Psy 202 Week 3
Amanda: When her mother leaves the room, Amanda does not show much response. When her mother returns, Amanda continues playing and does not appear to be interested in her mother.
Avoidant
Infants who do not show distress when the mother leaves the room and are indifferent when the mother returns exhibit which pattern of attachment?
Avoidant
What are the two independent variables in this study? Hint: Each independent variable has two conditions (two variations).
Behavior of the bouncer puppet: similar or dissimilar in food preference The type of puppet in the second show: giver vs taker
Older adults generally perform ________ than young people on vocabulary tests and ________ on tests of working memory and information-processing speed.
Better ; worse
The period of rapid neural growth in childhood is called
Blooming
Neural connections grow at a rapid rate during early childhood in a process called ________, but neural connections are later reduced to improve efficiency in a process called ________.
Blooming ; pruning
Skinner said that language is learned through reinforcement while chomsky said that children are born with a language acquisition device. Who is correct?
Both. language is the result of nature and nurture
Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development 12-
Formal operational Formal operations Utilize abstract reasoning Abstract logic Moral reasoning
A student is asked to explain why a person we might label as a terrorist might believe it was an honorable and acceptable act to kill and injure other people in a terrorist act.
Formal operational stage
Students in a chemistry class are asked to predict what will happen when a drop of mercury in a solution of potassium chromate and sulfuric acid touches an iron nail. After they have made their predictions, the teacher shows them the phenomenon.
Formal operational stage
According to Erikson's theory of psychosocial development, what is the main task of the adolescent?
Forming an identity
The ________, which is still developing during adolescence, is a part of the brain responsible for judgment, impulse control, and planning.
Frontal lobe
According to Erikson, the defining conflict of middle adulthood is ________.
Generativity versus stagnation
Donna is going through something like a "mid-life crisis" at age 48. Her twin sons just left for college and she feels like she's in a rut at work. Her feelings coincide with Erikson's ________ conflict.
Generativity vs stagnation
What is Erikson's primary developmental conflict of middle adulthood?
Generativity vs stagnation
Why was Carol Gilligan critical of Kohlberg's theory of moral development?
Gilligan criticized Kohlberg because his theory was based on the responses of upper class White men and boys, arguing that it was biased against women. While Kohlberg concluded that women must be deficient in their moral reasoning abilities, Gilligan disagreed, suggesting that female moral reasoning is not deficient, just different.
If you put your finger inside of a newborn's hand, they will probably hold on tight because of the
Grasping reflex
Jamal, at age 6, is already an excellent athlete, fast runner, and accomplished gymnast. He has excellent ________.
Gross motor skills
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome Facial Features /Facial Feature Potential Effect of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
Head sizeBelow-average head circumference Eyes Smaller than average eye opening, skin folds at corners of eyes NoseLow nasal bridge, short nose Midface Smaller than average midface size Lip and philtrum Thin upper lip, indistinct philtrum
What is the purpose of hospice care?
Hospice is a program of services that provide medical, social, and spiritual support for dying people and their families.
According to Erikson, adolescents are in the ______ stage of development
Identity versus role confusion
David, 4 years old, responds, "No, you should never steal, because they have to pay for it. It's not okay to steal the medicine or you'll go to jail."
Preconventional
Focusing on self-interests when making a moral decision indicates a moral reasoning level of ________.
Preconventional
When eating, the child loves to drop her spoon on the floor to see it fall and to hear the sound as it hits the floor.
Sensorimotor stage
Who developed the theory of psychosexual development?
Sigmund Freud
Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development Age 0-2
Stage:Sensorimotor World experienced through senses and actions Object permanence Stranger anxiety
Alcohol, cigarettes, and drugs are all examples of ________ that cause damage to a developing baby.
Teratogens
The most important takeaway from Freud's theory of psychosexual development is
That childhood experiences can shape personality
This bar graph shows the results of Experiment 2 for 8-month-old infants
The blue bars show the preferences for the infants who saw the Helper from the first show as the bouncer in the second. Bar A is taller than Bar B, showing the greater choice of the Giver than the Taker puppet. The red bars show the reverse effect. The babies strongly preferred the Taker (Bar C) to the Giver (Bar D) when the puppet bouncing the ball had been the Hinderer, who jumped on the box in the first show.
Bowlby said that two things are needed for a healthy attachment:
The caregiver must be responsive to the child's physical, social, and emotional needs; and the caregiver and child must engage in mutually enjoyable interactions (Bowlby, 1969)
children develop at slightly different rates, we can use these age-related averages as general guidelines to compare children with same-age peers to determine the approximate ages they should reach specific normative events called
developmental milestones (e.g., crawling, walking, writing, dressing, naming colors, speaking in sentences, and starting puberty).
Research suggests that these achievement gaps are strongly influenced by
differences in socioeconomic factors that exist among the families of these children.
Freud viewed development as
discontinuous
Freud viewed development as
discontinuous; he believed that each of us must pass through a series of stages during childhood, and that if we lack proper nurturance and parenting during a stage, we may become stuck, or fixated, in that stage.
Children in this stage cannot perform mental operations because they have not developed an understanding of
conservation, which is the idea that even if you change the appearance of something, it is still equal in size as long as nothing has been removed or added.
Securely attached children were
distressed when their caregivers left the room in the Strange Situation experiment, but when their caregivers returned, the securely attached children were happy to see them. Securely attached children have caregivers who are sensitive and responsive to their needs.
LaToya's friends drop by her house and insist she join them while they go prank some of the kids at their rival school. She knows she shouldn't go, but she hops in the car anyway. Her ________ behavior is better understood if you know about the developing adolescent brain.
impulsive
Uninvolved parents,
in addition to being permissive, are not involved in their children's lives
grasping reflex,
in which a baby automatically grasps anything that touches his palms.
The size of our brains
increases rapidly. For example, the brain of a 2-year-old is 55% of its adult size, and by 6 years old the brain is about 90% of its adult size (Tanner, 1978).
Fluid intelligence:
information processing abilities, such as logical reasoning, remembering lists, spatial ability, and reaction time
Permissive parents
make few rules or demands and usually do not enforce those that are made, and they allow children to make their own decisions and control their own behavior.
gonadarche:
maturing of the sex glands
Fewer age differences are observed when
memory cues are available, such as for recognition memory tasks, or when individuals can draw upon acquired knowledge or experience.
Twelve-year-old Ashley recently had her first menstrual period. Another term for this is ________.
menarche
Girls experience menarche, the beginning of
menstrual periods, usually around 12-13 years old,
Are we who we are because of
nature (biology and genetics), or are we who we are because of nurture (our environment and culture)?
Hamlin, Mahanjan, Liberman, and Wynn found that if a young child has a preference for green beans and is shown a puppet that prefers graham crackers, then when they watch a show with a puppet stealing a ball from the graham cracker-loving puppet, the child will
Prefer the puppet that took the ball away from the graham cracker-loving puppet
The part of the brain that matures mostly during adolescence is the ________.
Prefrontal cortex
What is prenatal care and why is it important?
Prenatal care is medical care during pregnancy that monitors the health of both the mother and fetus. It's important to receive prenatal care because it can reduce complications to the mother and fetus during pregnancy.
Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development AGE 2-6
Preoperational Use words and images to represent things, but lack logical reasoning Pretend play Egocentrism Language development
The child likes to draw pictures of people and houses and other scenes, though the people are stick figures and the houses all tend to look the same.
Preoperational stage
The child rapidly develops schemas for different kinds of animals and objects that he encounters all the time. For a while, he becomes fascinated with different kinds of dinosaurs and later likes to identify different kinds of tools in the workshop.
Preoperational stage
Developmental psychologists study human growth and development across three domains. Which of the following is not one of these domains?
Psychological
Which theory says that in each stage of development, a child focuses on a specific pleasure-seeking area of the body?
Psychosexual
Which of the following is the dependent variable in this study?
Reaching behavior when shown the puppets
Which of the following is the dependent variable?
Reaching behavior when shown the puppets
When you see elderly persons who are independent, active, and happy, they are ________.
Representative of most older adults
If a caregiver demonstrates inconsistent responses toward their child, then the child may develop ________ attachment, becoming both clingy and upset with their caregiver.
Resistant
Melissa: Instead of happily exploring the attractive toys in the room, little Melissa tenaciously clings to her mother's skirt. She becomes extremely upset when her mother leaves the room but is not reassured or comforted by her return a short while later.
Resistant
In Hamlin and Wynn's study of infants, they found that babies even as young as 5 months old prefer a puppet that
Returns a bouncy ball to another puppet
egocentrism:
preoperational child's difficulty in taking the perspective of others
Children from 2-4 years old display a great increase in
social behavior once they have established a self-concept. They enjoy playing with other children, but they have difficulty sharing their possessions.
