PSY 659 Midterm Study Set
Five aspects/dimensions of behavior that can be shaped
(Topography: physical movements involved in the behavior Ex.: extent of follow through on a tennis serve)--from textbook, not mentioned in lecture **FREQUENCY**: Number of instances of the behavior in a given time Ex: number of dishes washed in five minutes **DURATION**: Continuous amount of time that the behavior lasts Ex: Length of time treading water LATENCY: Time between the controlling stimulus and the behavior Ex: Time between the question "What time is it" and the response of looking at your watch INTENSITY (force): Amount of energy expended on the behavior Ex: Force of punch in boxing
Potential harmful side effects for punishment
-Aggressive behavior (Punishment, especially physical punishment tends to elicit aggressive behavior against parents, siblings, and peers) This side effect of physical punishment not been reported for reprimands, timeout, or response cost. -Emotional behavior Punishment, esp. Physical punishment, can produce undesirable emotional side effects like crying and fearfulness. -Escape and avoidance behavior Interferes with desirable behavior Punishment may cause the situation/people associated with the aversive stimulus to become conditioned punishers Example - if you punish a child while teaching him to read whenever he makes a mistake, anything associated with the situation (inc. printed words, book, or the person who delivers the punishment etc) will become punishing, and the child may attempt to escape or avoid the stimuli Example: Lying to avoid conflict (lying results in removal of aversive punishment and is therefore negatively reinforcing) -No new behavior Interferes with desirable behavior; Punishment does not establish any new behavior, it only suppresses old behavior; Only teaches what not to do, not what TO do. -Modeling of punishment Children often imitate adults; if adults apply punishment to children, children are apt to do the same to others In punishing children, we are inadvertently presenting a model for them to follow in presenting aversive stimuli toward others -Overuse of punishment Because punishment can result in rapid suppression of undesirable behavior, it can tempt the user to rely heavily on it and neglect the use of positive reinforcement for desirable behavior. Person delivering punishment may experience the result as negatively reinforcing, thus increasing the chance of more and stronger punishments being applied • Example: escalating physical abuse towards a child
Factors influencing effectiveness of operant extinction
-Control of reinforcers for the behavior that is to be decreased (reinforcers presented by other people or physical environment can undo efforts to apply operant extinction; may be necessary to either control behavior of individuals who might sabotage an extinction procedure or carry out procedure in their absence) (Important to ensure reinforcers that are being withheld are the ones that were actually maintaining the undesirable behavior) -Combining Extinction with Positive Reinforcement for an Alternative Behavior (Operant extinction most effective when combined with positive reinforcement for a desirable alternative behavior) - Setting in which Extinction is Carried Out (One reason for changing the setting in which operant extinction is carried out is to minimize the possibility that other people will reinforce the behavior you are trying to decrease; also may be socially difficult/impossible to carry out operant extinction in certain situations (ex: mother ignoring a tantrum in a department store) -The Use of Instructions or Rules It will help speed up decrease in behavior if person is initially told something like "if you do X, then Y will no longer occur" Ex: husband complains excessively each day about slow traffic; wife would be adding instructional control to extinction if she said "The traffic is the same each day, it doesn't help to complain. I love talking to you about other things, but each time you complain about traffic I will ignore it." Behavior will decrease rapidly. -The Schedule of Reinforcement Before Extinction is Carried Out Continuous vs. Intermittent -Extinction Bursting: Behavior Being Extinguished may get Worse Before it Gets Better -Elicited Aggression: Extinction May Produce Aggression That Interferes with the Program (operant extinction may produce aggression (eg: kicking a vending machine that did not deliver the merchandise, called elicited aggression) -Spontaneous Recovery: Reappearance of an Extinguished Behavior after a Delay
How the behavioral modification meaning of the world punishment is different that the common meaning of the word:
-It occurs immediately after the problem behavior -It is not a form of moral sanction, vengeance, or retribution -It is not used to deter others from engaging in the target behavior. Example -- prison -- seen as a punishment, but it is not immediate, it is sometimes considered a moral retribution, and considered a deterrent to other potential wrongdoers. For behavior modifiers, punishment is simply a technical term referring to the application of an immediate consequence following an individuals' specific behavior in a specific situation that has the effect of decreasing the likelihood of future instances of that individual engaging in that specific behavior in that specific situation.
Factors Influencing the Effectiveness of Conditioned Reinforcement
-The Strength of Backup Reinforcers (Depends on part on the reinforcing power of the backup reinforcer) -The Variety of Backup Reinforcers Reinforcing power of a conditioned reinforcer depends in part on the number of different backup reinforcers with which it has been paired (Money is a powerful generalized reinforcer b/c of its pairing w/many backup reinforcers (food, clothing, shelter, entertainment, etc.)) If many different backup reinforcers available, then at any time, at least one will probably be strong enough to maintain the conditioned reinforcer at a high strength The Number of Pairings with a Backup Reinforcer More likely to be stronger if paired w/backup reinforcer many times Example: "good girl" spoken to young girl immediately following a desirable behavior likely to be a stronger conditioned reinforcer if that expression has been paired w/a hug from parent many times as opposed to having been paired w/a hug from a parent just once (assuming other backup reinforcers were not involved) Loss of Value of a Conditioned Reinforcer To remain effective, conditioned reinforcer must @ least occasionally continue to be paired w/a suitable backup reinforcer Example: if teacher stops letting students exchange tokens for privileges, children will eventually stop engaging in behavior that earns tokens.
