PSY 325 Exam 4

Beer consumption will likely increase

Assuming that salty appetizers and beer are complementary commodities during happy hour, what is most likely to happen to the consumption of beer during happy hour IF the price of appetizers decreases substantially?

parents who use physical punishment serve as models for their children

Various research findings suggest that parents who use physical punishment produce children who are more aggressive than children of parents who do not use physical punishment. Based on social learning principles, the best explanation of these findings is that ____________

Response-deprivation hypothesis

Which theory of reinforcement says that an activity becomes more reinforcing when circumstances prevent an individual from engaging in the activity as much as preferred?

Substitutes

Within economics, reinforcers that share important structural or function properties.

Drive reduction

Works against what theory? After watching some tv, your drive should be reduced but that is not always the case. Or after you eat dinner you should not want to have dessert. Riding a roller coaster should not be reinforcing because it takes you away from balance, it makes your adrenaline rush and reduces homeostasis.

Trans-situationality

Works against what theory? The problem with this is that $5 does not reinforce every action. If you like cleaning more than going to the movies

Ainslie-Rachlin model

focuses on the fact that preference between smaller sooner and larger later rewards can shift over time. It is an explanation for the reversal of preference and suggests ways to minimize its occurrence and facilitate attainment of the larger reward.

behavioral contagion

more - or- less instinctive or reflective behavior triggered by the occurance of the same behavior ex: yawning

Matching law

only looks at certain factors. Every choice you make, you are also choosing not to do something else.

preference reversal

when you experience a reversal of preference as time passed and the smaller sooner reward becomes more imminent.

False

Observing reinforcement model's aggressive behavior had no impact on the observer's aggressive behavior

Social Learning

1) Learning about others role and value of discriminative stimuli basis for communication, understanding intentions, cooperation 2) Learning about ourselves a special case of learning about others? In humans, learning how to appropriately label feelings & emotions? 3) Learning from others acting on the basis of stimuli only available to another e.g.,warning calls

Concurrent schedules

2 or more competing RF schedules operating simultaneously In general, any 2 or more simple or complex RF schedules can be studied concurrently

stimulus enhancement (aka local enhancement)

A cat observes a model cat escape from a puzzle box by pulling a string. When the observer cat is placed in the puzzle box for the first time, it goes to the area of the string and, after a relatively brief period of exploratory behavior, pulls the string and escapes the box. What type of imitative behavior has the observer cat demonstrated?

Mischel's delay of gratification research

A child was led into a room where they could choose between pretzels (not preferred) or marshmallows (preferred). The child could get the preferable item if they waited for the researcher to return, or summon the experimenter with a sounding signal and receive the less preferred item. The children who avoided attending to a reward had a significant effect on their resistance to temptation.

d

According to centive Bandura's theory, which of the following is NOT necessary for imitation to occur? a. centive or motivation to perform b. retention of the information gained through observation c.attention to the appropriate features of the model's behavior d. all of the above

consumption decreases

According to the demand law, ______________________ as price increases

According to Hull, where do reinforcers get their value?

All reinforcers are associated, either directly or indirectly, with some type of drive reduction.

Independents

An alternative reinforce that has no effect on consumption of and the resources allocated toward obtaining the first reinforce.

Elastic over the price range shown

Based on Figure 1 (above), the commodity graphed is _______

Less likely to make impulsive choices than

Based on Figure 3 (above), Yahoos are _____________ Morlocks.

Impulsivity

Behaviorally, __________ is defined by an exaggerated preference for small, immediate rewards over larger, delayed rewards.

Based on the Premack principle, how is the probability of a behavior related to reinforcement (and, by extension, punishment)?

By focusing on the relative probabilities of behaviors, you can quickly identify potential reinforcers. Ex. If Kaily only spends a few minutes each morning doing chores (LPB), but an hour reading comics (HPB), then the opportunity to read comics can be reinforced by doing chores.