Adolescence is a
socially constructed concept. In pre-industrial society, children were considered adults when they reached physical maturity, but today we have an extended time between childhood and adulthood called adolescence. Adolescence is the period of development that begins at puberty and ends at emerging adulthood, or into the mid- to late 20s. In the United States, adolescence is seen as a time to develop independence from parents while remaining connected to them (Figure 1). The typical age range of adolescence is from 12 to 18 years, and this stage of development also has some predictable physical, cognitive, and psychosocial milestones.
While many of Freud's ideas about personality development have been discredited, one key takeaway from his theory is that
Childhood experiences shape personalities
Why should developmental milestones only be used as a general guideline for normal child development?
Children develop at different rates. For example, some children may walk and talk as early as 8 months old, while others may not do so until well after their first birthday. Each child's unique contexts will influence when he reaches these milestones.
Who created the very first modern hospice?
Cicely Saunders
Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development AGE 7-11
Concrete operational Understand concrete events and analogies logically; perform arithmetical operations Conservation Mathematical transformations
The child figures out that if you can turn water into ice by cooling it, then you can probably turn ice into water by heating it.
Concrete operational stage
The child is told that she is taller than her cousin Luke, and Luke is taller than her other cousin, Melissa. She realizes that she is taller than Melissa.
Concrete operational stage
Erik Erikson proposed that at each stage of development, there is a/an
Conflict that needs resolution
The view that development is a cumulative process, gradually adding to the same type of skills is known as ________.
Continuous development
________ describes development as a cumulative process, whereas ________ views development as taking place in unique, specific stages.
Continuous development ; discontinuous development
Compare and contrast continuous and discontinuous development.
Continuous development sees our development as a cumulative process: Changes are gradual. On the other hand, discontinuous development sees our development as taking place in specific steps or stages: Changes are sudden.
Which is the longest stage of prenatal development?
Fetal
Which of the 3 stages is the longest?
Fetus
Using scissors to cut out paper shapes is an example of ________.
Fine motor skills
________ focus on the muscles in our fingers, toes, and eyes, and enable coordination of small actions.
Fine motor skills
According to Erikson, adolescents are in the ________ stage of development.
Identity versus role confusion
According to Erik Erikson, the primary developmental dilemma of adolescence is
Identity vs confusion
According to Erikson, which conflict might 14-year old Hannah face in her developmental stage?
Identity vs role confusion
Once Jane heard of her daughter's diagnosis, Jane began to tell the doctor, "I'll do anything if you can help my daughter get well." Where does Jane's response fit in Elizabeth Kübler-Ross's stages of grief model?
bargaining
menarche:
beginning of menstrual period; around 12-13 years old
teratogen:
biological, chemical, or physical environmental agent that causes damage to the developing embryo or fetus
avoidant attachment:
characterized by child's unresponsiveness to parent, does not use the parent as a secure base, and does not care if parent leaves
secure attachment:
characterized by the child using the parent as a secure base from which to explore
disorganized attachment:
characterized by the child's odd behavior when faced with the parent; type of attachment seen most often with kids that are abused
resistant attachment:
characterized by the child's tendency to show clingy behavior and rejection of the parent when she attempts to interact with the child
Which theorist proposed that moral thinking proceeds through a series of stages?
Lawrence Kohlberg
Who proposed a theory of moral development with three distinct levels, with each level representing a different degree of moral reasoning?
Lawrence Kohlberg
Having seen this experiment, do you expect that children will prefer the moose in the green shirt or the moose in the red shirt?
Moose in the green shirt
Babies who show the ________ will spread their arms and quickly pull them back if they feel like they are falling.
Moro reflex
Soon after birth, a nurse almost drops Osei. He spreads his arms, pulls them back in, and then cries. This is an example of ________.
Moro reflex
The child's ball rolls under the couch when his father isn't looking. The child says, "Gimme!" but does not point or otherwise indicate what he wants. The father can't figure out why the child is upset.
Not Preoperational stage
The child takes a cookie without asking. When Mom asks, "Who took that cookie?" the child admits it right away, because she doesn't realize that Mom might not know who took the cookie. Multiple Choice Question
Not concrete operational stage
The parents take the child to a magic show, but she doesn't enjoy it because nothing really surprises her.
Not concrete operational stage
A student is learning to count. The teacher asks, "What is four plus two?" The student counts out four fingers, and then he counts out two more. Finally, he counts all six fingers that are up and says, "Six!"
Not formal operational stage
While you are shopping with the child, she becomes tired and says, "Mommy, go home now?"
Not sensorimotor stage
Those who argue that the environment and culture have the strongest influence on development emphasize ________.
Nurture
The idea that even if something is out of sight, it still exists is called ________.
Object permanence
Which of the following lists the typical order in which these concepts are mastered by the child during development?
Object permanence, theory of mind, consevation
Which of the following is true about the relationships of older adults?
Older adults usually have deeper social relationships. Older adults usually have fewer social relationships.
Not all normative events
are universal, meaning they are not experienced by all individuals across all cultures.
When children learn new information, they adjust their schemata through two processes:
assimilation and accommodation.
Brain growth continues into the
early 20s. The development of the frontal lobe, in particular, is important during this stage.
Infants who have pleasant moods and positive attitudes toward new situations and people have ________ temperaments.
easy
Psychosocial development involves
emotions, personality, and social relationships
When the organism is about nine weeks old, the embryo is called a
fetus.
formal operational stage:
final stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development; from age 11 and up, children are able to deal with abstract ideas and hypothetical situations
During early childhood (ages 3-6), the
frontal lobes grow rapidly. Recalling our discussion of the 4 lobes of the brain earlier in this book, the frontal lobes are associated with planning, reasoning, memory, and impulse control. Therefore, by the time children reach school age, they are developmentally capable of controlling their attention and behavior. Through the elementary school years, the frontal, temporal, occipital, and parietal lobes all grow in size.
When people reach their 40s, they enter the time known as middle adulthood, which extends to the mid-60s. This involves finding their life's work and contributing to the development of others through activities such as volunteering, mentoring, and raising children. What is the primary developmental task of this stage?
generativity vs stagnation
There is interaction between neural and cognitive networks at and between each level, consisting of these:
genes neurons brain body social environment These interactions shape mental representations in the brain and are dependent on context that individuals actively explore throughout their lifetimes (Westermann, Mareschal, Johnson, Sirois, Spratling, & Thomas, 2007)
There are three stages of prenatal development:
germinal, embryonic, and fetal.
The ________ reflex explains why newborns hold on tight when you put a finger in their hands.
grasp
the nervous system continues to
grow and develop. Each neural pathway forms thousands of new connections during infancy and toddlerhood. This period of rapid neural growth is called blooming. Neural pathways continue to develop through puberty.
What is Erikson's primary developmental conflict of early adulthood?
intimacy vs. isolation
Moratorium
is a state in which adolescents are actively exploring options but have not yet made commitments.
Attachment is a
long-standing connection or bond with others. Developmental psychologists are interested in how infants reach this milestone. They ask such questions as: How do parent and infant attachment bonds form? How does neglect affect these bonds? What accounts for children's attachment differences?
Renee Baillargeon's study with infants and their awareness of objects disproved Piaget's previously held belief that babies could not understand objects until they gained more experience. In her study, Baillargeon found that infants ________ at the impossible situation of a truck rolling through a box, which demonstrated an awareness of the properties of objects.
looked longer
adrenarche:
maturing of the adrenal glands
Cognitive skills continue to expand in middle and late childhood (6-11 years old). Thought processes become
more logical and organized when dealing with concrete information (Figure 3). Children at this age understand concepts such as the past, present, and future, giving them the ability to plan and work toward goals. Additionally, they can process complex ideas such as addition and subtraction and cause-and-effect relationships. However, children's attention spans tend to be very limited until they are around 11 years old. After that point, it begins to improve through adulthood.
embryo:
multi-cellular organism in its early stages of development
Developmental psychologists use many of these approaches in order to better understand how individuals change mentally and physically over time. These methods include
naturalistic observations, case studies, surveys, and experiments, among others.
emerging adulthood:
newly defined period of lifespan development from 18 years old to the mid-20s; young people are taking longer to complete college, get a job, get married, and start a family
Between 5 and 8 months old, the child develops
object permanence, which is the understanding that even if something is out of sight, it still exists (Bogartz, Shinskey, & Schilling, 2000).
authoritative parenting style:
parents give children reasonable demands and consistent limits, express warmth and affection, and listen to the child's point of view
permissive parenting style:
parents make few demands and rarely use punishment
The achievement gap refers to the
persistent difference in grades, test scores, and graduation rates that exist among students of different ethnicities, races, and—in certain subjects—sexes (Winerman, 2011).
By the time we reach early adulthood (20 to early 40s), our
physical maturation is complete, although our height and weight may increase slightly. In young adulthood, our physical abilities are at their peak, including muscle strength, reaction time, sensory abilities, and cardiac functioning. Most professional athletes are at the top of their game during this stage. Many women have children in the young adulthood years, so they may see additional weight gain and breast changes.
secondary sexual characteristics:
physical signs of sexual maturation that do not directly involve sex organs
Randy will not ride his bike in the street because he is afraid his mother will punish him if he does. According to Kohlberg's theory, Randy is demonstrating the ________ level of moral reasoning.
preconventional
Other teratogens include
radiation, viruses such as HIV and herpes, and rubella (German measles). Women in the United States are much less likely to be afflicted with rubella because most women received childhood immunizations or vaccinations that protect the body from disease.