Factors influencing effectiveness of positive reinforcement
-The behavior chosen (specific behavior targets more likely to be "improvable") - Type of reinforcer chosen (reinforcement menus/preference assessments, Premack Principle, Response Deprivation model) -Motivating Operations (deprivation, etc.) -Reinforcer size -Use of instructions -Immediacy of reinforcer (For max effectiveness, reinforcers should be given immediately after desired response -- for animals, about 30 seconds) (if the reinforcer is delayed, must be certain events that mediate/bridge the gap between response and long-delayed reinforcer, such a reminding yourself about the reward) -Contingent reinforcers -Learner can eventually be weaned the from the program and change to natural reinforcers
Characteristics of Behavior Modification
1. Focus on behavior 2. Focus on environment (internal and external) 3. Precise description of procedures 4. Implemented by people in everyday life 5. Based on behavioral principles 6. Involves measurement of behavior change 7. Emphasis on accountability
When should punishment be used?
1. The behavior is very maladaptive, and it is in the client's best interest to bring about rapid behavior change. 2. Clear steps are taken to maximize the conditions for a desirable alternative response and to minimize the causes of the response to be punished before resorting to punishment. 3. The client or the client's parent/guardian provides informed consent. 4. The intervention meets ethical standards. 5. Punishment is applied according to clear guidelines.
Simple conditioned reinforcer:
A conditioned reinforcer that is paired with a single backup reinforcer Examples: Ice cream vendor's bell Air miles Being told in a restaurant "a waiter is coming to take your order" A subway token A coupon for a free hamburger Tokens as simple conditioned reinforcers: tokens that can only be exchanged for one specific backup reinforcer (e.g. only jelly beans or only LEGO bricks)
Backup reinforcers
:When a stimulus becomes a conditioned reinforcer thru deliberate association with other reinforcers, the other reinforcers are called backup reinforcers. Can be unconditioned or conditioned. Ex.: training dolphins: clicking sound paired with delivering a fish to a dolphin: fish is backup reinforcer, after many pairings, clicking sound becomes conditioned reinforcer. Later when teaching the dolphin a trick, clicker sound presented as immediate conditioned reinforcer, and clicker sound continually intermittently paired with fish Backup reinforcers for a conditioned reinforcer can also be other conditioned reinforcers Ex: Woman collects points for herself each time she is nice to someone and at the end of the day can cash them in for social media time: points themselves are not primary reinforcers (you would not work hard to get points for their own sake)-- they are conditioned reinforcers because they are paired with the backup reinforcer (opportunity to go on social media). Backup reinforcer for points also a conditioned reinforcer (woman is not born with the stimuli provided by social media being unconditioned reinforcers) instead, they become conditioned reinforcers by pairing them with other things such as attention from adults/friends
Token System/Token Economy
A behavior modification program in which individuals can earn tokens for specific behaviors and can cash in their tokens for backup reinforcers. Advantage: can usually be delivered more immediately than the backup reinforcer can -- help to bridge delays between behavior & more powerful reinforcers Punishing tokens are available as well as reinforcing ones (Ex: the demerit system)
Timeout
A period of time immediately following a particular behavior during which an individual loses the opportunity to earn reinforcers (Negative punishment) From lecture: Only considered punishment if the ongoing activity is perceived by target as reinforcing
Punisher
A punisher is a consequence that makes a particular behavior less likely to occur in the future. an immediate consequence of an operant behavior that causes that behavior to decrease in frequency. aka: Aversive Stimuli or Aversives Once an event has been determined to function as a punisher for a particular behavior of an individual in a particular situation, that event can be used to decrease other operant behaviors of the individual in other situations.
Reprimand
A strong negative verbal stimulus immediately contingent on behavior. Often include a fixed stare or a firm grasp. Example: a parent saying "No! That was bad!" immediately after an undesirable behavior Verbal component is a conditioned punisher: a stimulus that is a punisher as a result of having been paired with another punisher; Firm grasp may be the unconcitioned punisher
Response Deprivation Model
According to this model, to be a positive reinforcer the opportunity to engage in a given behavior does not have to be a behavior that the individual engages in a lot (does not have to be a high-probability behavior) Instead, the behavior simply must be the one that is currently occurring below its baseline level (i.e., the individual has been deprived of the opportunity to engage in the behavior.) Example: employee in a drugstore might be offered opportunity to accompany the employer to an important meeting contingent upon the employee carrying out some less desirable take such as clearing or organizing. The employee would potentially seldom volunteer to go on such a meeting, but if for whatever reason the employee has gone on such trips less than they normally would have done, the opportunity to go on the trip could be an effective reinforcer. Strength: one behavior can be reinforced by any other behavior, provided the latter is below its baseline level of occurrence, unlike in the Premack Principle, behaviors can only reinforce behaviors below them in frequency.
Physical punishment
Activate pain receptors (technically called nociceptors - nerve endings that experience pain) Spanking, slaps, pinches, hair tugging, extreme cold/heat, very loud sounds, electric shocks activate these receptors These are unconditioned punishers: Stimuli that are punishing without prior learning. Bad smells/tastes can cause discomfort without prior learning too, but these do not involve nociceptors; still considered physical punishers
Elicited aggression
Aggression that results from operant extinction
SDP
An SDP is a stimulus in the presence of which a response will be punished. Ex.: children learn quickly learn that asking parents for something when they are in a bad mood often leads to a reprimand; parental behaviors characteristic of 'being in a bad mood' = SDP If in the presence of an SDP a punisher is consistently applied following a response, then that response is less likely to occur with the SDP is encountered.
