PSY 108 midterm #2 (cognitive psychology) readings

processing fluency

the speed and ease with which the pathway will carry activation.

the ideal form of learning would be one that's _______ the approach to the material that you'll need later you want to learn the material in a way that ___________ and the ____________

- "in tune with" - prepares you for that context - mental perspective it produces

any reliance on schemata will make the world seem more______ than it really is and will make the past seem more _____ than it actually was.

- "normal" - "regular"

illusion of truth: crook study

- A newspaper headline might inquire, "Is Mayor Wilson a crook?" Or the headline might declare, "Known criminal claims Wilson is a crook!" - In either case, the assertion that Wilson is a crook would become familiar. - The Begg et al. data indicate that this familiarity will, by itself, increase the likelihood that you'll later believe in Wilson's dishonesty

maintenance rehearsal

- A system for remembering involving repeating information to oneself without attempting to find meaning in it - focus on the to-be-remembered items themselves, with little thought about what the items mean or how they relate to one another.

long-lasting memories aren't created simply by repeated exposures to the items to be remembered ex:

- As a demonstration, consider the ordinary penny. - Adults in the United States have probably seen pennies tens of thousands of times. - If sheer exposure is what counts for memory, people should remember perfectly what these coins look like - People's memory for the penny is remarkably bad because they don't pay attention to it -if it's scrutiny that matters for memory—or, more broadly, if we remember what we pay attention to and think about—then memory for the coin should be quite poor.

evidence for regularizing the past

- Bartlett presented his participants with a story taken from the folklore of Native Americans. When tested later, the participants did reasonably well in recalling the gist of the story, but they made many errors in recalling the particulars. - The details omitted tended to be ones that made little sense to Bartlett's British participants. - Likewise, aspects of the story that were unfamiliar were often changed into aspects that were more familiar; steps of the story that seemed inexpli- cable were supplemented to make the story seem more logical.

Clive Wearing

- Developed amnesia due to an illness that destroyed his hippocampus. - Couldn't form new memories as he could not transfer information from the STM to the LTM. - Wearing's episodic memory is massively disrupted, but his memory for generic information, as well as his deep love for his wife, seem to be entirely intact. - Can still access his LTM as he still plays and reads music. - These skills would be stored in the LTM and shows that the STM and LTM are separate stores

when will a stimulus feel familiar

- First, you have encountered the stimulus before. - Second, because of that prior encounter (and the "practice" it provided), your processing of that stimulus is now faster and more efficient; there is, in other words, an increase in pro- cessing fluency. - Third, you detect that increased fluency, and this leads you to register the stimulus as somehow distinctive or special. - Fourth, you try to figure out why the stimulus seems special, and you reach a particular conclusion — namely, that the stimulus has this distinctive quality because it's a stimulus you've met before in some prior episode

context dependent learning study with scuba divers

- Godden and Baddeley (1975) asked scuba divers to learn various materials. - Some of the divers learned the material while sitting on dry land; others learned it while underwater, hearing the material via a special communication set. - Within each group, half of the divers were then tested while above water, and half were tested below - Underwater, the world has a different look, feel, and sound, and this context could easily influence what thoughts come to mind for the divers in the study. - Imagine, for example, that a diver is feeling cold while under- water. This context will probably lead him to think "cold-related" thoughts, so those thoughts will be in his mind during the learning episode. Let's now imagine that this diver is back underwater at the time of the memory test. Most likely he'll again feel cold, which may once more lead him to "cold-related" thoughts. These thoughts, in turn, are now connected (we've proposed) to the target materials, and that gives us what we want - on land the diver will be at a disadvantage because the "cold-related" thoughts aren't triggered — so there will be no benefit from the memory connections that are now in place, linking those thoughts to the sought-after memories.

needle study with patient with Korsakoff's syndrome

- In 1911, the Swiss psychologist Édouard Claparède reported the following incident. - He was introduced to a young woman suffering from Korsakoff's amnesia, and he reached out to shake her hand. However, Claparède had secretly positioned a pin in his own hand so that when they clasped hands the patient received a painful pinprick. - The next day, Claparède returned and reached out to shake hands with the patient. Not sur- prisingly, she gave no indication that she recognized Claparède or remembered anything about the prior encounter. - But just before their hands touched, the patient abruptly pulled back and refused to shake hands with Claparède. He asked her why, and after some confusion the patient said vaguely, "Sometimes pins are hidden in people's hands."

