PSY 403 Exam 1 Study Guide
___________ is the principal inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain
GABA
Sensory neurons ________
Gather information from the environment and convey it into the central nervous system.
The cells supporting neurons of CNS and PNS are
Glia
___________ is considered the primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain
Glutamate
Loss of myelin from neurons would be expected to ________
Greatly impair neuronal electrical conduction.
Number 5 action potential diagram
Hyper-polarization, or the refractory period caused by too many K+ leaving the cell
Most important research for psychopharmacologists
I believe researching ways to target a focal area of the brain with pharmaceutical drugs is important. Finding drugs that only affect the desired area of the brain would reduce unwanted side effects and likely make the drugs be more effective
Number 4 action potential diagram
Opening of K+ ion gated channels
Which of the following is a gaseous neurotransmitter?
Nitric oxide (NO). A gas produced by cells in the nervous system; used as a means of retrograde communication between cells
Is Full Recovery Guaranteed?
No. Studies show that recovery is long, difficult, and not guaranteed
A split-brain patient briefly shown an object in the left visual field will
Not respond verbally since the left visual field activates the right hemisphere which is not specialized for language
Dopaminergic activity in the ______________ are involved in the early rewarding experiences associated with abused drugs
Nucleus accumbens: a subcortical structure that participates in reward and addiction
Number 3 action potential diagram
Opening of Na+ ion gated channels
Neurotransmitter binds to a receptor site and
Opens postsynaptic ion channels directly or indirectly via G-protein generated second messengers
Cortex
Outermost covering of the brain consisting of densely packed neurons, responsible for higher thought processes and interpretation of sensory input Insula: responsible for basic functions of cognition and bodily awareness Somatotopy: all muscles of body can be mapped to area on primary motor cortex
After a huge meal your __________ is highly active
Parasympathetic nervous system
What problems do neuropsychopharmacologists face? What is needed to alleviate these difficulties?
Patients can become addicted to prescribed medication. Unintended effects of dependency and withdrawal Side effects of drugs (avoiding severe ones) and finding the smallest dosage to achieve effect to minimize side effects (there is sometimes a lethal dose) Drugs are spread throughout the brain and don't go to a specific target. This often causes unintended side effects. Blood brain barrier is difficult to get drugs through
A primary function of the thalamus is to ________
Relay sensory information to the cerebral cortex.
A split-brain patient briefly shown objects will
Respond verbally if the left hemisphere was activated by the right visual field (right side of both eyes)
HPA Axis: hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis
Response to danger. Hypothalamus releases corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) to the pituitary gland. This causes the pituitary gland to release adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). ACTH travels through the blood and reaches the adrenal glands which stimulates the release of glucocorticoids like cortisol
Neuron membrane potential
Resting membrane potential: Neuron is at rest (-50 to -80 mV) Electrical gradient: difference in electrical charges between the inside and outside of the cell Sodium-potassium pump: a carrier protein that uses ATP to actively transport sodium ions out of a cell and potassium ions into the cell Action potential: A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon Depolarization: the process during the action potential when sodium is rushing into the cell causing the interior to become more positive. Hyperpolarization: the movement of the membrane potential of a cell away from rest potential in a more negative direction. Occurs when K+ leaves the cell after an action potential Action potential threshold: the intensity of stimulation (excitatory minus inhibitory) needed to produce an action potential Refractory period: the time following an action potential during which a new action potential cannot be initiated All or none law: principle that the action potential in a neuron does not vary in strength; the neuron either fires at full strength or it does not fire at all Saltatory conduction: rapid transmission of a nerve impulse along an axon, resulting from the action potential jumping from one node of Ranvier to another, skipping the myelin-sheathed regions of membrane. Spike-initiation zone: A region of the neuronal membrane where action potentials are normally initiated, characterized by a high density of voltage-gated sodium channels Local potentials degrade: disturbances of membrane potential can be carried along membrane. Degrade with time and distance Temporal summation: one or more presynaptic neurons transmit impulses in rapid-fire order Spatial summation: the sum of multiple synapses firing at different locations at one time to create a net effect
_________________ and ________________ terminate the action of neurotransmitters at their postsynaptic receptors
Reuptake; enzymatic deactivation
Aspects of drug administration
Route of administration: the method of introducing a medication into the body Dose-response curves: describe extent of effect (response) produced by a given drug concentration (dose) Absorption and distribution: where initial drug effects take place Drug binding: extent to which a drug attaches to proteins in the blood Drug inactivation: synthesis of enzymes which degrade the drug Drug excretion: elimination of a drug from the body
Dividing the two hemispheres between the eyes is called a ____________ section
Sagittal
Types of neurons
Sensory neurons: carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord Motor neurons: carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands Interneurons: communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs (found within brain and spinal cord) von economo neurons: allow for the fast transmission of neural signals and that may be an indicator for intelligence
Which neurotransmitter is not a catecholamine?