Some other irrelevant behavior can be performed during the delay period

Children are more likely to choose a larger, later reinforcer over a smaller, sooner reinforcer (e.g., 2 marshmallows later instead of 1 now) if _______________.

less

Compared to Orangered people, Periwinkle people are likely ________ generous

Always defect

In a single encounter prisoner's dilemma scenario, what is the optimal strategy for both players?

consumption (ex.)

Drug consumption over time is an important measure of the success of a drug or alcohol abuse treatment program or smoke cessation.

Decision Making

Economics is concerned with Rational __________ ____________.

Cultural

Evidence of Social Learning/____________ Transmission. Imo, juvenile macaque, discovered the behavior of washing sweet potatoes before eating them Food washing Bx spread Young learned from their mothers! Later, wheat washing...but harder to spread than sweet potato washing Different physical actions...maybe interference from innate tendencies?

Trans-situationality (Meehl)

Explains the consistency of reinforcers. The idea that if a reinforcer is a reinforcer is one context that it will be a reinforcer in other context. If $5 is reinforcing for you to walk a dog that it should in cleaning something.

trans-situationality

Giving an animal a chance to drink water sweetened with fructose reinforces a lower-probability behavior (e.g., lever-pressing) but does not reinforce a higher-probability behavior. Such a finding would be evidence against

watching scary movies

Hull's drive-reduction theory cannot explain why ___________ is reinforcing.

saccharin

Hull's need-reduction theory cannot adequately explain why __________ is a reinforcer.

True imitation

If after observing a model perform a certain action that was not already in the cat's behavioral repertoire, a cat starts performing the same behavior the same way, this would best be classified as an instance of which form of social learning?

smaller

In DD paradigms, impulsive choice = preference for ________, sooner reward instead of larger, later reward

larger

In DD paradigms, self-controlled choice = preference for _________, later, reward instead of smaller, sooner reward.

75%

In a two-choice situation for pigeons, the left key has a VI schedule that delivers 60 reinforcers per hour, and the right key has a VI schedule that delivers 20 reinforcers per hour. In this case, the matching law predicts that a pigeon will make _______ of its responses on the left key.

Tit-for-tat

In an iterated prisoner's dilemma scenario, what is the optimal strategy for both players?

decrease pmax

In general, making alternative sources of reinforcement more available will __________ for a given reinforcer?

Overmatching

In phase 1 of a choice experiment involving concurrent VI schedules, a subject receives 65% of its reinforcers from responding on the right lever and responds on the right lever 75% of the time. In phase 2, the subject receives 65% of its reinforcers from responding on the left lever and responds on the left lever 75% of the time. This performance is an example of ___________.

Stimulus enhancement (aka local enhancement)

In the wild, chimpanzees often hunt cooperatively. When one chimpanzee locates prey, he gives a chirping call that attracts others to the prey's location. This type of social learning is best considered an example of

demand law

It states that all else being equal, consumption of a reinforce will decrease as its price is increased.

extraneous reinforcement

Key is to remember that there's always something else to do, and thus alternative sources of reinforcement are always available in the environment — regardless of the researcher's intentions total from uncontrolled sources is called

Multidimensional choice

Many (most?) choices outside the lab involve 2 or more factors in conjunction Value is a function of these several RF dimensions ex. $1, 1 glass of water, 1 cigarette, 1 cup of coffee, 1 bowl of ice cream — they all "mean" different things at different times, even though the magnitude is unchanged

external validity

Matching law has high _________ __________. ex. Foraging, drug use, social dynamics ( e.g., conversation, mate selection), football play calling, basketball shot selection, etc., etc. Humans, nonhuman primates, various rodents, cats, dogs, cows, alligators, fish, slugs

Vicarious emotional response

Mineka et al. studied fear of snakes in rhesus monkeys. Based on their study, which of the listed options is the best explanation for the origin of snake fear in young monkeys raised in the lab?

False.

Observing punishment of the model's aggressive behavior increased the observer's aggressive behavior.

bliss point

One will compromise by distributing its activities to draw as near as possible to its _______ ________ organisms attempt to distribute their behavior so as to maximize overall reinforcement.