implicit memory lexical decision task

- In a number of studies, participants have been asked to read through a list of words, with no indication that their memories would be tested later on. - Then, sometime later, the participants are given a lexical-decision task: They are shown a series of letter strings and, for each, must indicate (by pressing one button or another) whether the string is a word or not. Some of the letter strings in the lexical-decision task are duplicates of the words seen in the first part of the experiment, enabling us to ask whether the first exposure somehow primed the participants for the second encounter. - In these experiments, lexical decisions are quicker if the person has recently seen the test word. - this repetition priming is observed even when participants have no recollection for having encountered the stimulus words before.

study showing how connections help recollection

- In a study by Owens, Bower, and Black (1979). Participants were shown 1 of 2 passages. - One was about nancy ariving at a cocktail patrty and knowing that she needed to talk to her professor. - The second group read the same article that had a prolpogue that stated that she was feeling sick and was worried that she was pregnant. - The results show that the participants who had the prologue remebered much more of the story - The prologue provided a meaningful context for the remainder of the story, and this helped understanding. Under- standing, in turn, promoted recall.

Attributing Implicit Memory to the Wrong Source: crime study

- In an early study by Brown, Deffenbacher, and Sturgill (1977), research par- ticipants witnessed a staged crime. - Two or three days later, they were shown "mug shots" of individuals who supposedly had participated in the crime. - But as it turns out, the people in these photos were different from the actual "criminals"—no mug shots were shown for the truly "guilty" individuals. - Finally, after four or five more days, the participants were shown a lineup and asked to select the individuals seen in the original crime - The participants correctly realized that one of the faces in the lineup looked familiar, but they were confused about the source of the familiarity. - They falsely believed they had seen the person's face in the original "crime," when, in truth, they'd seen that face only in a subsequent photograph.

implicit memory word-stem completion

- In this task, participants are given three or four letters and must produce a word with this beginning. - If, for example, they're given cla-, then "clam" or "clatter" would be acceptable responses, and the question of interest for us is which of these responses the participants produce. - It turns out that people are more likely to offer a specific word if they've encountered it recently; once again, this priming effect is observed even if participants, when tested directly, show no conscious memory of their recent encounter with that word

planting false memories

- It's easier to plant plausible memories rather than implausible ones. - Errors are also more likely if the post-event information supplements what the person remembers, in comparison to contradicting what the person would otherwise remember. - It's apparently easier, therefore, to "add to" a memory than it is to "replace" a memory - False memories are also more easily planted if the research participants don't just hear about the false event but, instead, are urged toimagine how the suggested event unfolded

incidental learning

- Learning without trying to learn, and often without awareness that learning is occurring - learning in the absence of any intention to learn.

source memory in recall

- Let's say, for example, that you hear a song on the radio and say, "I know I've heard this song before because it feels familiar and I remember where I heard it. - In this setting, you're able to remember the source of your familiarity, and that means you're recalling when and where you encountered the song

Retrieval Cues: why do hints help you to remember? Why, for example, do you draw a blank if asked, "What's the capital of South Dakota?" but then remember if given the cue "Is it perhaps a man's name?"

- Mention of South Dakota will activate nodes in memory that represent your knowledge about this state. Activation will then spread outward from these nodes, eventually reaching nodes that represent the capital city's name. - Things will go differently, though, if a hint is available. If you're told, "South Dakota's capital is also a man's name," this will activate the man's name node. As a result, activation will spread out from this source at the same time that activation is spreading out from the south dakota nodes. - the nodes for pierre will now receive activation from two sources simultaneously, and this will probably be enough to lift the nodes' activation to threshold levels

spreading activation

- Occurs when one item brought into working memory triggers an activation of related memory - activation travels from node to node via associative links. As each node becomes activated and fires, it serves as a source for further activation, spreading onward through the network.

how can it be that if we try to categorize memories as correct or incorrect based on someone's confidence, we'll often get it wrong

- One reason is that a person's confidence in a memory is often influenced by factors that have no impact on memory accuracy. When these factors are present, confidence can shift (sometimes upward, sometimes downward) with no change in the accuracy level, with the result that any connection between confidence and accuracy can be strained or even shattered. - think about what happens if someone is asked to report on an event over and over. The repetitions don't change the memory content — and so the accuracy of the report won't change much from one repetition to the next. However, with each repetition, the recall becomes easier and more fluent, and this ease of recall seems to make people more confident that their memory is correct

Implicit Memory and the "Illusion of Truth"

