PSY1207

Hess et al. (1995)

Aim: Method: Participants viewed a varied intensity of emotional stimuli and relationship to other participant was either friend or stranger. Smiling was measured using EMG. Additionally self reported emotions and skin conductance was measured. Results: Intensity of smiling is affected by the sociality of the context...but also (more strongly) by funniness of the film. Social context and internal emotion state play a role. BUT these effects only emerge with friends, and not with strangers! Conclusion: Emotion expression influenced by emotion state, social context, and relationship with audience

Calder et al.(2001) (4)

Aim: Results:Results of functional neuroimaging studies investigating i) fearful facial expression processing (green squares) and (ii) conditioned fear (red circles) Conclusion: the amygdala is activated in response to facial expressions of emotion, particularly fear

Ekman et al.(1980) (4)

Aim: To investigate the role of emotion expression. Method: watched a movies (Negative and positive) and were videoed. Then self reported their subjective experience (what emotions and how intense). Coded using the FAC(Facial action coding system) Results: Participant who showed particular smile movement ('action unit 12') reported moore happiness. Participants who showed more 'negative' facial movements reported more negative emotions. People who moved certain facial muscles associated with a certain emotion reported feeling that emotion more.

Elliott et al. (2002) (5)

Bias towards sad targets in depression linked to increased anterior cingulate response

Fu et al. (2004) (5)

Decreases in ventral anterior cingulate responses to increasing intensity sad faces correlated with antidepressant response

Hamman et al. (1999) (5)

Method:In this study, participants viewed positive, negative and neutral scenes whilst having a PET scan to measure regional cerebral blood flow. Recognition memory for the scenes was tested 4 weeks later. Results: Participants showed enhanced memory for the emotional scenes and the degree of enhancement was positively correlated with amygdala blood flow during encoding of the scenes. Conclusion:Enhanced memory for positive & negative (vs neutral) scenes associated with amygdala activity during encoding

Peckham et al. (2010) (5)

Suggests a bias and greater 'lingering' of attention on sad stimuli. (Depression)

Luck and Vogel (1997) (6)

found that participants could detect a change in a display if the display contained 4 or fewer items. Performance suffered when more than 4 items were in the display

Cherry (1953)

"Dichotic" listening Present message A in left ear Present message B in right ear To ensure attention, shadow one message Participants were able to focus only on the message they were shadowing

Gordon (1983) (8)

- High, medium & low frequency words presented. Either mixed (can't predict freq) vs. separate blocks (can) - knowing the frequency in advance helps for high, but not low frequency words: consistent with parallel not serial model.

Webb, Miles and Sheeran. (2012) (5)

A meta-analysis suggested that distracting oneself or reappraising (re-interpreting) an emotion-eliciting situation are the most efficient ways to prevent unwanted emotions. Expressive suppression is not as effective - it increases physiological arousal and fails to change one's feelings

Lawrence et al. (2008) (5)

A number of studies have examined the brain basis of good decision-making in the Iowa Gambling Task and suggest that the prefrontal cortex is important. Greater activation here is associated with better performance on the task (making more 'safe' decisions and winning more money).

Phillips (1974) (6)

A pattern made by randomly filling cells in a square matrix was presented for 1 see and followed, after various intervals, by an identical or similar pattern. Ss responded "same" or "different." Performance was fast and accurate if the interval was short and there was no movement or masking of the pattern during the interval. Performance was slower, less accurate, and highly dependent on pattern complexity if the interval exceeded 100 msec or if there was movement or masking. The results are interpreted as evidence for two distinct classes of visual memory: high-capacity sensory storage which is tied to spatial position and is maskable and brief; and schematic short-term visual memory which is not tied to spatial position, which is protected against masking, and which becomes less effective over the first few seconds but not over the first 600 msec.

Sheline et al. (2001) (4)

Aim: Method: Applied the masked faces paradigm to patients with major depression (n = 11) and matched control subjects (n = 11) during fMRI to compare amygdala activation in response to masked emotional faces before and after antidepressant treatment. Data were analyzed using left and right amygdala a priori regions of interest, in an analysis of variance block analysis and random effects model. Results: Depressed patients had exaggerated left amygdala activation to all faces, greater for fearful faces. Right amygdala did not differ from control subjects. Following treatment, patients had bilateral reduced amygdala activation to masked fearful faces and bilateral reduced amygdala activation to all faces. Control subjects had no differences between the two scanning sessions. Depressed patients show ↑ amygdala responses to negative facial expressions. Antidepressants decrease amygdala response to negative facial expressions Conclusion: Depressed patients have left amygdala hyperarousal, even when processing stimuli outside conscious awareness. Increased amygdala activation normalizes with antidepressant treatment.

Surguladze et al. (2003) (4)

Aim: Method: Asked depressed and healthy participants to identify the emotion faces. Results:Compared with healthy people, depressed patients are less likely to say a mildly happy face is happy i.e. they are less sensitive to positive stimuli. Conclusion: Negative emotional bias in depressed participants.