Serotonin
Serotonin
Serotonin (5-HT): monoamine (single amino group) indolamine neurotransmitter. Also called 5-HT or 5-hydroxytryptamine. Produced in the raphe nuclei where it is synthesized from tryptophan. Thought to play a role in the regulation of mood, the control of eating, sleep, dreaming, and arousal. Also thought to be involved in pain regulation. Inhibitory & excitatory: many receptor subtypes Serotonin synthesis: Tryptophan --> 5-HTP --> 5-HT Serotonin receptors bind LSD: lab made: Ethical issues with self-experimentation. Hallucinations, perception of time and space. Serotonin agonist, indirectly enhances glutamate Goldilocks zone: optimal amount of dopamine SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors): Celexa, Lexapro, Luvox, Prozac, Paxil, Viibryd, Zoloft. Rx (prescribed for) depression, anxiety, mood disorders SSRI side effects: Nausea, vomiting or diarrhea •Headache •Drowsiness •Dry mouth •Insomnia •Nervousness, agitation or restlessness •Dizziness •Sexual problems •Impact on appetite, leading to weight loss or weight gain •Drug/Drug interactions: e.g. NSAIDS, blood thinners Too much serotonin causes serotonin toxicity
Number 1 action potential diagram
Resting membrane potential
The differential distribution of ions inside and outside of the neuron determines the
Concentration gradient
Are embodied cognition deficits exclusive to ASD or related to motor impairment?
•3 groups: Typically Developing (TD), ASD, motor deficit group: Developmental Coordination Disorder: (DCD) •3-tasks: Videos observing & Motor Responses -Emotional Faces: Make a sad face at cue -Faces: Lick side where whipped cream is seen at cue Motor: Make hands move at cue. Results from study showed that ASD and DCD participants had similar results from the study
What Brain Data Predict Good Outcomes?
•Abstinence attenuates brain response to drug cues. •Longer abstinence restores reward network, improves gray matter density and white matter integrity (FA) •Higher FA at baseline predicts recovery •Surprisingly few studies
Emerging: CBD Epidiolex
•Attenuates (reduces) Seizures •In use thousands of years (found in weed plants) •Early studies & RCTs: ~2000 •FDA approved (2018) •Proposed Mechanisms • activates Transient receptor potential vanilloid-1 (TRPV1), •Antagonizes G protein-coupled receptor-55 (GPR55) •Targets abnormal Sodium channels - equilibrative nucleoside transporter 1 (ENT-1) •Other: Ca2+ channels, VDAC, tumor necrosis factor
Alcohol
-Decreased glutamate transmission; increased GABA. -Chronic use: increase in glutamate receptors -Compensatory glutamate release may cause hyperexcitability (despite it being a depressant) -Low doses •Increased mood and confidence •Drowsiness, impaired judgment and muscle coordination -High doses can lead to alcohol poisoning -Systemic use can lead to cognitive decline. -Around 95k death per year.
Neurotransmitter (NT) release
1) Action potential causes Ca2+ voltage gated ion channels to open 2) Ca2+ ions rush into the neuron 3) Ca2+ binds to a sensor protein, creating a Ca2+ protein complex 5) Ca2+ protein complex assists in fusing the synaptic vesicles to the cell membrane and having the neurotransmitters leave the presynaptic terminals through exocytosis and enter into the synaptic space
Where do Na+ ions enter a myelinated axon?