- Participants in one study heard a series of statements and had to judge how interesting each statement was - After hearing these sentences, the participants were presented with some more sentences, but now they had to judge the credibility of these sentences, rating them on a scale from certainly true to certainly false - some of the sentences in this "truth test" were repeats from the earlier presentation, and the question of interest is how sentence credibility is influenced by sentence familiarity. - The result was a propagandist's dream: Sentences heard before were more likely to be accepted as true; that is, familiarity increased credibility

study of implanting false memory that led to false confessions

- The interviewer repeat- edly asked participants to recall an event that (supposedly) she had learned about from their parents. - She assured participants that she had detailed information about the (fictitious) event, and she applied social pressure with comments like "Most people are able to retrieve lost memories if they try hard enough." - She offered smiles and encouraging nods whenever participants showed signs of remembering the (bogus) target events - If participants couldn't recall the target events, she showed signs of disappointment and said things like "That's ok. Many people can't recall certain events at first because they haven't thought about them for such a long time." -Shaw and Porter persuaded many of their participants that just a few years earlier the participants had committed a crime that led to police contact. - In fact, many participants seemed able to remember an episode in which they had assaulted another person with a weapon and had then been detained by the police. - This felony never happened, but many participants "recalled" it anyhow. Their memories were in some cases vivid and rich with detail, and on many measures indistinguish- able from memories known to be accurate.

what is it that facilitates memory retrieval?

- There are, in fact, several ways to search through memory, but a great deal depends on memory connections. - Connections allow one memory to trigger another, and then that memory to trigger another, so that you're "led," connection by connection, to the sought-after information. - In some cases, the connections link one of the items you're trying to remember to some of the other items; if so, finding the first will lead you to the others. - In other settings, the connections might link some aspect of the context-of-learning to the target information, so that when you think again about the context, you'll be led to other ideas

study comparing individuals with intact explicit and impaired implicit and individuals with intact implicit and impaired explicit

- These patients were exposed to a series of trials in which a particular stimulus (a blue light) was reliably followed by a loud boat horn, while other stimuli (green, yellow, or red lights) were not followed by the horn. - Later on, the patients were exposed to the blue light on its own, and their bodily arousal was measured; would they show a fright reaction in response to this stimulus? In addition, the patients were asked directly, "Which color was followed by the horn? - The patient with damage to the hippocampus did show a fear reaction to the blue light — assessed via the skin conductance response (SCR), a measure of bodily arousal. (implicit) - However, when asked directly, this patient couldn't recall which of the lights had been associated with the boat horn. (explicit) - In contrast, the patient with damage to the amygdala showed the opposite pattern. She was able to report that just one of the lights had been associated with the horn and that the light's color had been blue — demonstrating fully intact explicit memory. When presented with the blue light, however, she showed no fear response. (no implicit)

how can memory connections both help and hurt recollection

- They help because the connections, serving as retrieval paths, enable you to locate information in memory. -But connections can hurt because they some- times make it difficult to see where the remembered episode stops and other, related knowledge begins

"remember/know" distinction

- This involves pressing one button (to indicate "remember") if they actually recall the episode of encountering a particular item, and press- ing a different button ("know") if they don't recall the encounter but just have a broad feeling that the item must have been on the earlier list. - With one response, participants are indicating that they have a source memory; with the other, they're indicating an absence of source memory. - Researchers can use fMRI scans to monitor participants' brain activ- ity while they're taking these memory tests, and the scans indicate that "remember" and "know" judgments depend on different brain areas

recall information

- This means that you're presented with a retrieval cue that broadly identifies the information you seek, and then you need to come up with the information on your own - "What was the name of that great restaurant your parents took us to?"; "Can you remember the words to that song?"; "Where were you last Saturday?"

drawing information from memory via recognition

- This term refers to cases in which information is presented to you, and you must decide whether it's the sought-after information - often depends on a sense of familiarity. - "Is this the man who robbed you?"; "I'm sure I'll recognize the street when we get there"; "If you let me taste that wine, I'll tell you if it's the same one we had last time."

why is memory acquisition improved by organization?

- We've suggested that organization provides retrieval paths, making the memories "findable" later on, and this is a claim about retrieval. - your ability to learn new material depends, in part, on your having a framework of prior knowledge to which the new materials can be tied. In this way, claims about memory acquisition need to be coordinated with claims about the nature of what is already in storage.