Fluid intelligence
refers to information processing abilities, such as logical reasoning, remembering lists, spatial ability, and reaction time.
The next stage of development is emerging adulthood. This is a
relatively newly defined period of lifespan development spanning from 18 years old to the mid-20s, characterized as an in-between time where identity exploration is focused on work and love.
It is hard to tell how Guy's father will respond to Guy. Sometimes he is responsive to Guy's needs, but he is just as likely to ignore Guy. At 18 months old, Guy clings to his father, but he is just as likely to reject his father if his father tries to play with him. Guy becomes angry when his father leaves, and Guy is difficult to comfort even after his father returns. What kind of attachment is this?
resistant attachment
gross motor skills:
use of large muscle groups to control arms and legs for large body movements
fine motor skills:
use of muscles in fingers, toes, and eyes to coordinate small actions
The placenta is a structure connected to the
uterus that provides nourishment and oxygen from the mother to the developing embryo via the umbilical cord.
continuous development:
view that development is a cumulative process: gradually improving on existing skills
discontinuous development:
view that development takes place in unique stages, which happen at specific times or ages
By the time the fetus reaches the sixth month of development (24 weeks), it
weighs up to 1.4 pounds. Hearing has developed, so the fetus can respond to sounds. The internal organs, such as the lungs, heart, stomach, and intestines, have formed enough that a fetus born prematurely at this point has a chance to survive outside of the mother's womb.
By 2 years old the
weight will have quadrupled, so we can expect that a 2 year old should weigh between 20 and 40 pounds. The average length of a newborn is 19.5 inches, increasing to 29.5 inches by 12 months and 34.4 inches by 2 years old
adults tend to define themselves by
what they do—their careers.
Moro reflex is the newborn's response
when she feels like she is falling. The baby spreads her arms, pulls them back in, and then (usually) cries.
assimilation is
when they take in information that is comparable to what they already know.
It is important that the mother takes good care of herself and receives prenatal care,
which is medical care during pregnancy that monitors the health of both the mother and the fetus
concept of development includes
your physiology and bodily changes.
hospice:
service that provides a death with dignity; pain management in a humane and comfortable environment; usually outside of a hospital setting
As with other major contributors of theories of development, several of Piaget's ideas have come under criticism based on the results of further research. For example,
several contemporary studies support a model of development that is more continuous than Piaget's discrete stages (Courage & Howe, 2002; Siegler, 2005, 2006). Many others suggest that children reach cognitive milestones earlier than Piaget describes (Baillargeon, 2004; de Hevia & Spelke, 2010).
normative approach:
study of development using norms, or average ages, when most children reach specific developmental milestones
Biological milestones
such as puberty, tend to be universal
social milestones
such as the age when children begin formal schooling, are not necessarily universal; instead, they affect most individuals in a particular culture
A newborn baby knows how to nurse from her mother because of the ________.
sucking
During the embryonic stage,
the heart begins to beat and organs form and begin to function. The neural tube forms along the back of the embryo, developing into the spinal cord and brain.
authoritative style,
the parent gives reasonable demands and consistent limits, expresses warmth and affection, and listens to the child's point of view. Parents set rules and explain the reasons behind them. They are also flexible and willing to make exceptions to the rules in certain cases—for example, temporarily relaxing bedtime rules to allow for a nighttime swim during a family vacation.
With the uninvolved style of parenting
the parents are indifferent, uninvolved, and sometimes referred to as neglectful. They don't respond to the child's needs and make relatively few demands. This could be because of severe depression or substance abuse, or other factors such as the parents' extreme focus on work. These parents may provide for the child's basic needs, but little else. The children raised in this parenting style are usually emotionally withdrawn, fearful, anxious, perform poorly in school, and are at an increased risk of substance abuse (Darling, 1999).
From 9-12 weeks,
the sex organs begin to differentiate. At about 16 weeks, the fetus is approximately 4.5 inches long
theory-of-mind:
the understanding that people have thoughts, feelings, and beliefs that are different from our own
Authoritarian parents expect
their children to unquestionably obey the rules they set; they punish misbehavior and value obedience to authority.
concrete operational stage:
third stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development; from about 7 to 11 years old, children can think logically about real (concrete) events
Adulthood begins around 20 years old and has
three distinct stages: early, middle, and late.
reversibility:
understanding that objects can be changed and then returned back to their original form or condition
schema:
(plural = schemata) concept (mental model) that is used to help us categorize and interpret information
Germinal Stage (Weeks ?)
1-2
Erikson's Psychosocial Stages of Development Stage 8
65-Integrity vs. despair Assess and make sense of life and meaning of contributions
Erikson's Psychosocial Stages of Development stage 4
7-11 Industry vs. inferiority Develop self-confidence in abilities when competent or sense of inferiority when not
The average newborn weighs approximately
7.5 pounds.
A college student who has used only Macs sits down at a PC. After spending 20 frustrating minutes searching for the Dock and the Finder and other Mac tools, he walks away from the machine in disgust.
Assimulation
Carlos, a 17 years old, responds, "Heinz is acting out of a passion of love for his wife, so I think he should have done it. The seller didn't try to bargain with him. So I think it was right, well, not right, but I would have done it." When Carlos is further questioned, "Is it ever right to steal?", he responds, "No, it's wrong, it's still stealing. So if the police catch him breaking into the store, then the police should take him to jail. But morally, he doesn't need to go to jail because he was doing the right thing, but stealing is stealing."
Conventional
Parents who believe it's important to be friends with their children and are set very few rules for their behavior are considered to have a ________ parenting style.
Permissive
Here is a summary of the four phases in Experiment 3:
Phase 1: The infant chooses graham crackers or green beans. Phase 2: The bouncer puppets chooses graham crackers or green beans.Similar condition: The bouncer chooses the same food that the infant chose.Dissimilar condition: The bouncer chooses the food that the infant did not choose. Phase 3: This is the same bouncing ball experiment that you have been reading about.Remember that each child sees both the Giver and Taker shows. Phase 4: This is the same choice—Giver or Taker—that was the final phase in the other two experiments
Developmental psychologists study the ________ that occur throughout life.
Physical cognitive psychosocial
Cheryl, an adult, responds, "It's not okay, but it's understandable. There was good enough reason because someone's life was at stake. It was a dire situation. Someone's life is more important, and their right to life is more important than the drug company getting their money. That person's right to life goes above the law; it's higher than the other. Although he loves his wife, there are also other things involved: she is a person and she has a right to life."
Postconventional
Samantha: As long as her mother is present, Samantha eagerly explores the room and plays with the toys. When her mother leaves, Samantha becomes somewhat upset, but when she returns, Samantha quickly calms down.
Secure
The child uses the parent as a base from which to explore her world in which attachment style?
Secure
The child frequently puts things in his mouth when he finds them lying around.
Sensorimotor stage
The child loves to crawl on the living room carpet.
Sensorimotor stage
Describe some of the newborn reflexes. How might they promote survival?
The sucking reflex is the automatic, unlearned sucking motions that infants do with their mouths. It may help promote survival because this action helps the baby take in nourishment. The rooting reflex is the newborn's response to anything that touches her cheek. When you stroke a baby's cheek she will naturally turn her head that way and begin to suck. This may aid survival because it helps the newborn locate a source of food.
motor skills:
ability to move our body and manipulate objects
cognitive empathy:
ability to take the perspective of others and to feel concern for others
developmental psychology encompasses the concept of
cognition and how our thinking process changes over time.
Human development begins at
conception, and developmental psychologists are therefore invested in understanding how humans evolve and change from the very beginning, when egg and sperm join together.
According to Piaget, the highest level of cognitive development is formal operational thought, which develops between 11 and 20 years old. However, many developmental psychologists
disagree with Piaget, suggesting a fifth stage of cognitive development, known as the postformal stage (Basseches, 1984; Commons & Bresette, 2006; Sinnott, 1998). In postformal thinking, decisions are made based on situations and circumstances, and logic is integrated with emotion as adults develop principles that depend on contexts. One way that we can see the difference between an adult in postformal thought and an adolescent in formal operations is in terms of how they handle emotionally charged issues.
These are the types of questions developmental psychologists try to answer, by studying
how humans change and grow from conception through childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and death.
Lifespan development explores
how we change and grow from conception to death. This field of psychology is studied by developmental psychologists.
During the elementary school stage (ages 6-12), children face the task of
industry versus inferiority. Children begin to compare themselves to their peers to see how they measure up. They either develop a sense of pride and accomplishment in their schoolwork, sports, social activities, and family life, or they feel inferior and inadequate when they don't measure up. What are some things parents and teachers can do to help children develop a sense of competence and a belief in themselves and their abilities?
