text, this disorder may be diagnosed in early infancy and some children show improvement by age 3; or late onset can occur with some brain disorders and is more common in females
autism spectrum disorder
1. The process by which a sequence of thoughts and actions is repeated until it becomes routine and no longer requires conscious thought is 2. When Marshall was 6 years old, he learned how to ride his bike. When he first learned to ride, he had to concentrate on not falling and keeping his balance. Marshall, now 10 years old, does not have to consciously think about keeping his balance on his bike. Marshall's ability to do this is caused by the process of
automatization
MOST people have an intelligence test score that is considered
average
Quiz: Childhood medication for ADHD has been found to
be complicated, so finding the best drug at the appropriate strength is difficult
Sierra lives in a country where the difference between boys and girls on the verbal skills portion of the PIRLS test is 6 points. This indicates that her nation has _____ gender equality
better-than-average
A family in which both parents have offspring from earlier relationships is called a(n) _____ family
blended
Quiz: Repeated, systematic efforts to inflict harm, through physical, verbal, or social attack, on a weaker person is the definition of
bullying
asthma
chronic disease of the respiratory system in which inflammation narrows the airways from the nose and mouth to the lungs, causing difficulty in breathing. Signs and symptoms include wheezing, shortness of breath, chest tightness, and coughing
Juan is given peas and green beans. When asked if he has more peas or more vegetables, he responds, "I have more vegetables." Juan is using the logical concept of
classification
Sophia and Jackson are planning to marry soon and have children within the next few years. According to the text, all of the following are advantages of this nuclear family EXCEPT
competent parenting
Kyle understands seriation, classification, and conservation, but he cannot yet grasp concepts such as liberty and equality. Kyle is MOST likely in the _____ stage of cognitive development
concrete operational
Which of the following best describes gender differences in children?
culturally imposed differences in roles and behaviors of male and female children
When Jean Piaget referred to concrete operations, he meant that children apply logic in situations that
deal with visible, tangible, real things
Andrew is like many 7-year-olds and is not growing much taller than in past years. Because Andrew is in middle childhood, he is showing a(n) _____ in the rate of _____ growth
decrease; physical
Quiz: The discipline that investigates normative development in order to compare it with the development of various disorders is called
developmental psychopathology
Quiz: According to your text, expectations of which of the following factors is associated with achievement levels in children?
direct language encouragement
Kyle is repeatedly bullied by Caleb at school. Most likely, Kyle
does not have a single good friend in his class
One of the MOST commonly diagnosed learning disabilities involving reading is
dyslexia
Quiz: The ability to deliberately modify one's emotions and actions is referred to as
effortful control
Because bullies tend to be low on _____, they need peers to teach them that their actions are not admired (which many bullies believe)
empathy
Knowing that genes are involved may slow down the impulse to blame fat people for their weight, but problems at the cellular level are _____ and they represent only one of the six categories of causes.
epigenetic
Sensory memory, which is also called the sensory register, is the _____ component of the human information-processing system
first
Shared parenting makes it more likely that children will have someone to provide all of the following EXCEPT
extroverted personality traits
T or F? Child soldiers in Colombia rarely experience child maltreatment because of their intrinsic value to the military forces
false
T or F? Formal operational thought is Piaget's term for the ability to reason logically about the things and events that one perceives.
false
T or F? Older children in Piaget's concrete operational stage can generate correct solutions to balance scale problems because they understand the interaction of weight and distance in this task.
false
Kohlberg's stage three of level two (conventional moral reasoning) is also known as good _____ and nice _____.
girl; boy
Quiz: A crucial factor in school-age children thriving is
harmony and stability in the home
Quiz: Vygotsky's emphasis on the importance of social context and culture in the education of children
has been supported by research conducted internationally
Paul's family is very poor. Paul, a fourth grader, may not eat breakfast and probably
has few books in his home
Quiz: In childhood, "overweight" is defined as
having a BMI above the 85th percentile of children the same age
Quiz: A document that specifies educational goals and plans for a child with special needs is referred to as a(n)
individual education plan (IEP)
Yasir uses different styles of speech when speaking to teachers and when speaking to his friends. Yasir MOST likely uses a(n) _____ code when speaking to his friends
informal
The use of mental processes to search for information, analyze it, and then express the analysis of the information describes
information-processing theory
Victims can sometimes stop a bully by doing all of the following EXCEPT
informing his parents
According to Kohlberg, children use their _____ abilities to justify their moral actions
intellectual
A diagnosis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) indicates that a child not only has problems concentrating, but also
is inattentive, impulsive, and overactive
During middle school, a child's self-concept
is no longer tied to his or her parents' perspective
Postconventional moral reasoning
is similar to formal operational thought because it uses abstractions, going beyond what is concretely observed, willing to question "what is" in order to decide "what should be."