Some other irrelevant behavior can be performed during the delay period

Pigeons are more likely to choose a larger, later reinforcer over a smaller, sooner reinforcer (e.g., 4-s of grain later instead of 2-s of grain now) if _______________.

reversal

Precommitment responses can prevent preference _________ Basically, choose to have fewer choices Make a choice now that increases the cost of a particular future choice

Bias

Preference for given response alternative independent of reinforcement generally due to unidentified, uncontrolled difference(s) between the two response alternatives

same

Reinforcers are specific to individuals, different things are reinforcers for different people. BUT they follow the _______ rules.

Drive reduction theory (Hull & Miller)

Reinforcers are things that push your body towards homeostasis. Food is more reinforcing when your hungry, water is more reinforcing when your thirsty. We have drive states for everything reinforcing. You have a drive for entertainment when you want to watch tv. A reinforcer is something that reduces the drive state.

According to Premack, what are reinforcers actually?

Reinforcers can often be viewed as behaviors rather than stimuli.

Undermatching

Response proportions are less extreme than reinforcement proportions preference for the rich alternative is less than predicted sensitivity to reinforcement is relatively low (< 1.0)

Overmatching

Response proportions are more extreme than reinforcement proportions preference for the rich alternative is more than would be predicted sensitivity to reinforcement is relatively high (> 1.0)

What are the Hull's drive reduction theory's problems or weaknesses (i.e., what does it not explain)?

Some reinforcers do not seem to be associated with drive reduction, like a rat pressing a lever to obtain access to a running wheel, or teenagers spending a lot of money on clothes to go to a concert. The motivation for such behavior is more in the nature of the reinforcing stimulus than is the state of the organism.

Need-reduction theory (Hull)

Something is reinforcing if you need it to live, biological need, food, water, sleep. The things you need are the reinforces.

demand

Synonym of consumption when it is a reinforcer; Includes a variety of activities like eating, drinking, using the services of another, or using light or durable goods. An appropriate measure of several problem behaviors commonly seen in clinical populations

decreasing

That the delay curve for a reward that describes the relationship between reward value and time delay is upwardly scalloped, with __________ delays producing larger and larger increments in value. The value of a reward increase more sharply as delay decreases and attainment of the reward becomes imminent.

How would increasing alternative sources of reinforcement affect the demand curve's shape?

The demand curve would become even more elastic and probably decrease more rapidly if there are other sources of reinforcement. Consumption would probably decrease at a higher rate.

Income Effect

The more you have, the more you shift to the preferred, when you don't have as much you shift to the cheapest, most similar thing to the preferred thing.

Delay Discounting

The subjective value of an outcome decreases as delay increases i.e., the longer you have to wait, the less the reinforcer is worth to you And the longer you have to wait, the less the punisher is worth to you

Delay of gratification

The task of choosing between alternatives. The person or animal must forgo the smaller reward to obtain the larger reward.

consumption & spending

These both are important components to monitor and target for change in a substance abuse treatment program.

spending (ex.)

Tracking treatment produced changes in spending may be important in assessing the efficacy of treatments for psychiatric disorders such as gambling or obsessive-compulsive disorder.

False.

True or False. Observing punishment of the model's aggressive behavior had no impact on the observer's aggressive behavior.

Atchley & Warden

Two main variables in ____________ & ___________ investigation: Inability to wait before responding to incoming message Inability to delay texting regardless of social context

impulsive behavior

What has been linked to these: - ADHD (and other psychological disorders) - Substance abuse - Gambling - Poor financial decisions - "Risky behavior"

The time spent playing with blocks will decrease

When all behaviors can occur freely, a child spends 30 minutes playing with blocks, 15 minutes playing with crayons, and 5 minutes playing with a toy robot. Suppose that a contingency is introduced so that for every minute of playing with blocks the child must play with the truck just as long as he/she played with blocks (i.e., after playing with blocks, the child must then play with the truck for an equal amount of time). In this case, Premack's principle predicts that ________.

multidimensionally

When rewards differ on 1 dimension, choice is easy & people are rational. Things get trickier when rewards differ _______________________.