According to Erikson (1963), trust is the basis of our development during
infancy (birth to 12 months). Therefore, the primary task of this stage is trust versus mistrust.
Piaget said that children develop
schemata to help them understand the world. Schemata are concepts (mental models) that are used to help us categorize and interpret information.
Erikson's Psychosocial Stages of Development Stage 7
30-64 Generativity vs. stagnation Contribute to society and be part of a family
relaxes They are present in babies whose brains are developing normally and usually disappear around
4-5 months old.
developmental milestone:
approximate ages at which children reach specific normative events
The fetus continues to gain weight and grow in length until approximately
40 weeks. By then, the fetus has very little room to move around and birth becomes imminent.
We'll give Dr. Hamlin the last word. Here is part of her conclusion section from an article that summarizes some of the research we have been studying:
"In sum, recent developmental research supports the claim that at least some aspects of human morality are innate...Indeed, these early tendencies are far from shallow, mechanical predispositions to behave well or knee-jerk reactions to particular states of the world. Infant moral inclinations are sophisticated, flexible, and surprisingly consistent with adults' moral inclinations, incorporating aspects of moral goodness, evaluation, and retaliation. " [Hamlin, 2013, p. 191]
Erikson's Psychosocial Stages of Development Stage 1
0-1 Trust vs. mistrustTrust (or mistrust) that basic needs, such as nourishment and affection, will be met
Parenting styles affect many aspects of a child's development. Parents who attempt to shape and control their children in accordance with a set standard of conduct are called _____(1) . Parents who attempt to direct their children's activities in a rational and intelligent way and are supportive, loving, and committed are called__________(2) . Parents who are less controlling and adopt a non-punishing and accepting attitude toward their children's impulses and desires are called ___________(3) . Parents who place very few demands on their children and who are unresponsive to their children's needs are called __________(4) .
1 authoritarian 2 authoritative 3 permissive 4 uninvolved
Erikson's Psychosocial Stages of Development Stage 2
1-3 Autonomy vs. shame/doubt Develop a sense of independence in many tasks
Sarah is a freshmen interested in taking a developmental psychology course. She is under the assumption that developmental psychology begins once you are born and ends once you enter into adulthood. Having just read a brief introduction to developmental psychology, you can now confidently tell her that developmental psychology starts at [Select]_________(1) and continues throughout your [Select] __________ (2). It includes broad categories of change that include [Select] ________ (3), behavior, [Select] ______________(4) , and social relationships/interaction.
1.)conception 2.)lifespan 3.)physiology 4.)cognition
Boys begin their growth spurt slightly later, usually between
10 and 16 years old, and reach their adult height between 13 and 17 years old. Both nature (i.e., genes) and nurture (e.g., nutrition, medications, and medical conditions) can influence height.
After 5 days of mitosis there are
100 cells, and after 9 months there are billions of cells.
Erikson's Psychosocial Stages of Development stage 5
12-18 Identity vs. confusion Experiment with and develop identity and roles
Throughout the fetal stage the brain continues to grow and develop, nearly doubling in size from weeks
16 to 28.
Erikson's Psychosocial Stages of Development Stage 6
19-29 Intimacy vs. isolation Establish intimacy and relationships with others
Developmental Milestones, Ages 2-5 Years
2 - Kicks a ball; walks up and down stairs Plays alongside other children; copies adults Points to objects when named; puts 2-4 words together in a sentence Sorts shapes and colors; follows 2-step instructions 3- Climbs and runs; pedals tricycle Takes turns; expresses many emotions; dresses self Names familiar things; uses pronouns Plays make believe; works toys with parts (levers, handles) 4-Catches balls; uses scissors Prefers social play to solo play; knows likes and interests Knows songs and rhymes by memory Names colors and numbers; begins writing letters 5- Hops and swings; uses fork and spoon Distinguishes real from pretend; likes to please friends Speaks clearly; uses full sentences Counts to 10 or higher; prints some letters and copies basic shapes
Erikson's Psychosocial Stages of Development Stage 3
3-6 Initiative vs. guilt Take initiative on some activities—may develop guilt when unsuccessful or boundaries overstepped
At about 2 years old, a toddler uses between ______ words;...
50 and 200 words; by 3 years old they have a vocabulary of up to 1,000 words and can speak in sentences. During the early childhood years, children's vocabulary increases at a rapid pace. This is sometimes referred to as the "vocabulary spurt" and has been claimed to involve an expansion in vocabulary at a rate of 10-20 new words per week. Recent research may indicate that while some children experience these spurts, it is far from universal (as discussed in Ganger & Brent, 2004). It has been estimated that, 5 year olds understand about 6,000 words, speak 2,000 words, and can define words and question their meanings. They can rhyme and name the days of the week. Seven year olds speak fluently and use slang and clichés (Stork & Widdowson, 1974).
By age ________, a child's brain is 90% of its adult size
6
infants shake their head "no" around
6-9 months, and they respond to verbal requests to do things like "wave bye-bye" or "blow a kiss" around 9-12 months. Remember Piaget's ideas about object permanence? We can expect children to grasp the concept that objects continue to exist even when they are not in sight by around 8 months old. Because toddlers (i.e., 12-24 months old) have mastered object permanence, they enjoy games like hide and seek, and they realize that when someone leaves the room they will come back (Loop, 2013). Toddlers also point to pictures in books and look in appropriate places when you ask them to find objects.
During puberty, both sexes experience a rapid increase in height (i.e., growth spurt). For girls this begins between
8 and 13 years old, with adult height reached between 10 and 16 years old.
Fetal Stage (Weeks?)
9-40
The concept of "types of desserts I like" is an example of ________.
A schemata
A child drinks unsweetened iced tea for the first time, hates it, and then avoids drinking anything that looks like it.
Accommodation
Which statement accurately describes the current period of adolescence?
Adolescence is the years between 12 and the middle to late 20s
Which of the following best fits the acceptance stage of Elizabeth Kübler-Ross's stages of grief model?
After battling cancer for 4 years, Steve has come to the realization that he will most likely not survive the illness he spends time organizing his financial papers and the meets with his friends for the last time
What are some known teratogens, and what kind of damage can they do to the developing fetus?
Alcohol is a teratogen. Excessive drinking can cause mental retardation in children. The child can also have a small head and abnormal facial features, which are characteristic of fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS). Another teratogen is nicotine. Smoking while pregnant can lead to low-birth weight, premature birth, stillbirth, and SIDS.
A child sees a Great Dane for the first time and says, "Horsie!"
Assimilation
For each of the following situations, decide whether it is an example of assimilation or accommodation. A child sees a chicken, points, and says, "Bird!"
Assimilation
What is the difference between assimilation and accommodation? Provide examples of each.
Assimilation is when we take in information that is comparable to what we already know. Accommodation is when we change our schemata based on new information. An example of assimilation is a child's schema of "dog" based on the family's golden retriever being expanded to include two newly adopted golden retrievers. An example of accommodation is that same child's schema of "dog" being adjusted to exclude other four-legged furry animals such as sheep and foxes.
Two-year old Eva doesn't want any help getting dressed in the mornings. According to Erikson's psychosocial stages, Eva is dealing with the struggle between
Autonomy vs shame/doubt
At the ________ level, people focus on laws and the importance of obeying authority, whereas at the ________ level, the focus is on ethics and universal moral behavior.
Conventional ; postconventional
The time during fetal growth when specific parts or organs develop is known as ________.
Critical period
________ intelligence tends to increase with age, whereas ________ intelligence decreases with age.
Crystallized; fluid
When Jack heard others talking about terrorists attacking New York City, his first reaction was, "No way, that can't be happening." Where does Jack's response fit in Elizabeth Kübler-Ross's stages of grief model?
Denial
Psychologists use the term ________ to refer to the physical, cognitive, and psychosocial changes that occur during life.
Development
Psychologists use the term_____ to refer to physical, cognitive, and psychological changes that occur during life.
Development
A child's self-concept ________
Develops as a result of brain maturation and language
Elsa: When her mother leaves the room, Elsa cries, but soon begins to wander around the room as if looking for something. She is not interested in the toys. When her mother returns she smiles and begins to run to her, but then suddenly falls to the floor and begins to kick and whine in anger.
Disorganized
Kids of abusive parents often display ________ attachment, and may run away from their parents in the Strange Situation experiment.
Disorganized
What is egocentrism? Provide an original example.
Egocentrism is the inability to take the perspective of another person. This type of thinking is common in young children in the preoperational stage of cognitive development. An example might be that upon seeing his mother crying, a young child gives her his favorite stuffed animal to make her feel better.
What is emerging adulthood and what are some factors that have contributed to this new stage of development?
Emerging adulthood is a relatively new period of lifespan development from 18 years old to the mid-20s, characterized as a transitional time in which identity exploration focuses on work and love. According to Arnett, changing cultural expectations facilitate the delay to full adulthood. People are spending more time exploring their options, so they are delaying marriage and work as they change majors and jobs multiple times, putting them on a much later timetable than their parents.