At the nodes of Ranvier (gaps in the myelin sheath to which voltage-gated sodium channels are confined)
What evidence did Marie-Jean-Pierre Flourens provide against Gall's theory?
A French scientist, Marie-Jean-Pierre Flourens, attacked Gall's theory with the most valuable weapon—empirical evidence. Taking Gall's ideas into the experimental laboratory, he surgically removed one of the proposed "bumps" that was associated with amorous relations (romance) in a female cat. If Gall's theory were correct, this cat would show no interest in romantic relations with a male suitor. Flourens's picture of this experimental cat being followed by her litter of kittens was all the evidence he needed to squash Gall's reputation as a pioneer in brain research.
Botulin prevents the release of what neurotransmitter?
Acetylcholine
Other neurotransmitters
Acetylcholine (ACh): Acetyl Co-A -> choline ->ACh. Memory & cognition in the CNS. NICOTINIC & MUSCARINIC receptors. ALL neuromuscular junctions. Parasympathetic functions Endocannabinoid: Lipid neurotransmitter. Endogenous ligand for THC, the psychoactive ingredient of marijuana Anandamide: An endogenous substance (lipid neurotransmitter) that binds the cannabinoid receptor molecule pain reduction, increase in appetite Adenosine: Nucleoside neurotransmitter. A combination of ribose and adenine. Released by glial cells and neurons. Dilates blood vessels and increases supply of cellular nutrients. Caffeine is an antagonist
Number 2 action potential diagram
Action potential threshold
___________ mimic or enhance the effects of specific neurotransmitters
Agonists
Glutamate
Amino acid neurotransmitter. Excitatory signaling (depolarize membranes). Essential for long term memory. AMPA/NMDA & kainate receptors Receptor Types: ionotropic and metabotropic (G-protein coupled receptor: GPCR) Drugs: PCP (phencyclidine) & ketamine (agonists)
GABA (gamma (γ)-aminobutyric acid )
Amino acid neurotransmitter. Principal inhibitory NT in the brain Agonists: Muscimol, barbiturates, anaesthetics, Benzodiazepines: a GABA agonist. A category of anxiolytic (anxiety reducing) drugs; an indirect agonist for the GABA A receptor; these drugs are used for their tranquilizing effects. Examples of these drugs include Valium (diazepam) and Librium (chlordiazepoxide) GABA A receptor (ionotropic (Cl-) interneurons). Baclofen: GABA B receptor (metabotropic (Ca++ in/K+ out)) Antagonists: Bicuculline Glycine: Amino acid neurotransmitter. Inhibitory NT in the spinal cord and brainstem Strychnine: Antagonist that causes convulsions/death
Opium
An Analgesic (painkiller) Morphine: narcotic drug derived from opium, used to treat severe pain Heroin: narcotic drug derived from opium that is extremely addictive Oxy, fentanyl: causes Euphoria. Is highly addictive. Severe withdrawal. Opiate receptors: in red. Heavily in nucleus accumbens and reward areas Opioids: synthetic opiates that are prescribed for pain relief Opioid receptors: receptor sites on nerves that react with endorphins and enkephalins, which are receptive to narcotic drugs
The change of the neuron's membrane potential from -70mV to +40mV and back is:
An action potential
By what mechanism(s) can drugs interfere with typical synaptic signaling? Provide 3-4 examples.