Intermittent Reinforcement
An arrangement or schedule in which a response is reinforced only occasionally rather than each time it occurs. When a behavior has always been reinforced and then abruptly is never reinforced, that behavior extinguishes quickly When intermittent reinforcement has maintained a behavior, that behavior is likely to extinguish slowly. Behavior that extinguishes slowly is said to be resistant to extinction.
You've noticed that you tend to be more irritable at work on days when you haven't slept well the night before. In this scenario, poor sleep is a/an [reinforcer or antecedent] for your irritability.
Antecedent Behavior = irritability Poor sleep is not a stimulus, it is an ANTECEDENT to the behavior of irritability
S Delta
Any other antecedent stimulus
By definition, when do antecedents occur?
Before the behavior
Difference between Operant Extinction and Respondent Extinction
Both lead to a decrease in a behavior Respondent extinction is a decrease in a conditioned response to a conditioned stimulus due to the CS no longer being paired with a US Operant extinction is a decrease in an operant response due to it no longer being followed by a reinforcer.
Tokens
Conditioned reinforcers that can be accumulated and exchanged for backup reinforcers.
Lucian travels frequently for work so he is used to flying on airplanes. On a recent trip, the plane had to make a water landing due to an engine failure. The experience was so traumatic for Lucian that he has not been able to board an airplane since the incident, and he experiences a panic attack every time he just thinks about getting on a plane. In this example of classical conditioning, Lucian's experience of a panic attack is the (neutral stimulus, conditioned stimulus, conditioned response, unconditioned response)?
Conditioned response
Rolanda enjoys jogging in the mornings because she finds that it improves her mood. As a result, she goes for a run every morning before work. Which type of reinforcement schedule is this?
Continuous
Counterconditioning
Counterconditioning: a process in which a conditioned response may be eliminated more effectively if a new response is conditioned to the conditioned stimulus at the same time that the former conditioned response is being extinguished. (A CS will lose its ability to elicit a CR if that CS is paired with a stimulus that elicits a response that is incompatible with the CR). Example: child who has a fear of the sight of dogs; if child likes playing with a friend who is a CS eliciting feelings of happiness as a CR, and that friend has a friendly dog, as the original child plays with that friend and the friend's friendly dog, some of the positive emotions from the friend will become conditioned to the friends dog. These positive conditioned emotional responses help counteract the negative conditioned emotional responses previously elicited by dogs, thus more quickly/more effectively eliminating the negative responses.
SD
Discriminative Stimulus a stimulus in the presence of which a response will be reinforced.
Shaping steps
Shaping Steps 1. Select final target behavior 2. Is shaping required? *flowchart 3. Select appropriate reinforcer 4. List shaping steps (i.e., successive approximations) 5. Differentially reinforce successive approximations 6. Move through steps at an effective pace
Respondent behavior characteristics:
Elicited by prior stimuli and are not affected by their consequences, Referred to as involuntary, Usually involve smooth muscles and glands
Motivating Operations
Events or conditions that temporarily alter the effectiveness of a reinforcer and alter the frequency of behavior reinforced by that reinforcer Most reinforcers will not be effective unless the individual has been deprived for some period of time prior to their use (response deprivation model) The longer the deprivation period, the more effective the reinforcer will be (ex. Sweets will not be reinforcing to a child who just ate a big bag of candy) food deprivation establishes food as an effective reinforcer for the person who is food deprived, and also momentarily increases various behaviors that have been reinforced with food. Deprivation: the time during which an individual does not experience the reinforcer Satiation: that condition in which the individual has experienced the reinforcer to such an extent that it is no longer reinforcing ("enough's enough")
To prepare for a surgical procedure, Jose was required to fast from all food for a period of 24 hours. After his fast ended, he noticed an extremely high craving for Doritos. Jose's fast was an example of what?
Extinction burst
Watson (American)
Founder of Behaviorism All behavior is controlled by the environment
In behavior modification, the term punishment is used to refer to a process in which the consequence of a behavior results in an increase of the behavior.
F
Punishment is used to strengthen a behavior.
F
Salivation in response to the sound of a dinner bell is an example of an unconditioned response.
False
Response cost is a form of positive punishment.
False - it is a form of negative punishment (reinforcing stimulus is being removed.)
Timeout is a form of positive reinforcement.
False - negative punishment
A dog trainer is trying to shape the behavior of sitting on command. She begins by rewarding the dog each time it makes eye contact with her after she says the dog's name. In doing so, what is she applying?
Fixed ratio reinforcement
Christian drives faster than the speed limit only when his friends are in the car with him because they tell him he is so cool for being such a risk taker. He doesn't speed when his parents or girlfriend are in the car, though, because they don't think it's cool at all. What is the SD in this example? His friends, parents, or girlfriend?
Friends - their presence increases the chance of the speeding behavior
Response Cost
From Lecture: • Removal of previously earned reinforcers -Type of Negative Punishment • Example: parking ticket From book: Involves the removal of a specified amount of a reinforcer immediately following a behavior Distinguished from operant extinction, in which a reinforcer is withheld following a PREVIOUSLY REINFORCED RESPONSE in order to eliminate the response; whereas, in response cost, a reinforcer is taken away following an undesirable response (as a punishment) Examples in everyday life Children losing reinforcing tokens Library fines, traffic tickets, charges for overdrawn bank accounts --However, these punishers not typically applied immediately following offending behavior ---->The direct-acting effect of punishment is the decreased frequency of a response b/c of its immediate punishing consequences --->The indirect-acting effect of punishment is the weakening of a response that is followed by a punisher even though the punisher is delayed. Example: a person speeds through an intersection, is caught by photo radar, and receives a ticket in the mail a week later; although this may reduce the persons future speeding, it involves much more than principle of punishment--delayed punishers may have an effect on behavior b/c of instructions about the behavior leading to the punisher. Self-statements, images, or immediate conditioned punishers may intervene between the behavior and the delayed punisher. It is a mistake to offer punishment as an overly simplistic explanation of a decrease in behavior when the punisher does not follow the behavior immediately.