Complements

When the introduction of an alternative reinforce increases consumption of and resources allocated to obtaining another reinforce.

stimulus enhancement

Which form of social learning involves accelerated trial-and-error learning after watching a model's behavior?

Mark-and-mirror test

Which of the listed tests can be used to assess self-awareness in nonhuman animals? Two-action test Rope pull task Mark-and-mirror test Discrimination reversal procedure ACT procedure

Need-reduction

Works against what theory? There are a lot of things that you need that you do not work for it. Like vitamin B1, you can't identify it from taste or smell so it is not reinforcing. It is biologically needful but you don't crave it. There are lots of things that we do not need but are reinforcing, like Netflix, cable tv,

Self-control

[consistently] choosing the larger, later reward over the smaller, sooner reward.

Subjective value

__________ _________ of anything depends on nominal value, cost, motivation, available alternatives, etc.

inelastic demand

a 1% price change produces less than a 1% change in consumption.

Behavioral contracting

a person who formally arranges to attain certain rewards for resisting temptation or receive certain punishers for yielding to temptation, essentially operates on this principle.

Miller & Dollard's

added a 2nd behavioral process (generalization) imitation is generalized operant in that the organism has learned to copy whatever behavior the model does without reinforcement for each new behavior. Fixes who's theory?

Hull's drive reduction theory of reinforcement

an event is reinforcing to the extent that it is associated with a reduction in some type of physiological drive. Ex. Food deprivation produces a "hunger drive," which then propels the animal to seek out food. When food is obtained, the hunger drive is reduced.

behavioral bliss point

an organism with free access to alternative activities will distribute its behavior in such a way to maximize overall reinforcement. Ex. A rat can freely choose between running in a wheel for an hour and exploring a maze for two hours, this shows optimal reinforcement available from those two activities.

Opportunity cost

any time spent on alternative A is time spent away from alternative B any effort spent on alternative A is effort not spent on alternative B

consumption

are different activities like eating, using products or services of others.

Self-control

consist of choosing a larger later reward over a smaller sooner reward.

Impulsiveness

consist of choosing a smaller sooner reward over a larger later reward.

Small-but-cumulative effects model

each individual choice on a self-control task has only a small but cumulative effect on our likelihood of obtaining the desired long-term outcome.

Impulsivity

has often been defined as choosing a smaller, more immediate reward over a larger, more delayed reward

elastic demand

if a 1% change in price produces greater than a 1% change in consumption

Response-deprivation Hypothesis (Timberlake)

if we restrict a low probability behavior, it becomes reinforcing, maybe so much that you will work for it. hierarchies are reversible sometimes too even if it's still lower probability, a less preferred behavior that is restricted can sometimes act as a reinforcer for a more preferred behavior instead of as a punisher Rat running was a lpb but could be reinforced once it was restricted.

Commitment response (aka precommitment response)

is an action carried out at an early point in time that serves either to eliminate or greatly reduce the value of an upcoming

optimal distribution of behavior

is based on the notion that each activity is freely available. When they are not freely available as when the two activities are intertwined, this may become unattainable.

Substitution

is not necessarily bidirectional A might replace B, but not the other way around

Generalized Matching Law

says behavior (or time allocation) tracks reinforcement. Your time is finite. You can only do so many things in a day, many things are incompatible with each other.

Describe what the demand curve shows.

shows that the effects of unit price on the number of responses decreased as the unit price increase.

Premack principle of reinforcement

states that a high-probability behavior can be used to reinforce a low probability behavior. Ex. When a rat is hungry, eating food (HPB) has a higher likelihood of occurrence than running in a wheel (LPB). Therefore, in this case the HPB can be used to reinforce the target behavior of the LPB.

spending

the amount of money, work or time that an individual will allocate toward obtaining a particular reinforce.

unit price

the ratio of response emitted per reinforcer consumed.

Discounting

the reduction in subjective value of an outcome

Unidimensional choice

type/quality, magnitude, immediacy, schedule, alternatives, EO Small vs. large, immediate vs. delayed, cheap vs. expensive, etc.