An agonist can act as a precursor to a neurotransmitter that the body can use to increase the normal amounts of a neurotransmitter An antagonist can block postsynaptic receptors, causing less neurotransmitters to bind to receptors thus decreasing the effects of the neurotransmitter An agonist can stimulate the release of neurotransmitters (TS) increasing the amount present which increasing its effect
Directional planes
Anterior or rostral: toward the front or mouth Caudal or posterior: toward the tail Dorsal: toward the top or back Ventral: toward the bottom or chest Medial: toward the midline Lateral: toward the side Proximal: closer to the CNS Distal: farther from the CNS
Glial cells
Astrocytes: Provide structural and metabolic support for neurons. Multiple can serve the same cell. Help with the blood-brain barrier. Transport nutrients. Buffer ions Microglia: Act as phagocytes, eating damaged cells and bacteria, and acts as the brains immune system\ Oligodendrocytes: Wraps axons in a myelin sheath in the CNS Schwann cells: Wraps axons in a myelin sheath in the PNS Multiple sclerosis (MS): Destruction of the myelin sheath on neurons in the CNS and its replacement by plaques of sclerotic (hard) tissue
Synaptic arrangements
Axodendritic, axosomatic, axoaxonic Presynaptic facilitation: the action of a presynaptic terminal button in an axoaxonic synapse; increases the amount of neurotransmitter released by the postsynaptic terminal button Presynaptic inhibition: the action of a presynaptic terminal button in an axoaxonic synapse; reduces the amount of neurotransmitter released by the postsynaptic terminal button Connexons: in a gap junction, a protein channel linking adjacent animal cells Gap junction: a type of intercellular junction in animals that allows the passage of materials between cells
Label neurotransmitter 1
Axon of presynaptic neuron (a threadlike extension of a neuron that carries nerve impulses away from the cell body)
Based on your knowledge from this chapter, what do you think might be the most promising avenues of research to cure spinal cord injuries? What would the major challenges be in this research? Explain your answer.
Axonal regeneration of the PNS nervous system could be a promising research venture. It could help find ways to heal injuries of the CNS. A challenge in this research is that a experiment would be difficult to run because damaging the CNS would not be ethical
Linking genes with behavior
Behavioral abilities emerge from genes , transcribed to proteins, formed into neurons that are part of neural circuits in targeted brain areas, to ultimately produced a multifaceted behavioral and cognitive response such as language
If a heroin user accidently overdoses when taking heroin in a new environment, this could be explained by ___________
Behavioral tolerance
Brain changes in abstinence
Beta2 Nicotinic receptors (AcH) 21-29% higher in former smokers than controls (green>blue). Returns to nonsmoker levels over time
The concept of a nicotine vaccine involves ___________
Binding nicotine with an antibody so it cannot cross the blood-brain barrier
The intersection of biology, chemistry, neuroscience, and psychology are the basis of
Biopsychology
Gray matter
Brain and spinal cord tissue that appears gray with the naked eye; consists mainly of neuronal cell bodies (nuclei) and lacks myelinated axons. Usually made of 7 layers
Nervous system divisions
Central nervous system (CNS): brain and spinal cord Peripheral nervous system (PNS): the sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body Somatic nervous system: part of the PNS that controls muscle action, gland secretion. Some afferent info back to CNS Autonomic nervous system (ANS): the part of the PNS that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Sympathetic nervous system: part of the ANS that arouses ("fight or flight"); Parasympathetic nervous system: part of the ANS that calms ("rest and digest")
The ___________ separates primary motor cortex from primary somatosensory cortex
Central sulcus
Hindbrain (Myelencephalon and Metencephalon)
Cerebellum: sensory-motor interactions Medulla oblongata: breathing, muscle tone, glandular secretions Reticular formation: arousal Pons: relays information from the cerebellum to the rest of the brain
Broken mirror hypothesis
Claims that a dysfunction of the mirror neuron system may be a cause of poor social interaction and cognition in individuals with autism
Drugs with dopaminergic effects
Cocaine, MDMA (ecstasy): block DA via DAT (dopamine transporter) reuptake, stays around longer. MDMA also works on serotonin Amphetamine: blocks DAT, inhibits MAO (monoamine oxidase), causes more vesicles release
The interactions between behavior, brain and environment are called
Context. Environmental contex: can take the form of external or internal conditions. Both can influence behavior as well as mental functions. Experiential contex: refers to the context provided by past or future experiences and influences behavior and mental functions
Brain sectioning planes
Coronal plane: divides brain into front and back Sagittal plane: divides body into left and right Horizontal (axial) plane: a plane that shows brain structures as seen from above
Forebrain
Corpus callosum (connects the dorsal sections of the hemispheres) Anterior commisure (ventral communication). White matter: myelinated axons Gray matter: neuronal cells bodies Diencephalon: thalamus (sensory relays). Hypothalamus (homeostasis). Pituitary gland (hormones) Telencephalon: Basal ganglia (motor functions), limbic system (emotional regulation), hippocampus (learning and memory), amygdala (emotion), septum (rage after lesions) Fornix, Mammillary Bodies. "Ganglia" is a misnomer (term refers to collections of cell bodies in periphery). Basal ganglia controls movement, habit and gate memory and consists of: Globus pallidus Caudate nucleus Putamen
Chronic methamphetamine use leads to________ in the brain
Decreased dopamine levels and synaptic endings
Label neurotransmitter 2
Dendrite of postsynaptic neuron (the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body)
Neuron structures
Dendritic spines: short outgrowths that increase the surface area available for synapses Axon hillock: cone shaped region of an axon where it joins the cell body Cell body (soma): contains the nucleus and other parts of the cell needed to sustain its life Myelin sheath: A layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next
Reward pathways
Dopamine Reward Pathway - Driven by dopamine and serotonin. Primary Reinforcement for certain things such as sleep, drink, eat, and sex. (because these behaviors help us survive)
What is the cycle of drug abuse and why are a subset of brain regions involved in many drugs of abuse?