Respondent Extinction
From book: Principle which involves the procedure of presenting a CS while withholding the US, with the result that the CS gradually loses its capability of eliciting the CR Example: child reaches out to touch a large dog just as the dog barks loudly, scaring the child; as a function of the pairing of the bark and the sight of the dog, the sight of the dog alone now elicits crying and trembling. (This is a Pavlovian conditioned response that we label fear). If a parent took a child to a dog show with lots of dogs who have been trained to walk and sit quietly will help the child overcome her fear of seeing dogs. The sight of dogs loses its capability of functioning as a CS to elicit the fear reaction as a CR. Many of our childhood fears undergo respondent extinction as we age due to repeated exposure and the absence of dire consequences. Respondent extinction explains why it's hard to achieve higher-order conditioning beyond second order-- by not pairing the original CS with the US, the CS undergoes extinction.
Operant extinction
From lecture: A process that weakens operant behavior; this happens when a behavior that was previously reinforced is no longer reinforced, resulting in the behavior occurring less frequently and/or not occurring at all • Only applies for operant conditioning • Behavior stops occurring when reinforcer is removed • Example: I stop attending class when attendance isn't being taken • Result of extinction is always reduction or stopping of behavior Everyday examples: I stop going to class because attendance isn't being taken anymore • I stop going to the gym when my friend stops going due to an injury Extinction is evidence of sanity, Insanity is doing the same thing over and over again and expecting different results. —Albert Einstein • ***Because we are motivated by reinforcers, extinction is the natural outcome when a reinforcer is removed • Extinction only occurs when there is a reinforcer that can be removed*** More extinction examples: Example: "acting out" being reinforced by attention • Stop paying attention to problematic behavior • Example: phone coaching in DBT • Adhere to strict protocol to avoid reinforcing calling behavior for purposes of attention From book: if an individual, in a given situation, emits a previously reinforced behavior, and that behavior is not followed by a reinforcer, then that person is less likely to do the same thing again when next encountering a similar situation In other words: If a response has been increased in frequency through reinforcement, then completely ceasing to reinforce the response will cause it to decrease in frequency. Examples: Child laying in bed while parents talking to guests in living room; child makes loud animal noises; parents/guests ignore the child; child s less likely to make animal noises in future situations of that sort At a store, five people are waiting in the checkout line; an aggressive customer pushes his way to the front of the line; the clerk says please go to the back of the line and continues serving previous customer; customer who pushed ahead is less likely to do so in similar situations in the future
Extinction Burst
From lecture: Extinction burst: increase in frequency, duration, or intensity of the unreinforced behavior during the extinction process From book: A temporary increase in responding during extinction If you introduce operant extinction, keep with it. Things usually get worse before they get better but hang in there; doing so will pay off in the long run. Exception to this rule: situation in which an extinction burst may be harmful, in which case you should take preventive steps (aka head banging - put a helmet on them)
Spontaneous Recovery
From lecture: Spontaneous recovery: recurrence of a behavior in a situation similar to previous situations delivering reinforcement From book: The reappearance of an extinguished behavior following a break After several additional extinction sessions, spontaneous recovery usually not a problem
Factors influencing effectiveness of punishment
From lecture: • IMMEDIACY • Punisher should be delivered as soon after problem behavior as possible • Delayed punishers can be very confusing CONTINGENCY • Punisher should only be delivered after the specific problem behavior • "Damned if you do, damned if you don't" doesn't work -The conditions for a Desirable Alternative Response (To decrease an undesirable response, it is maximally effective to increase some alternative response that will compete with the undesirable behavior to be eliminated) Research indicates adding punishment (in form of response cost to an undesirable response) will further decrease frequency of the undesirable response However if for some reason the desirable response undergoes extinction, the undesirable response will show the same amount of resurgence that would occur if punishment of the undesirable response had not been used. -The Cause of the Undesirable Behavior To maximize opportunity for desirable alternative behavior, you should also minimize causes of undesirable behavior Person should try to identify and eliminate the current SD s for the undesirable behavior. The person should try to identify and eliminate existing reinforcers that are maintaining the undesirable behavior. Punishment may often not be necessary to reduce or eliminate an undesirable behavior. -The Punishing Stimulus (Important to ensure punisher is effective The more intense/strong the punishing stimulus, the more effective it will be in decreasing undesirable behavior. However, intensity of punisher that is needed to be effective depends on the success in minimizing the causes of the undesirable behavior while maximizing the conditions for a desirable alternative behavior A mild punisher (such as a reprimand) can be effective if reinforcer for undesirable behavior is withheld following instances of the behavior and if a desirable alternative behavior is reinforced with a strong reinforcer. -Having Rules for punishment (Adding rules to a punishment procedure often helps to decrease the indescribable behavior and increase the desirable alternative behavior more quickly.) -The Delivery of the Punisher (should be presented immediately, should be presented following each instance, should not be paired with positive reinforcement aka attention if that is reinforcing, the person administering the punishment should remain calm).