Sometimes retrieval failure is partial:

- You can recall some aspects of the desired content, but not all - tip of the tongue phenomenon

two ways to try to retrieve information from memory

- You can try to recall the information ("What was the name of your tenth-grade homeroom teacher?") or to recognize it ("Was the name perhaps Miller?").

misinformation effect

- a term referring to memory errors that result from misinformation received after an event was experienced

context reinstatement

- a way of improving retrieval by re-creating the state of mind that accompanied the initial learning - re-creating the thoughts and feelings of the learning episode even if you're in a very different place at the time of recall. - This works because what matters for memory retrieval is the mental context, not the physical environment itself.

Retrieval Failure Theory of forgetting

- an explanation of forgetting due to the lack of or failure to use the right cue to retrieve information stored in memory - the information is not lost forever but it simply cannot be retrieved at that moment - retrieval is more likely if your perspective at the time of retrieval matches the perspective in place at the time of learning - The greater the retention interval, the greater the likelihood that your perspective has changed, and therefore the greater the likelihood of retrieval failure.

HM amnesia was anterograde or retrograde?

- anterograde

These nodes are tied to each other via connections we'll call _______ or _______

- associations - associative links

deeper processing leads to ________ regardless of your intention to learn or not

- better memory

anterograde amnesia

- causing disruption of memory for experiences after the onset of amnesia - an inability to form new memories

a person's degree of _______ is an uneven indicator of whether a memory is ______

- certainty - trustworthy

study showing the misinformation effect with college students

- college students were told that the investigators were trying to learn how different people remember the same experience. - The students were then given a list of events that (they were told) had been reported by their parents; the students were asked to recall these events as well as they could, so that the investigators could compare the students' recall with their parents' - Some of the events on the list actually had been reported by the par- ticipants' parents. Other events were bogus — made up by the experimenters. -The college students were easily able to remember the genuine events (i.e., the events actually reported by their parents). In an initial interview, more than 80% of these events were recalled, but none of the students recalled the bogus events - repeated attempts at recall changed this pattern. By a third interview, 25% of the participants were able to remember the embarrassment of spilling the punch, and many were able to supply the details of this episode

"familiarity" is more like a _______________ rather than a feeling _______________

- conclusion that you draw - triggered by a stimulus.

explicit memory

- conscious and deliberate - usually revealed by direct memory testing - the act of consciously or intentionally retrieving past experiences

you can get the benefits of context-dependent learning through a strategy of ____________

- context reinstatement

Retrograde amnesia

- disrupt memory for things learned prior to the event that initiated the amnesia - an inability to retrieve information from one's past

explicit memories can be subdivided into _________ and ________

- episodic memory - semantic memory

In setting after setting, Korsakoff's patients are unable to recall episodes they've experienced; they seem to have no _________. But if they're tested indirectly, we see clear indications of memory—and so these patients seem to have intact ________

- explicit memory - implicit memories

Statements plainly identified as false when they were first heard still created the so-called__________; that is, these statements were subsequently judged to be more credible than sentences never heard before.

- illusion of truth

study showing how connections hurt recollection involving DRM procedure

- in many experiments, participants have been presented with lists like this one: "bed, rest, awake, tired, dream, wake, snooze, blanket, doze, slumber, snore, nap, peace, yawn, drowsy." - Immediately after hearing this list, participants are asked to recall as many of the words as they can. -As you surely noticed, the words in this list are all associated with sleep, and the presence of this theme helps memory: The list words are easy to re- member. It turns out, though, that the word "sleep" is not itself included in the list. - research participants spontaneously make the connection between the list words and this associated word, and this connection almost always leads to a memory error. When the time comes for recall, participants are extremely likely to recall that they heard "sleep."

Korsakoff's syndrome

- longtime alcoholics are vulnerable to this syndrome due to problems caused by thiamine deficiency - Patients suffering from Korsakoff's syndrome seem similar to H.M. in many ways. - They typically have no problem remembering events that took place before the onset of alcoholism. - They can also maintain current topics in mind as long as there's no interruption. New information, though, if displaced from the mind, seems to be lost forever.

Amnesia:

- loss of memory

Your______ contains both the _____________ during learning, and the _______________, leading toward that information. These highways—______________—can of course influence your search for the target information.

- memory - information you were focusing on - highways you've now built - the memory connections

mnemonic strategies

- methods for placing information in an organized context in order to remember it

finding suggest that the group with ____ ______ to memorize, performed just as well as the _______ ______ group.