Describe what happens in the embryonic stage of development. Describe what happens in the fetal stage of development.
In the embryonic stage, basic structures of the embryo start to develop into areas that will become the head, chest, and abdomen. The heart begins to beat and organs form and begin to function. The neural tube forms along the back of the embryo, developing into the spinal cord and brain. In the fetal stage, the brain and body continue to develop. Fingers and toes develop along with hearing, and internal organs form.
How does self-awareness develop?
Infants don't have a self-concept, which is an understanding of who they are. If you place a baby in front of a mirror, she will reach out to touch her image, thinking it is another baby. However, by about 18 months a toddler will recognize that the person in the mirror is herself. How do we know this? In a well-known experiment, a researcher placed a red dot of paint on children's noses before putting them in front of a mirror (Amsterdam, 1972
Research by Hamlin, Mahanjan, Liberman, and Wynn found that
Infants seem to make moral judgments
Mike has always been a little awkward socially. There are nice folks at work, but he regularly turns down invitations to go out for a drink after work. At home, he spends most of his time reading or working on his computer. Which of the following of Erikson's crisis terms applies most accurately to Mike's situation?
Isolation
stage of moral reasoning: process proposed by
Kohlberg; humans move through three stages of moral development
Which moose do you think the children will prefer: the moose with the green shirt who gives it back to the "mean elephant" or the moose in the red shirt who takes it away from the "mean elephant"? The question has been evaluated. Your choice is correct. Multiple Choice Question
Moose in the red shirt
The bodies ability to move and manipulate objects are known as
Motor skills
A student is asked to sort animals into various kinds, using ideas she has just been learning in school. She first divides the animals into mammals, fish, birds, reptiles, and a few other categories. Then she divides mammals into egg-laying mammals, primates, marsupials, rodents, and several others. She continues this process until the teacher stops her.
NOT Formal operational stage
Hamlin, Mahanjan, Liberman, and Wynn found that if a young child has a preference for green beans and is shown a puppet that dislikes green beans, then
NOT- they will dislike any negative treatment of green bean hating puppet
The ________ stage is when children can think and reason about abstract ideas and hypothetical situations.
formal operational
Describe the five stages of grief and provide examples of how a person might react in each stage.
The first stage is denial. The person receives news that he is dying, and either does not take it seriously or tries to escape from the reality of the situation. He might say something like, "Cancer could never happen to me. I take good care of myself. This has to be a mistake." The next stage is anger. He realizes time is short, and he may not have a chance to accomplish what he wanted in life. "It's not fair. I promised my grandchildren that we would go to Disney World, and now I'll never have the chance to take them." The third stage is bargaining. In this stage, he tries to delay the inevitable by bargaining or pleading for extra time, usually with God, family members, or medical care providers. "God, just give me one more year so I can take that trip with my grandchildren. They're too young to understand what's happening and why I can't take them." The fourth stage is depression. He becomes sad about his impending death. "I can't believe this is how I'm going to die. I'm in so much pain. What's going to become of my family when I'm gone?" The final stage is acceptance. This stage is usually reached in the last few days or weeks before death. He recognizes that death is inevitable. "I need to get everything in order and say all of my goodbyes to the people I love."
Describe the nature versus nurture controversy, and give an example of a trait and how it might be influenced by each?
The nature versus nurture controversy seeks to understand whether our personalities and traits are the product of our genetic makeup and biological factors, or whether they are shaped by our environment, which includes such things as our parents, peers, and culture. Today, psychologists agree that both nature and nurture interact to shape who we become, but the debate over the relative contributions of each continues. An example would be a child learning to walk: Nature influences when the physical ability occurs, but culture can influence when a child masters this skill, as in Aché culture.
How is lifespan development defined?
The study of how we grow and change from conception to death
Which of the following is the independent variable?
The type of puppet giver vs taker
A child watches as you tell the following story using dolls: "Becky walks into her bedroom carrying her favorite book. She puts the book in the top drawer of her dresser, closes the drawer, and leaves the room. A few minutes later, her brother Zack comes into the room, takes the book from the drawer, and puts it in the toy box. Then Zack leaves the room. Then Becky comes back to the room to get her book." You ask the child to tell you where Becky will look first. The child says, "In the toy box!" without hesitation. What is the phenomenon or attainment being tested?
Theory of mind
When children develop ________, they come to understand that people have thoughts, feelings, and beliefs that are different from their own.
Theory of mind
Stage theories hold that the sequence of development is ________.
Universal
As a 49 year old, Travis is focused on his career and family, yet he feels a sense of emptiness. Erikson argues that he could ________ to feel more productive and better about himself.
Volunteer as a youth soccer coach in his neighborhood
Embryonic Stage (Weeks?)
Weeks 3-8
Skinner said that language is learned through reinforcement, while Chomsky said that children are born with a language acquisition device. Who is correct?
are both right—language is the result of nature and nurture
Compare and contrast the four attachment styles and describe the kinds of childhood outcomes we can expect with each.
With the authoritative style, children are given reasonable demands and consistent limits, warmth and affection are expressed, the parent listens to the child's point of view, and the child initiates positive standards. Children raised by authoritative parents tend to have high self-esteem and social skills. Another parenting style is authoritarian: The parent places a high value on conformity and obedience. The parents are often strict, tightly monitor their children, and express little warmth. This style can create anxious, withdrawn, and unhappy kids. The third parenting style is permissive: Parents make few demands, rarely use punishment, and give their children free rein. Children raised by permissive parents tend to lack self-discipline, which contributes to poor grades and alcohol abuse. However, they have higher self-esteem, better social skills, and lower levels of depression. The fourth style is the uninvolved parent: They are indifferent, uninvolved, and sometimes called neglectful. The children raised in this parenting style are usually emotionally withdrawn, fearful, anxious, perform poorly in school, and are at an increased risk of substance abuse.
What begins as a single-cell structure that is created when a sperm and egg merge at conception? Multiple Choice Question
Zygote
Which of the following is the correct order of prenatal development?
Zygote embryo fetus
As people enter the final stages of life, they have what Erik Erikson described as
a crisis over integrity versus despair. In other words, they review the events of their lives and try to come to terms with the mark (or lack thereof) that they have made on the world. People who believe they have had a positive impact on the world through their contributions live the end of life with a sense of integrity. Those who feel they have not measured up to certain standards—either their own or others'—develop a sense of despair.
Sharonda realized that her health was declining rapidly, so she decided to spend a few weeks with each of her children and spend quality time with those she loves. Her behavior best fits which stage of Elizabeth Kübler-Ross's stages of grief model?
acceptance
Rae grew up learning that Pluto was a planet. Since it was later reclassified as only a dwarf planet, Rae was forced to adjust her concept of what a planet is, and create a new concept for dwarf planets to include Ceres, Eris, Haumea, and Makemake. What process would Piaget say took place in Rae's mind?
accomodation
assimilation:
adjustment of a schema by adding information similar to what is already known
accommodation:
adjustment of a schema by changing a scheme to accommodate new information different from what was already known
Physical changes that occur during puberty include the maturing of the ________ and the ________ glands.
adrenal;sex
Preschool-age children (i.e., 3-5 years old)
also make steady progress in cognitive development. Not only can they count, name colors, and tell you their name and age, but they can also make some decisions on their own, such as choosing an outfit to wear. Preschool-age children understand basic time concepts and sequencing (e.g., before and after), and they can predict what will happen next in a story. They also begin to enjoy the use of humor in stories. Because they can think symbolically, they enjoy pretend play and inventing elaborate characters and scenarios. One of the most common examples of their cognitive growth is their blossoming curiosity. Preschool-age children love to ask "Why?"
Kohlberg reviewed people's responses and placed them in different stages of moral reasoning (Figure 1). According to Kohlberg,
an individual progresses from the capacity for pre-conventional morality (before age 9) to the capacity for conventional morality (early adolescence), and toward attaining post-conventional morality (once formal operational thought is attained), which only a few fully achieve.
Adolescents engage in increased risk-taking behaviors and emotional outbursts possibly because the frontal lobes of their brains are still developing (Figure 2). Recall that this area is often called the "CEO of the brain", as it is responsible for judgment, impulse control, and planning. It is still maturing into early adulthood, up until
around age 25 (Casey, Tottenham, Liston, & Durston, 2005).
The sucking reflex is the
automatic, unlearned, sucking motions that infants do with their mouths.
When April learned she is suffering from leukemia, she met with her doctor and said, "I'll do anything to get rid of my disease. I'll improve my diet, quit smoking, lose weight, anything; just make me better." April appears to be in the ________ stage of Kübler-Ross's stages of grief.
bargaining
disorganized attachment
behaved oddly in the Strange Situation. They freeze, run around the room in an erratic manner, or try to run away when the caregiver returns (Main & Solomon, 1990). This type of attachment is seen most often in kids who have been abused. Research has shown that abuse disrupts a child's ability to regulate their emotions.