Shaping
From lecture: • Shaping is used to develop a target behavior that a person does not currently exhibit • It is defined as differential reinforcement of successive approximations of a target behavior until target behavior is achieved • What are successive approximations? • Language: babbling, word sounds, parts of words, etc. • Riding a bicycle: pedaling on a tricycle, trying to balance on a bicycle, going longer and longer distances on a bicycle without training wheels From book: the development of a new operant behavior by the reinforcement of successive approximations of that behavior and the extinction of earlier approximations of that behavior until the new behavior occurs. Sometimes referred to as the method of successive approximations. Example: baby learning to talk and successive approximations of words
Behavior that has been learned via intermittent reinforcement tends to be (easier or harder) to extinguish compared to behavior that has been learned via continuous reinforcement.
Harder
Is shaping required?
If the behavior occurs already, then NO -- you use reinforcement or punishment to increase or decrease the behavior. If the behavior does NOT YET OCCUR, then MAYBE -- you can use shaping, OR modeling, instruction, etc. (From lecture)
Principle of punishment
If, in a given situation, someone emits an operant behavior that is immediately followed by a punisher, then that person is less likely to emit that behavior again when she or he next encounters a similar situation.
Brandon is trying to increase his girlfriend's behavior of making the bed in the morning before she leaves for work. To accomplish this, he plans to reward each instance of the behavior by giving her a kiss (which she experiences as rewarding). To improve the effectiveness of this reinforcement strategy, when should Brandon ensure that the kiss is delivered?
Immediately after she makes the bed
Conditioned punishment
Just as a stimulus that is paired with reinforcement becomes reinforcing itself, so a stimulus that is paired with punishment becomes punishing itself. Example" "No!" and "Stop that!" (often followed by punishment if individual continues to engage in behavior that provokes them) Punishing tokens are available as well as reinforcing ones (Ex: the demerit system)
Which of the following schedules of reinforcement is best used during the maintenance phase of a behavior?
Intermittent
Avoidance behavior
Occurs in the context of negative reinforcement When the aversive stimulus is prevented and never occurs Example of an Avoidance Behavior • You turn down the volume on the car radio before you start the car. In this case, you avoid the noise from the radio. • Note: By turning down the volume before starting the car, you completely avoid the unpleasant experience of ear-piercing noise.
Escape behavior
Occurs in the context of negative reinforcement When the aversive stimulus was already present when the behavior occurred Example: • You start your car and the radio blasts on because someone left the volume all the way up. You turn down the volume to escape the ear-piercing noise. • Note: The ear-piercing noise was already happening before you performed the operant behavior of turning down the volume.
Respondent stimulus generalization
Occurs when an organism has been conditioned so that a particular CS elicits a CR, and then a similar stimulus also elicits that CR. Example: experiencing pain in dentist chair while the dentist is drilling; sound of drill becomes a CS which causes you to cringe. If you hear the sound of a butcher's cutting machine at the deli, you may cringe there too.
Skinner (American)
Operant conditioning Reinforcement and punishment
Types of punishers
Physical Reprimand Timeout Response Cost
Shaping problem behaviors
Problem behaviors can get worse by inadvertent shaping Unaware Misapplication Pitfall: Shaping operates whether we are aware of it or not; if we are unaware of shaping we may unknowingly apply it to develop undesirable behavior of friends, family, etc. Ex: kid who doesn't get much social attention for appropriate behavior but receives much attention for hitting his head Ex from lecture: 1.Mom is working 2. Tommy interrupts and demands she play with him 3. Mom stops working and plays with Tommy Mom should tell Tommy she will play with him later and then ignore subsequent interruptions 1. Ignoring interruptions is an extinction strategy 2. Tommy started screaming (extinction burst) when mom did this 3. Mom left her work and played with Tommy which resulted in him calming down and not screaming any more (negative reinforcement of mom's behavior) 4. Then, mom tried to use extinction again but the extinction bursts got worse (Tommy started throwing things) 5. By now, Tommy's behavior is worse than when this change protocol started (he is now throwing things) 6. Mom was unintentionally reinforcing successive approximations of a problematic behavior
In _______________, successive approximations of the target behavior are differentially reinforced until the individual engages in the target behavior.
Shaping
Other things (besides extinction) that can decrease an operant behavior
Punishment Forgetting
Variable-ratio (VR) schedule:
Reinforcer occurs after a certain number of a particular response, and the number of responses required for each reinforcer changes unpredictably from one reinforcer to the net. Ex: salesperson who averages 1 sale per 10 calls; requires an average of 10 calls to make onse sale; abbreviated VR 10 AKA 10 house calls are required to produce reinforcement Ex: Slot machine
Claudia recently got a new kitten and he is training it not to chew on cables in the house. Whenever Claudia sees her kitten chewing on a cable, she says "No!" very loudly. Is the behavior of saying "No!" loudly an example of timeout, a reprimand, response cost, or negative reinforcement?
Reprimand
Whenever Natalie is with her auntie, she always asks to stay up past her bedtime and her auntie lets her. However, whenever Natalie asks her parents to stay up beyond curfew, they always say no. As a result, Natalie only goes to her auntie for this request. The presence of Natalie's auntie is referred to a _______________ in this scenario.