- no intention - inattentional learning

let's just think of these representations as ______ within the network

- nodes

three mnemonic strategies

- one broad class of mnemonic, often used for memorizing sequences of words, links the first letters of the words into some meaningful structure. Thus, children rely on ROY G. BIV to memorize the sequence of colors in the rainbow (red, orange, yellow . . .) - Other mnemonics involve the use of mental imagery, relying on "men- tal pictures" to link the to-be-remembered items to one another. For example, imagine a student trying to memorize a list of word pairs. For the pair eagle- train, the student might imagine the eagle winging back to its nest with a locomotive in its beak. - A different type of mnemonic provides an external "skeleton" for the to- be-remembered materials, and mental imagery can be useful here, too. Imag- ine that you want to remember a list of largely unrelated items—perhaps the entries on your shopping list, or a list of questions you want to ask your adviser. For this purpose, you might rely on one of the so-called peg-word systems. This rhyme provides ten "peg words" ("bun," "shoe," etc.), and in memo- rizing something you can "hang" the materials to be remembered on these "pegs."

study with piano showing encoding specificity

- participants read target words (e.g., "piano") in one of two contexts: "The man lifted the piano" or "The man tuned the piano." - In each case, the sentence led the participants to think about the target word in a particular way, and it was this thought that was encoded into memory. - In other words, what was placed in memory wasn't just the word "piano." Instead, what was recorded in memory was the idea of "piano as something heavy" or "piano as musi- cal instrument." - This difference in memory content became clear when participants were later asked to recall the target words. If they had earlier seen the "lifted" sen- tence, they were likely to recall the target word if given the cue "something heavy." The hint "something with a nice sound" was much less effective.

encoding specificity:

- phenomenon of remembering something better when the conditions under which we retrieve information are similar to the conditions under which we encoded it - what you encode (i.e., place into memory) is indeed specific — not just the physical stimulus as you encountered it, but the stimulus together with its context.

the lexical decision task and semantic priming studies

- presented participants with pairs of letter strings, and participants had to respond "yes" if both strings were words and "no" otherwise. - For example, participants would say "yes" in response to "chair, bread" but "no" in response to "house, fime." - if both strings were words, sometimes the words were semantically related in an obvious way (e.g., "nurse, doctor") and sometimes they weren't ("cake, shoe"). Of interest was how this relationship between the words would influence performance. - Consider a trial in which participants see a related pair, like "bread, butter." To choose a response, they first need to "look up" the word "bread" in memory. Then, they're ready for the second word. But in this sequence, the node for bread (the first word in the pair) has just been activated. This will, we've hypothesized, trigger a spread of activation outward from this node, bringing activation to other, nearby nodes. These nearby nodes will surely include butter, since the association between "bread" and "butter" is a strong one. - think about what happens when a participant turns her attention to the second word in the pair. To select a response, she must locate "butter" in memory. thanks to the (subthreshold) activation this node just received from bread. This should accelerate the process of bringing this node to thresh- old (since it's already partway there), and so it will require less time to activate.

participants often prefer a __________ stimulus over a ______ stimulus

- previously presented - novel

decay theory of forgetting

- proposes rather directly that memories fade or erode with the passage of time - Maybe this is because the relevant brain cells die off. -Or maybe the connections among memories need to be constantly refreshed—and if they're not refreshed, the connections gradually weaken

In discussing the primacy effect, we suggested that the more an item is _______ the more likely you are to __________ that item later.

- rehearsed - remember

lexical-decision task

- research participants are shown a series of letter sequences on a computer screen. Some of the sequences spell words; other sequences aren't words (e.g., "blar, plome"). - The participants' task is to hit a "yes" button if the sequence spells a word and a "no" button otherwise. - Presumably, they perform this task by "looking up" these letter strings in their "mental dictionary," and they base their response on whether or not they find the string in the dictionary. - We can therefore use the participants' speed of response in this task as an index of how quickly they can locate the word in their memories.

Eventually, the activation level will reach the node's ____________. Once this happens, we say that the _________.

- response threshold - node fires

attention to meaning may help you by facilitating ________ of the memory later on

- retrieval

Schemata

- summarize the broad pattern of what's normal in a situation - Schemata help when the time comes to recall how an event unfolded - there are often gaps in your recollection — either because you didn't notice certain things in the first place, or because you've gradually forgotten some aspects of the experience. In either case, you can rely on your schemata to fill in these gaps.

people are often better at remembering _______ something is familiar than they are at remembering ______ it is familiar.