Quiz: According to the text, the issue with comparing and evaluating home schooling, charter schools, and voucher situations is that
it is difficult because there isn't agreement on what is the "best education" nor how to measure it
Quiz: According to a 1975 U.S. law titled the Education of All Handicapped Children Act, students with special needs must learn in the
least restrictive environment (LRE)
Norman, a father, does not give his three children emotional support for any problems that come up. Norman's children will
likely turn to their friends or unrelated adults
By middle childhood which aspect of memory has a very large capacity?
long-term memory
Which of the following subjects is prioritized by No Child Left Behind?
math
In middle childhood, understanding and appreciating jokes is evidence of normally developing cognitive flexibility and social awareness. Thus, if a child does not "get" a joke, the lack of _____ understanding, even when a child has a large vocabulary, may signify cognitive problems
metaphorical
Quiz: The smallest percentage of IQ scores fall into the
moderate to severe retardation and genius range
In his research on cognitive development, Jean Piaget found that school-age children become
more flexible in their use of logic
Many studies have found that children are _____ affected by shared environment than by nonshared environment
much less
Is (14 year old) Juana able to consistently predict how the scale will or will not balance each time?
no
Is (4 year old) Molly able to consistently predict how the scale will or will not balance each time?
no
Is (8 year old) Lisle able to consistently predict how the scale will or will not balance each time?
no
Quiz: Even though language exposure, adult expectations, and macrosystem resources correlate with low-socioeconomic status, the connection between low-socioeconomic status, expectation, and learning is
not inevitable
Quiz: According to research, the best way to teach a second language is
not yet clear
Conventional moral reasoning
parallels concrete operational thought in that it relates to current, observable practices: Children watch what their parents, teachers, and friends do, and try to follow suit.
Quiz: When facing stressful conditions some children assume a parental role and try to take care of everyone else in the family. This is called
parentification
Jane is part of the LEAST common family structure, which is
polygamous
Quiz: The _______ level emphasizes rewards and punishments, whereas the _______ level emphasizes moral principles
preconventional; postconventional
The capacity to develop optimally by adapting positively to significant adversity is called
resilience
Quiz: The ability to divide and subtract is an example that shows that concrete operational children understand
reversibility
1. Five-year-old Billy has a difficult time ignoring the talking and laughing of the other children in his kindergarten class. By the time Billy is 10 years old, he will be less distracted in school because of improved 2. Ten-year-old Juan is able to listen and follow directions while ignoring any distractions in school much better than he could when he was 6 years old. Juan is demonstrating improved 3. A baseball player at bat who ignores the other team's attempts to distract him is engaging in 4. According to the text, which underlies the ability to listen, take notes, and ignore distractions?
selective attention
Ten-year-old Roberto was assigned to write an essay in which he was to describe himself and how others view him. Roberto's assignment is asking him to describe his
self-concept
1. Angela's _____ memory stores incoming stimulus information for a split second to allow it to be processed 2. _____ memory retains an impression of a stimulus on a sensory organ
sensory
1. The knowledge that things can be arranged in a logical series is called 2. Marcus is 5 years old. He can count to 50, but he cannot correctly estimate where 25 is placed on a number line that begins at 0 and ends at 50. This means that Marcus does NOT yet understand
seriation
Another name for working memory is _____ memory
short-term
An example of a shared environmental influence within a family is
siblings raised together in the same home
The Flynn effect refers to the _____ in average scores on intelligence tests around the world
sizeable increase
According to the text, school-age children's growth is
slow and steady
Quiz: According to the text, school-age children's growth is
slow and steady
1. Emma, who is in the fourth grade, announces to her mother, "I am the fastest runner in my class, but not in the entire school." Emma is engaging in 2. Mark, who is in the fourth grade, announces to his mother, "I am the strongest in my class, but not in the entire school." Mark is engaging in
social comparison
School-age children tend to be aware of their classmates' opinions, judgments, and accomplishments. This development enables school-age children to engage in
social comparison
Because Iris thinks that it is moral to break the law in some circumstances, Kohlberg would place her moral reasoning at the
social contract stage
The _____ approach to children's cognitive development places the MOST emphasis on social interaction compared to other theories of cognitive development
sociocultural
Howard Gardner believed that although every normal person has at least a little of all nine intelligences, each individual excels in
some intelligences more than others
1. Children who move and change neighborhoods in middle childhood 2. Sam, who moved and changed neighborhoods in middle childhood, is likely to
suffer academically and emotionally
Which simile BEST represents Lev Vygotsky's view of cognitive development?
the child as social learner
Quiz: The term "Flynn effect" refers to
the generational rise in average IQ scores of entire nations
Based on her answers and her reactions, what would you say that Juana is focusing on when making her predictions?
the number of weights and their distances from the fulcrum
Based on his answers and his reactions, what would you say that Lisle is focusing on when making his predictions?
the number of weights and their distances from the fulcrum
T or F? Adolescents in Piaget's formal operational stage can solve balance scale problems easily.
true
T or F? During middle childhood, the brain adds myelin to the connecting fibers of neurons, and synaptic connections are pruned.
true
T or F? The fourth of Erikson's eight crises of psychosocial development is industry versus inferiority, in which students attempt to master whatever abilities their culture values and to develop a sense of self.
true
T or F? The teenagers who co-founded the Children's Mandate for Peace displayed significant developmental resilience.
true
T or F? Young children under age six in Piaget's preoperational stage typically do not understand how a balance scale works
true
Christi is a single mother with two children. She fills many roles as a single parent EXCEPT
understanding spouse
Quiz: Boys who bully tend to
use physical aggression
1. Nine-year-old Carmen has learned that when everyone follows the rules of a game, the game is more enjoyable for everyone. This social skill is made possible by 2. Humans do not have specific brain structures dedicated to reading. The brain compensates for this by
using several parts of the brain that are interconnected