Bar-Haim et al. (2007) (5)

Aim: Method: Examined the boundary conditions of threat-related attentional biases in anxiety. Results: Overall, the results show that the bias is reliably demonstrated with different experimental paradigms and under a variety of experimental conditions, but that it is only an effect size of d = 0.45. Although processes requiring conscious perception of threat contribute to the bias, a significant bias is also observed with stimuli outside awareness. The bias is of comparable magnitude across different types of anxious populations (individuals with different clinical disorders, high-anxious nonclinical individuals, anxious children and adults) and is not observed in non anxious individuals. Conclusion: Evidence for a bias foor threatening information.(Depression and anxiety)

Ekman (1973) (4)

Aim: Method: Exposed American and Japanese participants to a stress-inducing film. Results:. When they watched the film alone, they all showed similar facial expressions of emotion (disgust, fear, distress). However, when participants watched the films in the presence of a (higher-status) experimenter, the Japanese tended to mask their negative emotions with smiles whereas the Americans continued to express negative emotions. Conclusion: Supports the idea of cultural display rules

Gilboa-Schetman et al. (1999) (5)

Aim: Method: The participant is presented with an array of stimuli, and they must detect a target stimulus within this array as quickly as possible. Selective attention is indexed by the extent to which the stimuli surrounding the target stimulus slow down the speed with which it is detected Results:People have an attentional bias towards threatening stimuli, e.g. detect threatening faces more rapidly than friendly ones in an array of neutral faces. Also people detect a snake among flowers faster than a flower among snakes. Conclusion: If an individual selectively attends to a certain class of stimuli, then it follows that the person will be faster at detecting these stimuli

Swinney (1979) (8)

Aim: The effects of prior semantic context upon lexical access during sentence comprehension were examined Method: Subjects comprehended auditorily presented sentences containing lexical ambiguities and simultaneously performed a lexical decision task upon visually presented letter strings.This effect held even when a strong biasing context was present. When presented four syllables following the ambiguity, only lexical decisions for visual words related to the contextually appropriate meaning of the ambiguity were facilitated (Experiment 2). Arguments are made for autonomy of the lexical access process of a model of semantic context effects is offered.

Ekman et al. (1972) (4)

Aim: To investigate if emotions are cross-cultural Method: Read stories about emotions to tribe members in papanegenie. Then asked them to point to a face which best fit that story. Asked them to make emotional faces as well. People in America asked to match face to scenario as well. Results: both could match up faces of other cultures Conclusion: emotion is cross cultural.

Held and Hein (1963) (6)

Aim: To investigate if movement is necessary to develop normal vision. Method: They harnessed a pair of kittens to a carousel (see the figure). One of the kittens was harnessed but stood on the ground and was able to rotate around by itself, while the other, being placed in the gondola, was only moved passively. As the one kitten walked, both moved in the circle. None of them have received light before the experiment, as they both were reared in darkness from birth. The point of this experiment is that both kittens were made to learn to see the world, receiving the same visual stimulation. The difference was that the one could move actively, the other was moved passively. Results: All active kittens developed a visually guided paw placement response after 63 sessions the latest (most by 33 sessions), none of the passive kittens had. -All active kittens avoided deep end of glass cliff, passive kittens went randomly to deep and shallow side. Conclusion: Self-produced movement and concurrent visual feedback are essential for the development of visually-guided behaviour

Caspi et al. (2003)

Aim: To investigate if the 5HTTPR gene affected the incidence of depression in an individual. Method: The researchers used an opportunity sample from a cohort of participants who were part of another longitudinal study. There were 847 participants of 26 years old and they were split into three groups, depending on the length of the alleles on their 5HTT serotonin-transporter gene. Group 1 - two short alleles Group 2 - one short and one long allele Group 3 - two long alleles Stressful life events occurring after the 21st birthday and before the 26th birthday were assessed using a life-history calendar. Past-year depression was assessed using the Diagnostic Interview Schedule. Results: Participants with two short alleles in the 5HTTPR gene reported more depression symptoms in response to stressful life events than either of the other two groups. Those participants with two long alleles reported fewer depression symptoms. Moreover, childhood maltreatment was predictive of depression in adulthood only in adults with either one or two short alleles. Conclusion: While there is no direct relation between short alleles on the 5HTT gene and depression, there is a relationship between these and incidences of stress and subsequent depression. The long alleles seem to protect against suffering depression as a result of stress. The effects of the gene adaptation are dependent on environmental exposure to stress.(the effect of life events on depression was stronger among people carrying an s allele)

Kunecke et al. (2014) (4)

Aim: To investigate individual differences in emotion perception and its relationship to facial muscle responses - recorded with electromyogram (EMG) - in response to emotional facial expressions. Method: 269 participants completed multiple tasks measuring face and emotion perception. EMG recordings were taken from a subsample (N = 110) in an independent emotion classification task of short videos displaying six emotions. Results: Found a positive correlation between activity in the corrugator (frown) muscle and average emotion classification accuracy in response to angry (r = .322, p<.05) and sad (r = .310, p<.05) faces. The correlation with corr activity in response to happy faces was not significant (r = .096, p = .356). EMG positively coorelated with emotin perception ability and shows gender differences. Conclusion: Provides evidence for the role of facial muscle activation in emotion perception from an individual differences perspective.