- that - why

retention interval

- the amount of time that elapses between the initial learning and the subsequent retrieval - as this interval grows, you're likely to forget more and more of the earlier event

storage in the brain is modality specific meaning

- the bits representing what you saw stored in brain areas devoted to visual processing, the bits representing what you heard stored in brain areas specialized for auditory processing, and so on

Retrieval paths

- the mental connections linking one idea to the next that people use to locate a bit of information in memory - paths that can, in effect, guide your thoughts toward the content to be remembered. - All of this seems less likely for the simpler sentences, which will evoke fewer con- nections and so establish a narrower set of retrieval paths.

what is one of the best predictors of forgetting

- the passage of time

Katona's argument about memory retrieval

- the processes of organization and memorization are inseparable - You memorize well when you discover the order within the material. - Conversely, if you find (or impose) an organization on the material, you will easily remember it.

example of retrieval failure

- the retrival failure point is evident whenever you're initially unable to remember some bit of information, but then, a while later, you do recall that infor- mation. Because the information was eventually retrieved, we know that it wasn't "erased" from memory through either decay or interference.

processing pathway

- the sequence of detectors, and the connections between detectors, that the activation flows through in recognizing a specific stimulus. - the sequence of nodes, and connections between nodes, that the activation flows through during memory retrieval - the use of a processing pathway strengthens that pathway

study showing how connections hurt recollection involving prologue

- the story's prologue also led participants to include elements in their recall that weren't mentioned in the original episode. - In fact, participants who had seen the prologue made four times as many intrusion errors as did participants who hadn't seen the prologue. - For example, they might include in their recall something like "The professor had gotten Nancy pregnant." This idea isn't part of the story but is certainly implied, so will probably be part of participants' understanding of the story.

interference theory of forgetting

- the theory that forgetting is caused by other memories impairing the retention or retrieval of the target memory. - that new learning somehow interferes with older learning - According to this view, the passage of time isn't the direct cause of forgetting. Instead, the pas- sage of time creates the opportunity for new learning, and it is the new learn- ing that disrupts the older memories

relational or elaborative rehearsal

- thinking about the material in terms of meaning, relating the items to each other and to what one already knows - Relational rehearsal is vastly superior to maintenance rehearsal for establishing information in memory

implicit memory

- unconscious and automatic - typically revealed by indirect memory testing - often manifested as priming effects

memory is best thought of as a

- vast network of ideas

example of familiarity without source memory

- when you're watching a movie and realize that one of the actors is familiar, but (sometimes with considerable frustration, and despite a lot of effort) you can't recall where you've seen that actor before - In cases like these, you can't "place" the memory; you can't identify the episode in which the face was last encountered. But you're certain the face is familiar, even though you don't know why

examples of schematas

- your kitchen schema tells you that a kitchen is likely to have a stove but no piano - your dentist's office schema tells you that there are likely to be magazines in the waiting room, that you'll probably get a new toothbrush when you leave, and so on

It takes some ______ to get information into long-term memory. Merely having an item in front of your eyes isn't enough—even if the item is there over and over and over.

-work

example showing that you are more likely to decide a stimulus is familiar if the surrounding circumstances support it

For example, if you're asked, "Which of these words were on the list you saw earlier?" the question itself gives you a cue that some of the words were recently encoun- tered, and so you're more likely to attribute fluency to that encounter

Semantic Priming

The phenomenon by which hearing or reading a word partially activates other words that are related in meaning to that word, making the related words easier to recognize in subsequent encounters.

nodes receive activation from their neighbors, and as more and more activation arrives at a particular node, the ___________ for that node increases.

activation level

subthreshold activation

activation levels below the response threshold

none of these steps happens _______

consciously

intrusion errors

errors in which other knowledge intrudes into the remembered event.

two types of memories

explicit and implicit

once a node has been activated, _________

it can activate other nodes

intentional learning

learning that is deliberate, with an expectation that memory will be tested later.

episodic memory

memory for specific events

implicit memory is

memory without awareness

semantic memory

more general knowledge

Implicit memory is often divided into four subcategories:

procedural memory, priming, perceptual learning, calssical conditioning

Theorists say that use of a pathway increases the pathway' _____________

processing fluency

the previous study shows

source confusion

Activation is assumed to accumulate, so that two subthreshold inputs may add together, in a process of _________, and bring the node to threshold.

summation

when a stimulus is easy to perceive, you don't experience something like "That stimulus sure was easy to recognize!" Instead, you merely register a _____________

vague sense of specialness

when do theorists speak of a node being activated?

when it has received a strong enough input signal.