SD (DiscriminativeStimulus)
Factors influencing the effectiveness of shaping
Specifying the Final Target Behavior (A precise statement of the final target behavior increases the chances for consistent reinforcement of successive approximations of that behavior)r Choosing the Starting Behavior Because the final target behavior does not occur initially and because we must reinforce some behavior that approximates it, we must identify a starting behavior--Should be a behavior that occurs often enough to be reinforced within the session time Should approximate final target behavior Choosing the Shaping Steps Before initiating shaping program, helpful to outline successive approximations through which the person will be moved in the attempt to approximate final target behavior. The Pace of Movement through the Shaping Steps Rules of thumb to follow in reinforcing successive approximations of a final target response: Reinforce an approximation at least several times before proceeding to the next step Avoid under-reinforcement of a shaping step; trying to go to a new step before the previous approximation has been well established can result in losing the previous approximation through extinction without achieving the new approximation. Avoid reinforcing too many times at any shaping step. Don't go too fast OR too slow; if one approximation is reinforced for so long that it becomes extremely strong, new approximations are less likely to appear. If you lose a behavior because you are moving too fast or taking too large a step, return to an earlier approximation where you can pick up the behavior again.
Conditioned reinforcers
Stimuli that are not originally reinforcing but have become reinforcers by being paired or associated with other reinforcers (most of the reinforcers that influence us on daily basis are conditioned) Aka secondary/learned reinforcers Ex: Tokens, • Tickets at Chuck E. Cheese's
Unconditioned reinforcers
Stimuli that are reinforcing without prior learning/conditioning In other words: primary/unlearned reinforcer Examples: food, water, sex, physical comfort, sleep, novelty, pain
Antecedents
Stimulus events that precede an operant response When behavior is reinforced only under specific circumstances, behavior is more likely to occur in the future in only those types of circumstances
Difference between SD and SDP
Suppose that each time a child swore, parents deducted 25 cents from child's allowance; as a result of this response-cost contingency, the swearing decreased. In this example, the sight of the parents would be an SDP for swearing. If the parents simply ignored the child when swearing and the swearing decreased as a result of this operant extinction contingency, then the sight of the parents would be an SD for swearing. In both scenarios, the presence of the parents would eliminate the swearing, but the causes of the behavior change would be different.
Negative reinforcement is used to strengthen a behavior.
T
Positive reinforcement is used to strengthen a behavior.
T
Stimulus discrimination training is most effective when the SD is easily distinguished from other stimuli.
T? (check lectures)
Thorndike (American)
The Law of Effect: Behavior that has a favorable effect on the environment will be repeated
Behavior Modification
The field of psychology concerned with analyzing and modifying human behavior
A reinforcer or punisher is more effective if it is contingent on performance of the operant behavior.
True
In classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
True
Janet takes out the garbage and her mother praises her every time she does it. However, when her mother stops praising her, Janet stops taking out the garbage. Therefore, Janet's behavior of taking out the garbage has been extinguished.
True
Maritza experienced a recent airplane flight in which the plane had to make a water landing due to an engine failure. As a result of this traumatic experience, she has not been able to board an airplane since the incident. In theory, if you wanted to use an extinction procedure to help Maritza overcome her fear of flying, you would need to arrange for her to board a plane and take a flight that made a safe landing.
True
Stimulus control involves manipulating antecedents to change the occurrence of a behavior.
True
Stimulus discrimination training involves both reinforcement and extinction.
True
Motivating operations alter the value of a punisher or a reinforcer.
True - p.228
Deprivation is an example of a motivating operation.
True p 73
Charlie is a server at the neighborhood diner, and after working there for 3 months, he has realized that no matter how great his service is, sometimes patrons leave tips and sometimes they don't. What type of reinforcement schedule is he observing?
Variable ratio
Generalization
When a behavior occurs in the presence that are similar to the SD Ex: reading words in the same language, obeying authority figures
Stimulus Control
When behavior is more likely to occur in the presence of the SD (Discriminative Stimulus) The SD exerts stimulus control over the behavior The SD evokes the behavior
A behavior occurs and is immediately followed by a consequence that results in the increased likelihood of the behavior occurring in the future. This process is called: a) reinforcement b) respondent conditioning c) punishment d) extinction
a
Tanya keeps running in the back of the classroom while the teacher, Mr. Brown, is trying to teach. Mr. Brown is trying to get her to take her seat and stop being disruptive. He decides to praise Tanya every time she successfully takes her seat. As a result, Tanya begins to remain seated in class for longer and longer periods of time. This is an example of: a) positive reinforcement b) negative reinforcement c) positive punishment d) negative punishment
a
Contingent reinforcers
a reinforcer is contingent when a specific behavior must occur before that reinforcer will be presented.
Noncontingent reinforcers
a reinforcer is noncontingent if that reinforcer is presented at a particular time regardless of the behavior. Noncontingent, fun activities as rewards unlikely to have much effect on specific behaviors; reinforcers must be contingent on specific behaviors in order for those behaviors to improve.
Fixed-interval (FI) schedule:
a reinforcer is presented following the first instance of a specific response after a fixed period of time. Ex: watching Game of Thrones every week at the same time; the fixed interval = 7 days
Variable-interval (VI) schedule:
a reinforcer is presented following the first instance of a specific response after an interval of time, and the length of the interval changes unpredictably from one reinforcer to the next. Ex: Waiting in line and not knowing how long it will be for your turn because each turn takes a different amount of time.
Fixed-ratio (FR) schedule:
a reinforcer occurs each time a fixed number of responses of a particular type are emitted AKA - solve 4 problems per reinforcement (FR 4)
Conditioned response (CR)
a response elicited by a conditioned stimulus.