Naturalistic observations involve observing
behavior in its natural context. A developmental psychologist might observe how children behave on a playground, at a daycare center, or in the child's own home.
The first stage is the sensorimotor stage, which lasts from
birth to about 2 years old. During this stage, children learn about the world through their senses and motor behavior. Young children put objects in their mouths to see if the items are edible, and once they can grasp objects, they may shake or bang them to see if they make sounds.
We are born with all of the
brain cells that we will ever have—about 100-200 billion neurons (nerve cells) whose function is to store and transmit information (Huttenlocher & Dabholkar, 1997).
The frontal lobes become fully developed ________.
by 25 years old
Infants are dependent upon their
caregivers, so caregivers who are responsive and sensitive to their infant's needs help their baby to develop a sense of trust; their baby will see the world as a safe, predictable place. Unresponsive caregivers who do not meet their baby's needs can engender feelings of anxiety, fear, and mistrust; their baby may see the world as unpredictable.
Jean Piaget (1896-1980) is another stage theorist who studied
childhood development (Figure 1). Instead of approaching development from a psychoanalytical or psychosocial perspective, Piaget focused on children's cognitive growth. He believed that thinking is a central aspect of development and that children are naturally inquisitive. However, he said that children do not think and reason like adults (Piaget, 1930, 1932). His theory of cognitive development holds that our cognitive abilities develop through specific stages, which exemplifies the discontinuity approach to development. As we progress to a new stage, there is a distinct shift in how we think and reason.
resistant attachment (also called ambivalent or anxious-ambivalent/resistant),
children tend to show clingy behavior, but then they reject the attachment figure's attempts to interact with them (Ainsworth & Bell, 1970). These children do not explore the toys in the room, as they are too fearful. During separation in the Strange Situation, they became extremely disturbed and angry with the parent. When the parent returns, the children are difficult to comfort. Resistant attachment is the result of the caregivers' inconsistent level of response to their child.
A mother and father's DNA is passed on to the child at the moment of
conception. Conception occurs when sperm fertilizes an egg and forms a zygote
Piaget's third stage is the
concrete operational stage, which occurs from about 7 to 11 years old. In this stage, children can think logically about real (concrete) events; they have a firm grasp on the use of numbers and start to employ memory strategies. They can perform mathematical operations and understand transformations, such as addition is the opposite of subtraction, and multiplication is the opposite of division. In this stage, children also master the concept of conservation: Even if something changes shape, its mass, volume, and number stay the same.
Erik Erikson said that at each stage of development there is a ________ that needs to be addressed for a healthy personality.
conflict
Experiments involve significant
control over extraneous variables and manipulation of the independent variable. As such, experimental research allows developmental psychologists to make causal statements about certain variables that are important for the developmental process. Because experimental research must occur in a controlled environment, researchers must be cautious about whether behaviors observed in the laboratory translate to an individual's natural environment.
As toddlers (ages 1-3 years) begin to explore their world, they learn that they can
control their actions and act on the environment to get results. They begin to show clear preferences for certain elements of the environment, such as food, toys, and clothing. A toddler's main task is to resolve the issue of autonomy versus shame and doubt, by working to establish independence. This is the "me do it" stage. we might observe a budding sense of autonomy in a 2-year-old child who wants to choose her clothes and dress herself. Although her outfits might not be appropriate for the situation, her input in such basic decisions has an effect on her sense of independence. If denied the opportunity to act on her environment, she may begin to doubt her abilities, which could lead to low self-esteem and feelings of shame.
When a person makes a moral decision based on wanting to make sure that the decision is acceptable in the community, the person's moral reasoning is at the ________ level.
conventional
By 4 years old, children can
cooperate with other children, share when asked, and separate from parents with little anxiety. Children at this age also exhibit autonomy, initiate tasks, and carry out plans. Success in these areas contributes to a positive sense of self
Each organ of the fetus develops during a specific period in the pregnancy, called the
critical or sensitive period
An older person's "wisdom" can be described by the term ________ intelligence.
crystallized
Continuous development views development as a
cumulative process, gradually improving on existing skills (Figure 1). With this type of development, there is gradual change. Consider, for example, a child's physical growth: adding inches to her height year by year.
Middle adulthood extends from the 40s to the 60s (Figure 1). Physical
decline is gradual. The skin loses some elasticity, and wrinkles are among the first signs of aging. Visual acuity decreases during this time. Women experience a gradual decline in fertility as they approach the onset of menopause, the end of the menstrual cycle, around 50 years old. Both men and women tend to gain weight: in the abdominal area for men and in the hips and thighs for women. Hair begins to thin and turn gray.
With age, systematic
declines are observed on cognitive tasks requiring self-initiated, effortful processing, without the aid of supportive memory cues (Park, 2000).
Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD) are a collection of birth
defects associated with heavy consumption of alcohol during pregnancy. Physically, children with FASD may have a small head size and abnormal facial features. Cognitively, these children may have poor judgment, poor impulse control, higher rates of ADHD, learning issues, and lower IQ scores.
five stages of grief:
denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance
Which of the following is the order of stages in Kübler-Ross's five-stage model of grief?
denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance.
five stages of grief:
denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance.
What is the primary psychosocial milestone of childhood?
developing a positive sense of self
theorists who view development as discontinuous believe that
development takes place in unique stages: It occurs at specific times or ages. With this type of development, the change is more sudden, such as an infant's ability to conceive object permanence.
attachment:
long-standing connection or bond with others
During infancy and childhood, growth
does not occur at a steady rate (Carel, Lahlou, Roger, & Chaussain, 2004). Growth slows between 4 and 6 years old: During this time children gain 5-7 pounds and grow about 2-3 inches per year. Once girls reach 8-9 years old, their growth rate outpaces that of boys due to a pubertal growth spurt. This growth spurt continues until around 12 years old, coinciding with the start of the menstrual cycle. By 10 years old, the average girl weighs 88 pounds, and the average boy weighs 85 pounds.
psychosocial development:
domain of lifespan development that examines emotions, personality, and social relationships
physical development:
domain of lifespan development that examines growth and changes in the body and brain, the senses, motor skills, and health and wellness
cognitive development:
domain of lifespan development that examines learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity
On average, newborns weigh between 5 and 10 pounds, and a newborn's weight typically
doubles in six months and triples in one year.
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) believed that personality develops
during early childhood. For Freud, childhood experiences shape our personalities and behavior as adults
Blooming occurs
during the first few years of life, and pruning continues through childhood and into adolescence in various areas of the brain.
An important cognitive change occurs in children this age. Recall that Piaget described 2-3 year olds as
egocentric, meaning that they do not have an awareness of others' points of view. Between 3 and 5 years old, children come to understand that people have thoughts, feelings, and beliefs that are different from their own. This is known as theory-of-mind (TOM). Children can use this skill to tease others, persuade their parents to purchase a candy bar, or understand why a sibling might be angry. When children develop TOM, they can recognize that others have false beliefs (Dennett, 1987; Callaghan et al., 2005).
Upon implantation, this multi-cellular organism is called an
embryo
Crystallized intelligence
encompasses abilities that draw upon experience and knowledge. Measures of crystallized intelligence include vocabulary tests, solving number problems, and understanding texts.
nurture:
environment and culture
A teratogen is any
environmental agent—biological, chemical, or physical—that causes damage to the developing embryo or fetus. There are different types of teratogens.
by week 37 all of the
fetus's organ systems are developed enough that it could survive outside the mother's uterus without many of the risks associated with premature birth.
Which of the three stages is the longest?
fetus, fetal
Laqaulla is only 4, but she already paints beautiful pieces of art and has excellent penmanship. She has excellent ________.
fine motor skills
spermarche:
first male ejaculation
sensorimotor stage:
first stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development; from birth through age 2, a child learns about the world through senses and motor behavior
A young adult, compared to an elderly adult, will probably be superior at learning the ins and outs of the latest online social media networks (like Facebook and Twitter), because the younger adult will tend to have stronger ________ intelligence than the older adult.
fluid
Twenty-four-year-old Emma, compared to her 70-year-old grandmother, Sue, will probably be superior with learning the ins and outs of the latest online social media networks (like Facebook, Twitter, etc.) because younger adults tend to have stronger ________ intelligence than the older adult.
fluid
Gross motor skills
focus on large muscle groups that control our arms and legs and involve larger movements (e.g., balancing, running, and jumping).
Fine motor skills
focus on the muscles in our fingers, toes, and eyes, and enable coordination of small actions (e.g., grasping a toy, writing with a pencil, and using a spoon)
Marcia (1966) described identify formation during adolescence as involving both decision points and commitments with respect to ideologies (e.g., religion, politics) and occupations. He described four identity statuses:
foreclosure, identity diffusion, moratorium, and identity achievement.
The fourth, and last, stage in Piaget's theory is the
formal operational stage, which is from about age 11 to adulthood. Whereas children in the concrete operational stage are able to think logically only about concrete events, children in the formal operational stage can also deal with abstract ideas and hypothetical situations. Children in this stage can use abstract thinking to problem solve, look at alternative solutions, and test these solutions. In adolescence, a renewed egocentrism occurs.