Drug addiction cycle starts with the heightened euphoria. Then more drugs are taken to combat tolerance and keep getting the heightened euphoria. Then drugs are taken to avoid withdrawal symptoms
Drug abuse effects
Drug tolerance: the tendency for larger doses of a drug to be required over time to achieve the same effect. Decreased drug effects with repeated use. Withdrawal is associated with tolerance. Tolerance can be caused by an increase in number of receptors for drug or a decrease affinity of receptors to bind drug Drug sensitization: increase in drug effects with repeated use Drug dependence: when a person needs a drug in order to function Buerger disease: inflammation and blockage of blood vessels in the hands and feet that is triggered by smoking cigarettes Drug addiction cycle: clinically characterized as including a compulsion to seek and consume a drug, an inability to control the intake of a drug, and the onset of a negative emotional state when access to the drug is prevented Relapse: the recurrence of drug use following a period of abstinence Methylphenidate: Ritalin. It can treat ADHD and narcolepsy. When taken in high amounts, it becomes addictive
Meninges
Dura mater-outer (thick) layer Arachnoid-middle layer -Overlies the arachnoid space (CSF) -Blood vessels run through arachnoid layer Pia mater- inner layer -Overlies every detail of the outer brain
Placebo
Effects are real. Ethics unclear. Most have measurable physiological effects. Most common placebo effects: -Pain relief mediated by endogenous opioids -Can be blocked by naloxone! Unwanted effects must be controlled in experiments. -Double blind -Ask about expectations
Electroencephalography (EEG) measures
Electrical brain activity
Brain measurement techniques
Electroencephalography (EEG): excellent temporal precision. Poor spatial precision. Relatively inexpensive. Measures Event-related potentials (ERP) which are electrical changes in the brain that correspond to the brain's response to a specific event ECOG (Electrocorticography), invasive Electrophysiology: single-unit recording. Excellent temporal precision. Excellent spatial precision. Invasive (more common in small mammals and non-human primates) Computed Tomography (CT): brain-imaging method using computer-controlled X-rays of the brain Positron Emission Tomography (PET): a method of brain imaging that assesses metabolic activity by using a radioactive substance injected into the bloodstream MRI (Magnetic resonance imaging): Whole brain measurement. Structural only. Good spatial precision Diffusion tensor imaging (DFI): white matter measurement. Structural only. Good spatial precision fMRI (functional MRI): Poor temporal precision (better than PET). Good spatial precision. Involves radioactivity
Important experimental terms
Empirical evidence: observable support for a scientific claim Brain stimulation techniques: a permanent electrode is surgically implanted to stimulate a specific brain area and observe the effects of increased activation on behavior Gene knockout model: make a specific targeted gene inoperative to determine the impact on the animal's functions Biofeedback techniques: use one's thoughts to control functions that are usually considered involuntary, such as heart rate or blood flow Histological techniques: procedures used to examine anatomy of tissue
Peptide neurotransmitters
Endorphins: pain and reward processing Oxytocin and Vasopressin (ADH): social behaviors. Familial bonding Endogenous opioid: a class of peptides secreted by the brain that act as opiates; drugs that effect opioid receptors reduce pain. Includes enkephalin Naxolone (narcan): strips opioids from receptor & Blocks them; Used to treat OD (overdose)
Additional benefits of brain lateralization
Enhances brain efficiency in cognitive tasks that demand the simultaneous but different use of both hemispheres. This allows for complex tasks that require multiple layered components of thinking simultaneously. Another advantage of having a lateralized brain is increased brain capacity, because lateralization means that neural circuits do not have to be duplicated in each hemisphere. Each hemisphere can have its own specialized circuits and functions
Psychoactive drugs
Enhancing (agonists) or blocking (antagonists) the actions of natural transmitters in the synapse. Drugs exert effects on nervous system to alter behavior. Assumptions about drugs: -Viewed as "exogenous" chemicals -Alter neuron activity -Have effects at low doses