Unconditioned response (UR)
a response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus
Respondent stimulus discrimination
a stimulus functions as a CS to elicit a CR because that stimulus has been paired with a US that elicits that CR, but a similar stimulus does not function as a CS for that CR because the second stimulus has been paired with extinction trials. This has adaptive value Example: if you experienced several repeated episodes of the dentist's drill with some pain, and then several repeated episodes of the butcher's cutting machine with no pain, you would eventually not cringe
Unconditioned stimulus (US)
a stimulus that elicit a response without prior learning or conditioning
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
a stimulus that elicits a response because that stimulus has been paired with another stimulus that elicits that response.
Generalized conditioned reinforcer
a stimulus that is paired with more than one kind of backup reinforcer in other words: A conditioned reinforcer that can be exchanged for a wide range of other reinforcers Examples: think***Money*** praise -- mother who expresses pleasure at her child's good behavior will smile/hug/play with the child. Sometimes a treat/toy may accompany the praise. Normally praise is established as a generalized conditioned reinforcer during childhood, but it continues to be maintained as one for adults. When ppl praise us, they are generally more likely to favor us in various ways than when they do not praise us. Therefore we are highly likely to engage in behaviors that are followed by praise, even when not deprived of any specific reinforcer A gift certificate for food and beverages at a restaurant Tokens as generalized conditioned reinforcers: tokens that can be exchanged for more than one type of backup reinforcer (e.g., either jelly beans or lego bricks)
Conditioned reflex
a stimulus-response relationship in which a stimulus elicits a response because of prior respondent conditioning.
Operant conditioning
a type of learning in which behavior is modified by its consequences.
Continuous Reinforcement
an arrangement or schedule in which each instance of a particular response is reinforced.
Positive Reinforcer
anything that, when presented immediately following a behavior, causes the behavior to increase in frequency. Synonymous with "reward" Positive reinforcers are events that increase a response when they are introduced or added immediately following a response
A response elicited by the conditioned stimulus is referred to as a(n) ____________ response. a) learned b) conditioned c) unconditioned d) automatic
b
An increase in a problem behavior following a period during which the behavior's reinforcer has been withheld is called a) a motivating operation b) an extinction burst c) a timeout d) spontaneous recovery
b
Another name for respondent conditioning is a) instrumental conditioning b) classical conditioning c) operant conditioning d) verbal conditioning
b
Which of the following is NOT a question to ask when trying to decide whether a situation represents positive or negative reinforcement? a) what is the behavior? b) did the stimulus appear to be pleasant? c) was the stimulus added or removed? d) was the behavior more likely to occur?
b
Adventitious reinforcement
behavior that is "accidentally" followed by a reinforcer (ex., a kid drawing on the walls in his room unbeknownst to his parents, and his parents call for him to come get ice cream) may be increased even if it did not actually produce the reinforcer.
Operant Behaviors
behavior that: Affects or "operates on" the environment to produce consequences, and which is, in turn, influenced by those consequences Is referred to as voluntary Usually involves skeletal muscles
In behavior modification, who was the first person to demonstrate the process of respondent conditioning? a) Freud b) Watson c) Pavlov d) Skinner
c
In order for respondent conditioning to be most effective, the neutral stimulus should occur ____________ the unconditioned stimulus occurs. a) after b) at the same time c) before d) more often than
c
Sasha keeps butting into her parents' adult conversations. Her father takes her into the other room to ask her not to do this and he explains why her behavior is unwanted. As a result, Sasha continues to butt into her parents' conversations. This is an example of: a) positive punishment b) negative reinforcement c) positive reinforcement d) none of these
c
Stimulation that is painful to the body is as example of a(n) ____________ stimulus. a) neutral b) conditioned c) unconditioned d) environmental
c
The high school swim team coach records the amount of time it takes a Jeremy to start swimming once the whistle has been blown. The coach is recording the ________ of the behavior of swimming. a) duration b) frequency c) latency d) intensity
c
Which of the following is NOT an example of an unconditioned reinforcer? a) food b) water c) lottery winnings d) escaping from extreme heat
c
Types of positive reinforcers
consumable (food/drink) activity (ex. watch TV) manipulative (ex. Play with LEGOs) possessional (ex. sit in favorite chair, have private room, etc.), , and social (ex. pats, hugs, nods, etc.)
Jackson presses the camera shutter on his phone but nothing happens. Unfortunately, the button is broken, but he's not yet aware. He continues to press the button longer and harder, and then eventually gives up. Jackson's behavior of pressing the button longer and harder before giving up is an example of a(an): a) contingency b) establishing operation c) novel behavior d) extinction burst
d
When you turn your car on, an annoying beeping noise begins to remind you to fasten your seatbelt. Once you fasten your seatbelt, the annoying beeping noise ends. The behavior of fastening your seatbelt is an example of a) habituation b) an avoidance behavior c) classical conditioning d) an escape behavior
d
Which of the following influences the effectiveness of reinforcement? a) the amount or magnitude of the reinforcer b) immediacy of the reinforcer c) contingency of the reinforcer d) all of the above
d
Which of the following is NOT an example of a conditioned response? a) a positive emotional response when a man smells his girlfriend's perfume b) startle response in response to the sight of a gun c) fear response (autonomic arousal) when walking down a dark street d) startle response in response to loud noise
d
Which of the following is NOT an example of an unconditioned response? a) an eye blink in response to a puff of air in the eye b) pupil constriction due to bright light in the eye c) salivation in response to food in the mouth d) salivation in response to the sound of a dinner bell
d
Which of the following is an example of a conditioned emotional response? a) fear b) anger c) happiness d) all of these
d
Pavlov (Russian)
founder of classical conditioning while trying to study digestive system
The Principle of Respondent Conditioning
if a neutral stimulus (NS) is followed closely in time by a US that elicits a UR, then the previous NS will also tend to elicit the response of salvation in the future
Resurgence
if an alternative behavior undergoes extinction, the original behavior may reemerge.