When people reach their 40s, they enter the time known as middle adulthood, which extends to the mid-60s. The social task of middle adulthood is
generativity versus stagnation. Generativity involves finding your life's work and contributing to the development of others, through activities such as volunteering, mentoring, and raising children. Those who do not master this task may experience stagnation, having little connection with others and little interest in productivity and self-improvement.
Developmental psychologists recognize that human being
grow and change in many ways from the moment of conception throughout the lifespan.
Physical development involves
growth and changes in the body and brain, the senses, motor skills, and health and wellness.
Authoritative parents
high but realistic and reasonable standards, enforce limits, and encourage open communication and independence.
authoritarian style, the parent places
high value on conformity and obedience. The parents are often strict, tightly monitor their children, and express little warmth. In contrast to the authoritative style, authoritarian parents probably would not relax bedtime rules during a vacation because they consider the rules to be set, and they expect obedience. This style can create anxious, withdrawn, and unhappy kids. However, it is important to point out that authoritarian parenting is as beneficial as the authoritative style in some ethnic groups (Russell, Crockett, & Chao, 2010). For instance, first-generation Chinese American children raised by authoritarian parents did just as well in school as their peers who were raised by authoritative parents (Russell et al., 2010).
object permanence:
idea that even if something is out of sight, it still exists
conservation:
idea that even if you change the appearance of something, it is still equal in size, volume, or number as long as nothing is added or removed
Once children reach 6 years old, they can
identify themselves in terms of group memberships: "I'm a first grader!" School-age children compare themselves to their peers and discover that they are competent in some areas and less so in others (recall Erikson's task of industry versus inferiority). At this age, children recognize their own personality traits as well as some other traits they would like to have. For example, 10-year-old Layla says, "I'm kind of shy. I wish I could be more talkative like my friend Alexa."
In adolescence (ages 12-18), children face the task of
identity versus role confusion. According to Erikson, an adolescent's main task is developing a sense of self. Adolescents struggle with questions such as "Who am I?" and "What do I want to do with my life?" Along the way, most adolescents try on many different selves to see which ones fit. Adolescents who are successful at this stage have a strong sense of identity and are able to remain true to their beliefs and values in the face of problems and other people's perspectives. What happens to apathetic adolescents, who do not make a conscious search for identity, or those who are pressured to conform to their parents' ideas for the future? These teens will have a weak sense of self and experience role confusion. They are unsure of their identity and confused about the future.
Once children reach the preschool stage (ages 3-6 years), they are capable of initiating activities and asserting control over their world through social interactions and play. According to Erikson, preschool children must resolve the task of initiative versus guilt. By learning to plan and achieve goals while interacting with others, preschool children can master this task. Those who do will develop self-confidence and feel a sense of purpose. Those who are unsuccessful at this stage—with their initiative misfiring or stifled—may develop feelings of guilt. How might over-controlling parents stifle a child's initiative?
initiating activities and asserting control over their world through social interactions and play. According to Erikson, preschool children must resolve the task of initiative versus guilt. By learning to plan and achieve goals while interacting with others, preschool children can master this task. Those who do will develop self-confidence and feel a sense of purpose. Those who are unsuccessful at this stage—with their initiative misfiring or stifled—may develop feelings of guilt. How might over-controlling parents stifle a child's initiative?
temperament:
innate traits that influence how one thinks, behaves, and reacts with the environment
Temperament refers to
innate traits that influence how one thinks, behaves, and reacts with the environment. Children with easy temperaments demonstrate positive emotions, adapt well to change, and are capable of regulating their emotions. Conversely, children with difficult temperaments demonstrate negative emotions and have difficulty adapting to change and regulating their emotions. Difficult children are much more likely to challenge parents, teachers, and other caregivers (Thomas, 1984). Therefore, it's possible that easy children (i.e., social, adaptable, and easy to soothe) tend to elicit warm and responsive parenting, while demanding, irritable, withdrawn children evoke irritation in their parents or cause their parents to withdraw (Sanson & Rothbart, 1995).
From the mid-60s to the end of life, we are in the period of development known as late adulthood. Erikson's task at this stage is called
integrity versus despair. He said that people in late adulthood reflect on their lives and feel either a sense of satisfaction or a sense of failure. People who feel proud of their accomplishments feel a sense of integrity, and they can look back on their lives with few regrets. However, people who are not successful at this stage may feel as if their life has been wasted. They focus on what "would have," "should have," and "could have" been. They face the end of their lives with feelings of bitterness, depression, and despair.
crystallized intelligence:
intelligence that draw upon experience and knowledge. Measures include vocabulary tests, solving number problems, and understanding texts
People in early adulthood (i.e., 20s through early 40s) are concerned with
intimacy versus isolation. After we have developed a sense of self in adolescence, we are ready to share our life with others. Erikson said that we must have a strong sense of self before developing intimate relationships with others. Adults who do not develop a positive self-concept in adolescence may experience feelings of loneliness and emotional isolation.
According to Erikson, the primary conflict for early adulthood years is ________. Multiple Choice Question
intimacy vs isolation
A secure base
is a parental presence that gives the child a sense of safety as he explores his surroundings.
The rooting reflex
is the newborn's response to anything that touches her cheek: When you stroke a baby's cheek, she naturally turns her head in that direction and begins to suck
Redonda watches as an experimenter puts two identical balls of clay in front of her. She confirms that they look exactly the same. Then the experimenter squashes one of the balls so it is flat as a pancake. Now it is obvious to Redonda that the squashed clay has more clay in it because it covers so much more of the table. Redonda's understanding is an example of ________.
lack of conservation
Cognitive development involves
learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity.
In Hamlin, Mahanjan, Liberman, and Wynn's study on infant behavior, they discovered that infants who share a food preference with a puppet will
like it when good things happen to that puppet
Erikson proposed that we are motivated by a
need to achieve competence in certain areas of our lives. According to psychosocial theory, we experience eight stages of development over our lifespan, from infancy through late adulthood. At each stage there is a conflict, or task, that we need to resolve. Successful completion of each developmental task results in a sense of competence and a healthy personality. Failure to master these tasks leads to feelings of inadequacy.
One such theory, neuroconstructivism, suggests that
neural brain development influences cognitive development. Experiences that a child encounters can impact or change the way that neural pathways develop in response to the environment. An individual's behavior is based on how one understands the world
All healthy babies are born with
newborn reflexes: inborn automatic responses to particular forms of stimulation. Reflexes help the newborn survive until it is capable of more complex behaviors—these reflexes are crucial to survival.
Identity diffusion
occurs when adolescents neither explore nor commit to any identities.
Foreclosure
occurs when an individual commits to an identity without exploring options.
Identity achievement
occurs when individuals have explored different options and then made identity commitments.
In a case study, developmental psychologists collect a great deal of information from
one individual in order to better understand physical and psychological changes over the lifespan. This particular approach is an excellent way to better understand individuals, who are exceptional in some way, but it is especially prone to researcher bias in interpretation, and it is difficult to generalize conclusions to the larger population.
Mitosis is a fragile process, and fewer than
one-half of all zygotes survive beyond the first two weeks (Hall, 2004).
primary sexual characteristics:
organs specifically needed for reproduction
Primary sexual characteristics are
organs specifically needed for reproduction, like the uterus and ovaries in females and testes in males.
Experiment 3 suggests that they make judgments about more than helping and harming behavior. They prefer
others who are like them (green beans vs. graham crackers) and they don't mind if others who are not like them have unpleasant experiences.
Motor skills refer to
our ability to move our bodies and manipulate objects.
secure base:
parental presence that gives the infant/toddler a sense of safety as he explores his surroundings
uninvolved parenting style:
parents are indifferent, uninvolved, and sometimes referred to as neglectful; they don't respond to the child's needs and make relatively few demands
authoritarian parenting style:
parents place a high value on conformity and obedience, are often rigid, and express little warmth to the child
adolescence:
period of development that begins at puberty and ends at early adulthood
Secondary sexual characteristics are
physical signs of sexual maturation that do not directly involve sex organs, such as development of breasts and hips in girls, and development of facial hair and a deepened voice in boys
They view development as a lifelong process that can be studied scientifically across three developmental domains:
physical, cognitive development, and psychosocial.
Most everything the mother ingests, including food, liquid, and even medication, travels through the
placenta to the fetus, hence the common phrase "eating for two." Anything the mother is exposed to in the environment affects the fetus; if the mother is exposed to something harmful, the child can show life-long effects.