Causes of behavior
Environmental: long term evolutionary causes of physical and behavioral characteristics. Proximal: short term changes to behavior such as hormones released or a loud sudden noise
The process by which experiences and the environment can change gene expression is
Epigenetics
Seizures
Epilepsy: chronic brain disorder characterized by recurrent seizure activity Epilepsy drugs side effects: most drugs have side effects that differ between each other. older drugs are cheaper (phenobarbital: $10/year, but has worse side effects) Epilepsy surgery: stop activity from spreading. Remove bad cells via surgery (small or large) Partial (simple) seizure: the patient maintains consciousness and experiences shaking movements in one part of the body (Middle EEG reading) Generalized (complex) seizure: A seizure characterized by severe twitching of all of the body's muscles that may last several minutes or more; formerly known as a grand mal seizure (bottom EEG reading) Generalized epilepsy: involves the entire brain Focal epilepsy: localized part of brain The brain relies on exactly balanced brain activity. If too synchronized: seizures. If out of balance: input/output is atypical (ASD)
Lesion studies
Examining the psychological effects of damage to the brain; responsible for much of knowledge on cortical localization. Broca's area (speech production) was found using this method Sham lesion: a "placebo" procedure that duplicates all the steps of producing a brain lesion except for the one that actually causes the brain damage Stereotaxic surgery: brain surgery using a stereotaxic apparatus to position an electrode or cannula in a specified position of the brain. To accurately perform this surgery, a stereotaxic atlas is used to accurately identify the precise location of the brain area of interest based on the location of a specific landmark Bregma: the junction of the sagittal and coronal sutures of the skull; often used as a reference point for stereotaxic brain surgery
As a group, the 12 cranial nerves differ from spinal nerves in that they ________
Exit directly from the brain
Immune System Response
Innate: Phagocytes and macrophages indiscriminately engulf and digest pathogens through phagocytosis. Microglia, and astrocytes Adaptive (also called acquired): T-cells (detect marked infectious cells and destroys them) and B-cells (generate antibodies that tag infected cells for T-cells to destroy)
What is the name of embedded proteins ions pass through?
Ion channels
Neuronal membrane structures involved in generating and transmitting electrical impulses
Ion distribution: low concentration of K+ outside of cell, high concentration of Na+ and Cl- outside of cell Ion channels: a transmembrane protein channel that allows a specific ion to diffuse across the membrane down its concentration or electrochemical gradient Gated ion channels: A gated channel for a specific ion. The opening or closing of such channels is caused by environmental conditions around the membrane and may alter a cell's membrane potential Ion pumps: carrier proteins that carry cations and anions across a plasma membrane Voltage gated ion channels: channels that open or close in response to a change in the membrane potential
What is likely the most powerful stage of addiction from a neurochemical standpoint
The neuroadaptation stage is the most powerful because the brain is changed by drug consumption which results in drug tolerance and withdrawal. Strategies targeting this stage could effectively break the addiction cycle because it would be easier to stop using drugs without tolerance and withdrawal
Enzymatic deactivation of a neurotransmitter involves which of the following processes?
The neurotransmitter is broken down by enzymes
Left hemisphere is dominant for
Language
Enhanced mirror neuron activity would likely
Lead to effects like mania where the individual has hyperactive symptoms
Losing the ability to maintain a negative resting potential would
Likely cause someone to have many seizures since action potentials would fire much more frequently and create a cascade effect where too many neurons fire simultaneously
Phrenology was the first formal attempt at
Localizing brain function. It is the detailed study of the shape and size of the cranium as a supposed indication of character and mental abilities. Method invented by Gall.