Positive Reinforcement
if someone in a given situation does something that is followed immediately by a positive reinforcer, then that person is more likely to do the same thing the next time he or she encounters a similar situation. Example: teacher gives a student a thumbs up for working quietly, that student is more likely to work quietly in the future.
Premack Principle
if the opportunity to engage in a behavior that has a high probability of occurring is made contingent on a behavior that has a low probability of occurring, then the behavior that has a low probability of occurring will increase Ex.: boy spends lots of time on computer but never studies; parents say after each hour of studying, he can have access to the computer for half hour
Reinforcement
increases responses Positive reinforcement increases a response because of the presentation of a positive stimulus immediately after the response Negative reinforcement increases a response by the removal or taking away of a negative or aversive stimulus immediately after the response.
Non-exclusionary timeout
introducing into the situation, immediately following a behavior, a stimulus associated with less reinforcement Ex: child in a classroom who wore a ribbon that was removed for a short time when a child was disruptive; when not wearing the ribbon, the child was not allowed to participate in classroom activities and was ignored by the teacher.
Exclusionary timeout
removing an individual briefly from a reinforcing situation immediately following a behavior Done in a timeout room often - bare of anything that might serve as a reinforcer and may be padded Timeout should be no longer than 4-5 minutes
Instructions:
specific rules or guidelines that indicate that specific behaviors will pay off in particular situations. Speed up learning process for individuals who understand them May influence an individual to work for delayed reinforcement
Unconditioned reflex
stimulus-response relationship in which a stimulus automatically elicit a response apart from any prior learning (hard wired/inborn); consists of a US + UR
Direct-acting effect of the principle of positive reinforcement is
the increased frequency of a response because of its immediate reinforcing consequences
Maintenance Phase:
the phase after which a behavior has been well learned Best to provide intermittent reinforcement during this time
Acquisition Phase:
the phase during which a behavior is being conditioned or learned Best to provide continuous reinforcement during this time
Higher-order conditioning
the procedure in which a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus by being paired with another conditioned stimulus, instead of with an unconditioned stimulus Example: someone is conditioned to salivate during Beethoven's 5th Symphony by pairing it with food; then, over some more trials, a yellow light is turned on right before the music. Even though the light is not paired with food, the light will come to elicit salvation. First order pairing: the pairing of the music with food. Second order pairing: the pairing of light with music. Third order pairing has been reported but appears to be difficult.
Discrimination Training
the process by which we discriminate SD from S Delta
Indirect-acting effect of positive reinforcement
the strengthening of a response that is followed by a reinforcer even though the reinforcer is delayed Delayed reinforcers may have an effect on behavior because of instructions about the behavior leading to the reinforcer, and/or because of self-statements (or "thoughts") that intervene between that behavior and the delayed reinforcer. Implication: If you can't present a reinforcer immediately following the desired behavior, then provide instructions concerning the delay of reinforcement.
History of Behaviorist Tradition
• Emerged in context of industrial revolution, women's suffrage, and movement to use science to alleviate social problems • Rejected ideas such as the unconscious, cognition, and mental states • Resulted in definition of an "American" psychology
Other definitions of behavior
• Behavior is what people do and say • Behaviors can be observed, described, and recorded • Behaviors have an impact on the environment • Behavior is lawful
Culture and Behavior Modification
• How do we consider culture and context in behavior modification? • Behavior modification itself is a cultural construct • How universal are the laws of behavior? • Who decides which behaviors are "good" vs. "bad"? • How do we negotiate cultural differences in behavior? • How does a clinician become aware of cultural differences between themselves and their client?
Negative Punishment
• In negative punishment, a reinforcing stimulus is removed, resulting in a weakening of a behavior. • This stimulus may not be the same as the stimulus that maintained the problem behavior. • Example: Johnny interrupts his parents and the behavior is reinforced by attention. Negative punishment would involve the loss of some other reinforcer such as TV privileges.
Why NOT use Behavior Modification?
• May not be palatable to the client • May not fit the presenting concerns • May not fit the presenting context • May not fit the clinician
differential reinforcement
• Reinforce behaviors that get closer and closer to the target behavior • Do not reinforce early behaviors that have already been acquired • This will slow down the shaping process • Once children learn basic words and phrases (dog, cat, book, thank you...) we don't give them the same praise for those words—we move on to praising more complicated sentence structure and vocabulary
Why use Behavior Modification?
• Universality of laws influencing behavior • Reliable and effective • User friendly • Measurable • Empirically supported
Premack Principle and Punishment
• Using a low-probability behavior to decrease the frequency of a highprobability behavior • Example: Contingent exercise (this is a form of positive punishment) • Each time a boy hit someone in the classroom he was required to stand up and sit down on the floor ten times in a row
From escape behaviors to avoidance behaviors
• We often perform avoidance behaviors after we experience a situation that evokes an escape behavior. This phenomenon is usually operating at some level when people have anxiety disorders. • Example: I had a really bad experience on an airplane one time, so now I just don't fly on airplanes.