When a person says he or she would break the law and then confess to the authorities to save someone's life, this person's moral reasoning is at the ________ level.
postconventional
Piaget's second stage is the
preoperational stage, which is from approximately 2 to 7 years old. In this stage, children can use symbols to represent words, images, and ideas, which is why children in this stage engage in pretend play. A child's arms might become airplane wings as he zooms around the room, or a child with a stick might become a brave knight with a sword. Children also begin to use language in the preoperational stage, but they cannot understand adult logic or mentally manipulate information (the term operational refers to logical manipulation of information, so children at this stage are considered to be pre-operational). Children's logic is based on their own personal knowledge of the world so far, rather than on conventional knowledge
- psychosocial development:
process proposed by Erikson in which social tasks are mastered as humans move through eight stages of life from infancy to adulthood
psychosexual development:
process proposed by Freud in which pleasure-seeking urges focus on different erogenous zones of the body as humans move through five stages of life
Erik Erikson (1902-1994) (Figure 1), another stage theorist, took Freud's theory and modified it as .
psychosocial theory. Erikson's psychosocial development theory emphasizes the social nature of our development rather than its sexual nature. While Freud believed that personality is shaped only in childhood, Erikson proposed that personality development takes place all through the lifespan. Erikson suggested that how we interact with others is what affects our sense of self, or what he called the ego identity.
Phenomenological Variant of Ecological Systems Theory (PVEST),
put forth by Margaret Beale Spencer. It is a merging of phenomenology and Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory. A phenomenological approach is based on how a person makes meaning of their experiences. For example, young African American boys have different experiences in educational settings compared to African American girls. Consequently, the meaning they assign to those experiences differs. Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory suggests that development occurs based on interactions among environments such as school, family, and community (Bronfenbrenner, 1977).
Behaviorist B. F. Skinner thought that we learn language in
response to reinforcement or feedback, such as through parental approval or through being understood. For example, when a two-year-old child asks for juice, he might say, "me juice," to which his mother might respond by giving him a cup of apple juice. Noam Chomsky (1957) criticized Skinner's theory and proposed that we are all born with an innate capacity to learn language. Chomsky called this mechanism a language acquisition device (LAD). Who is correct? Both Chomsky and Skinner are right. Remember that we are a product of both nature and nurture. Researchers now believe that language acquisition is partially inborn and partially learned through our interactions with our linguistic environment
For parents who employ the permissive style of parenting, the kids
run the show and anything goes. Permissive parents make few demands and rarely use punishment. They tend to be very nurturing and loving, and may play the role of friend rather than parent. In terms of our example of vacation bedtimes, permissive parents might not have bedtime rules at all—instead they allow the child to choose his bedtime whether on vacation or not. Not surprisingly, children raised by permissive parents tend to lack self-discipline, and the permissive parenting style is negatively associated with grades (Dornbusch, Ritter, Leiderman, Roberts, & Fraleigh, 1987). The permissive style may also contribute to other risky behaviors such as alcohol abuse (Bahr & Hoffman, 2010), risky sexual behavior especially among female children (Donenberg, Wilson, Emerson, & Bryant, 2002), and increased display of disruptive behaviors by male children (Parent et al., 2011). However, there are some positive outcomes associated with children raised by permissive parents. They tend to have higher self-esteem, better social skills, and report lower levels of depression (Darling, 1999).
preoperational stage:
second stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development; from ages 2 to 7, children learn to use symbols and language but do not understand mental operations and often think illogically
The most common type of attachment—also considered the healthiest—is called
secure attachment (Figure 5). In this type of attachment, the toddler prefers his parent over a stranger. The attachment figure is used as a secure base to explore the environment and is sought out in times of stress.
The survey method asks individuals to
self-report important information about their thoughts, experiences, and beliefs. This particular method can provide large amounts of information in relatively short amounts of time; however, validity of data collected in this way relies on honest self-reporting, and the data is relatively shallow when compared to the depth of information collected in a case study.
Lev Vygotsky was a Russian psychologist who proposed a
sociocultural theory of development. He suggested that human development is rooted in one's culture. A child's social world, for example, forms the basis for the formation of language and thought. The language one speaks and the ways a person thinks about things is dependent on one's cultural background. Vygotsky also considered historical influences as key to one's development. He was interested in the process of development and the individual's interactions with their environment (John-Steiner & Mahn, 1996).
Freud's stages are called the
stages of psychosexual development. According to Freud, children's pleasure-seeking urges are focused on a different area of the body, called an erogenous zone, at each of the five stages of development: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital.
In Piaget's view, around the same time children develop object permanence, they also begin to exhibit
stranger anxiety, which is a fear of unfamiliar people.
placenta:
structure connected to the uterus that provides nourishment and oxygen to the developing baby
zygote:
structure created when a sperm and egg merge at conception; begins as a single cell and rapidly divides to form the embryo and placenta
Across these three domains—physical, cognitive, and psychosocial—the normative approach to development is also discussed. This approach asks, "What is normal development?" In the early decades of the 20th century, normative psychologists
studied large numbers of children at various ages to determine norms (i.e., average ages) of when most children reach specific developmental milestones in each of the three domains
Early maturing girls may be
teased or overtly admired, which can cause them to feel self-conscious about their developing bodies. These girls are at a higher risk for depression, substance abuse, and eating disorders
Smoking is also considered a
teratogen because nicotine travels through the placenta to the fetus. When the mother smokes, the developing baby experiences a reduction in blood oxygen levels. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2013), smoking while pregnant can result in premature birth, low-birth-weight infants, stillbirth, and sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS).
Children in the concrete operational stage also understand the principle of reversibility, which means
that objects can be changed and then returned back to their original form or condition.
During this stage (2) , we also expect children to display egocentrism, which means
that the child is not able to take the perspective of others. A child at this stage thinks that everyone sees, thinks, and feels just as they do. Let's look at Kenny and Keiko again.
These results are similar to those for the 8-month-olds in the previous experiment. But remember that, in this experiment, the variable that distinguishes the two bouncer puppets was a food choice, not the prosocial or antisocial behavior in Experiment 2. If we take the results from Experiments 2 and 3 together, the results here suggest
that the similar puppet is being treated as if it is nice or good. Puppets that treat this similar puppet in a nice way are preferred. Conversely, the dissimilar puppets are treated as if they have done something negative and puppets that treat these dissimilar puppets badly are preferred.
Harlow (1958) concluded
that there was more to the mother-child bond than nourishment. Feelings of comfort and security are the critical components to maternal-infant bonding, which leads to healthy psychosocial development.
Baillargeon (1987) concluded
that they knew solid objects cannot pass through each other. Baillargeon's findings suggest that very young children have an understanding of objects and how they work, which Piaget (1954) would have said is beyond their cognitive abilities due to their limited experiences in the world.
four parenting styles,
the authoritative style is the one that is most encouraged in modern American society.
After the zygote divides for about 7-10 days and has 150 cells, it travels down
the fallopian tubes and implants itself in the lining of the uterus.
Around 36 weeks,
the fetus is almost ready for birth. It weighs about 6 pounds and is about 18.5 inches long,
boys experience spermarche,
the first ejaculation, around 13-14 years old.
In 1967 that reality began to change with Cicely Saunders, who created
the first modern hospice in England. The aim of hospice is to help provide a death with dignity and pain management in a humane and comfortable environment, which is usually outside of a hospital setting
Several physical changes occur during puberty, such as adrenarche and gonadarche,
the maturing of the adrenal glands and sex glands, respectively. Also during this time, primary and secondary sexual characteristics develop and mature.
Low-income children perform significantly more poorly than
their middle- and high-income peers on a number of educational variables: They have significantly lower standardized test scores, graduation rates, and college entrance rates, and they have much higher school dropout rates.
An egocentric child is not able to infer the perspective of other people and instead attributes his own perspective. At some point during this stage and typically between 3 and 5 years old, children come to understand that people have thoughts, feelings, and beliefs that are different from their own. This is known as
theory-of-mind (TOM).
mirror test,
this behavior is demonstrated by humans and a few other species and is considered evidence of self-recognition (Archer, 1992). At 18 months old they would touch their own noses when they saw the paint, surprised to see a spot on their faces. By 24-36 months old children can name and/or point to themselves in pictures, clearly indicating self-recognition.
Late adulthood is considered
to extend from the 60s on. This is the last stage of physical change. The skin continues to lose elasticity, reaction time slows further, and muscle strength diminishes. Smell, taste, hearing, and vision, so sharp in our twenties, decline significantly. The brain may also no longer function at optimal levels, leading to problems like memory loss, dementia, and Alzheimer's disease in later years.
Stage theories hold that the sequence of development is
universal. For example, in cross-cultural studies of language development, children from around the world reach language milestones in a similar sequence (Gleitman & Newport, 1995). Infants in all cultures coo before they babble. They begin babbling at about the same age and utter their first word around 12 months old.
avoidant attachment (sometimes called insecure or anxious-avoidant), the child is
unresponsive to the parent, does not use the parent as a secure base, and does not care if the parent leaves. The toddler reacts to the parent the same way she reacts to a stranger. When the parent does return, the child is slow to show a positive reaction. Ainsworth theorized that these children were most likely to have a caregiver who was insensitive and inattentive to their needs
Accommodation describes
when they change their schemata based on new information. This process continues as children interact with their environment.
Which of the following is the correct order for the stages of prenatal development?
zygote embryonic fetal