Which of the following brain regions is important for producing norepinephrine?
Locus coeruleus
How do you determine if a neuron is unipolar, bipolar, and multipolar
The number of processes extending from the cell body determine whether the neuron is... Unipolar: one process extending from its cell body Bipolar: one axon and one dendrite attached to its soma Multipolar: single axon and multiple dendrites
Parts of neuron cell body (soma)
Membrane: defines the boundary of the cell Cytoplasm: jellylike substance that contains small specialized structures Mitochondria: produces ATP which is the energy in the cell Nucleus: houses chromosomes and DNA Lysosome: an organelle containing digestive enzymes Cytoskeleton: holds the cell together, helps the cell to keep its shape, and aids in movement Golgi apparatus: modifies and packages proteins for export by the cell Ribosome: makes proteins Rough endoplasmic reticulum: Rough due to the presence of ribosomes. Functions in transport of substances such as proteins within the cytoplasm Smooth endoplasmic reticulum: Synthesizes lipids, regulates calcium levels, and breaks down toxic substances
Most drugs of abuse hijack the ________ resulting in addiction
Mesolimbic pathway (specifically the dopamine)
Mirror neurons and ASD (autism spectrum disorder)
Mirror neurons: frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. Popularized by scientists like Ramachandran who speculated that these neurons could be the basis of empathy, understanding the intentions of others, the root of Imitation, and could be the basis of embodied cognition (the body or the body's interactions with the environment constitute or contribute to cognition in ways) Autism spectrum disorder (ASD): A disorder characterized by deficits in social relatedness and communication skills that are often accompanied by repetitive, ritualistic behavior Transcranial magnetic stimulation: a treatment that involves placing a powerful pulsed magnet over a person's scalp, which alters neuronal activity in the brain
How do environmental and experiential changes alter the anatomical features of neurons
More synapses are created when doing new activities, especially in a socially enriched environment. This is healthy for the brain and improves overall brain function and health
In double blind clinical trials, who knows if a substance contains a drug or a placebo?
Neither the patients nor the researchers. Blind studies: Participants don't know, researchers know
Types of nerves
Nerves: bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs Afferent nerves: Conduct impulses towards the central nervous system Efferent nerves: Conduct impulses away from the central nervous system Cranial nerves: are primarily involved with functions associated with the head, neck, and shoulders. The vagus nerve extends further Spinal nerves: carry impulses to and from the spinal cord Dermatome: area of skin supplied by a single spinal nerve
How does neural communication happen? What results if communication is atypical?
Neural communication happens through action potentials. The brain relies on exactly balanced brain activity Autism spectrum disorder: neural output/input is atypical (out of balance) causing atypical social and communication ability Seizures: neural communication too synchronized Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD): neural output/input is atypical (out of balance) causing atypical physical coordination
Broca's investigation of patient Tan's language disability and brain damage was a(an) ____________ study
Neuropsychological case
A goal of _______ is to identify drugs that modulate neural activity to prevent disease, injury, or improve behavior.
Neuropsychopharmacology. Drug affinity: strength of binding between a drug and its receptor Efficacy: ability to produce desired effects for a targeted condition Therapeutic effects: the drug-receptor interaction produces desired physical or behavioral changes Drug potency: the amount of drug required to produce a desired response
Label neurotransmitter 4
Neurotransmitters (Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons)
Which of the following is a stimulant?
Nicotine: activates nicotinic cholinergic [ACh] receptors Caffeine: blocks adenosine receptors
CSF (cerebrospinal fluid)
Protect via flotation. Produced by choroid plexus of the ventricles (lateral, third, fourth). Ventricles: an access point for drug studies. Loss of CSF produces headaches (e.g. spinal tap) Hydrocephalus: accumulation of fluid in the spaces of the brain
Important areas of study
Psychoneuroimmunology: establishes the connections among psychology, neuroscience, and the immune system Cognitive neuroscience: the exploration of brain functions that accompany various cognitive functions such as perception, memory, and language Pharmacokinetics: the process by which drugs are absorbed, distributed within the body, metabolized, and excreted Pharmacodynamics: focuses on what the drug does to the body
Midbrain (mesencephalon)
Receives sensory and motor information from the rest of the body. Tectum: superior colliculi (important for processing visual information), inferior colliculi (important for processing and localizing auditory information) Tegmentum: periaqueductal gray (involved in the sensation of pain), substantia nigra (produces dopamine), red nucleus (plays a role in limb movement)
Label neurotransmitter 5
Receptors. Metabotropic receptors: receptors that act through a second messenger system. When the receptor is activated, a G protein (protein coupled with the energy storing molecule guanosine triphosphate) is activated and send secondary messengers to open gated ion channels Ligand gated channel: an ion channel that is stimulated to open by the binding of a small molecule such as a neurotransmitter
How should psychoactive drug laws change and why are some drugs criminalized while others aren't?
Substances like alcohol are not illegal because they are socially accepted and have a history of this social acceptance. Drugs like opium that were aimed at children at points are seen as more dangerous by people and thus illegal to use recreationally. Psychoactive substances are often classified as illegal or legal based on history and not their impacts. Drug laws should be changed to where there is less criminal incarceration and more addiction therapy treatment. Addiction therapy is more affective than incarceration since it directly addresses and hopefully fixes the problem
Label neurotransmitter 6
Synapse (Where synaptic transmission, the process by which a neuron communicates with another neuron or neurons across a synapse)
The space between a pre-synaptic axon and post-synaptic dendrite is the
Synapse (terminal endings of presynaptic neuron meet with dendritic spine of postsynaptic neuron)
Label neurotransmitter 3
Synaptic vesicles (Membrane-bounded compartments in which synthesized neurotransmitters are kept)
Neuron and glial cell collaborations
Synaptogenesis: the process by which neurons form synapses with other neurons, resulting in trillions of connections Neurotrophic factors: proteins responsible for growth and survival of neurons during development and maintaining adult neurons Blood brain barrier: blood vessels (capillaries) that selectively let certain substances enter the brain tissue and keep other substances out Area postrema: a region of the medulla where the blood-brain barrier is weak; poisons can be detected there and can initiate vomiting
Catecholamines
Synthesis of Catecholamines from Tyrosine (tyrosine -> L-Dopa -> dopamine -> noradrenaline -> adrenaline) Dopamine (DA): Produced in the substantia nigra and ventral tegmental area. Regulates movement, reward systems, increased vigilance. D1-D5 receptors Goldilocks zone: optimal dopamine level Dopaminergic: regulates food and sex Norepinephrine (noradrenaline) (NE): Porduced in the locus coeruleus. Increased vigilance, focused attention, enhanced energy Epinephrine (adrenaline): Released from the adrenal gland. Response to acute stress Hormones secreted by the adrenal medulla that affect the sympathetic nervous system in stress response
Excitatory and Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs, IPSPs) require
The binding of a neurotransmitter to a ligand-gated channel. Excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP): a slight depolarization of a postsynaptic cell, bringing the membrane potential of that cell closer to the threshold for an action potential Inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP): a slight hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic cell, bringing the membrane potential of that cell further from the threshold of an action potential
Rats raised in complex enriched environments show that
They recover from brain trauma quicker. They also had the most neurogenesis when they ran in the presence of other rats ("social running") Neurogenesis: creation of new neurons in the adult brain
CNS (central nervous system) and PNS (peripheral nervous system) differences
Tracts: bundles of axons in the CNS Ganglia: clusters of cell bodies in the PNS Axonal regeneration: regrowth of damaged axons occurs in the PNS but not in the CNS; research is focused on identifying aspects of PNS recovery that may be applied to CNS recovery
Right hemisphere is dominant for
Visuospatial attention
Two important questions about the interaction of nervous system and immune system
What aspects of the innate immune response of the PNS make it more effective than the innate CNS immune system. Answering this question can help find ways to strengthen the CNS immune system. How does the blood brain barrier protect against different kinds of pathogens. This question can help find ways to treat infections that breach the blood brain behavior