Garry & Gerrie (2005) (7) FALSE MEMORIES OF REALISTIC AND EMOTIONALLY SALIENT MATERIAL

Aim: To investigate reconstructive memoryMethod: Photoshop childhood picture of the participant into hot air balloon photos and ask participants to recall the events of 4 childhood picture one of them being the fake photo. Through the course of the week, participants are asked to try to recall the event before they go to bed.Results: By the end of the week 50% of participants believed they had been in a hot air balloon when they actually had not.Conclusion: Photographs help to imagine details that may not be real thus reconstructive memory supported.

Donges et al. (2012) (5)

Aim: To investigate the effects of subliminal emotional faces on subsequent evaluations of a neutral face. Method:Each trial lasted 10 s: 1 sec fixation cross, then prime face for 33 ms followed by a neutral face for 967 ms. Note, unlike in the images above, prime and mask face were of the same person. Participants then rated (for 8s) whether the neutral mask face was positive or negative by pressing one of 6 buttons on a scale from -2.5 to +2.5. They were told that the faces varied slightly in their affective expressions. The affective priming scores were calculated by subtracting mean ratings for neutral faces primed by no faces (baseline condition) from the ratings for neutral faces primed by the other conditions. So a positive score in the happy condition shows that the neutral face was evaluated as more positive following a happy prime.) Results: Suggested that females showed stronger affective priming - the influence of subliminal happy faces on subsequent evaluation of a neutral face. Conclusion: Depicts gender differences in affective priming

Mataix-Cols et al. (2004) (4)

Aim: To investigate the neural correlates of washing, checking, and hoarding symptom dimensions in OCD. Method: Symptom provocation paradigm, functional magnetic resonance imaging, block design, and nonparametric brain mapping analyses. Sixteen patients with OCD (11 inpatients, 5 outpatients) with mixed symptoms and 17 healthy volunteers of both sexes. Intervention All subjects participated in 4 functional magnetic resonance imaging experiments. They were scanned while viewing alternating blocks of emotional (washing-related, checking-related, hoarding-related, or aversive, symptom-unrelated) and neutral pictures, and imagining scenarios related to the content of each picture type.Main Outcome Measure Blood oxygenation level-dependent response. Results: Both patients and control subjects experienced increased subjective anxiety during symptom provocation (patients significantly more so) and activated neural regions previously linked to OCD. Analyses of covariance, controlling for depression, showed a distinct pattern of activation associated with each symptom dimension. Patients demonstrated significantly greater activation than controls in bilateral ventromedial prefrontal regions and right caudate nucleus (washing); putamen/globus pallidus, thalamus, and dorsal cortical areas (checking); left precentral gyrus and right orbitofrontal cortex (hoarding); and left occipitotemporal regions (aversive, symptom-unrelated). These results were further supported by correlation analyses within patients, which showed highly specific positive associations between subjective anxiety, questionnaire scores, and neural response in each experiment. There were no consistently significant differences between patients with (n = 9) and without (n = 7) comorbid diagnoses. Conclusion: The findings suggest that different obsessive-compulsive symptom dimensions are mediated by relatively distinct components of frontostriatothalamic circuits implicated in cognitive and emotion processing. Obsessive-compulsive disorder may be best conceptualized as a spectrum of multiple, potentially overlapping syndromes rather than a unitary nosologic entity.

Fridlund (1991) (4)

Aim: To investigate whether facial expressions are shaped by social context. Method: Participants viewed 'pleasant' video (Cute babies; a puppy playing; sea otters playing; a comedy sketch) Four conditions: 1.Alone 2.Alone but believing that a friend was nearby doing another task 3.Alone but believing that a friend was also watching the same tape 4. Watching the tape with a friend Smiling was measured using EMG Results: Smiling increased as settings became more 'social' ... But not as a function of self-reported emotion. Conclusion: •Argues that facial expressions communicate motives, rather than emotion states

Hariri, A.R. et al. (2005) (4)

Aim: To investigate whether our amygdala response to pictures which signal threat is influenced by our genes. Method: Results:People carrying the short form (S) of an allele involved in the regulation of the serotonin transporter (the 5-HTTLPR) showed a greater amygdala response to negative emotional faces (fear and anger) compared to those carrying the long form (L/L). that individuals with one or two copies of the short allele of the serotonin transporter (5-HTT) promoter polymorphism, which has been associated with reduced 5-HTT expression and function and increased fear and anxiety-related behaviors, exhibit greater amygdala neuronal activity, as assessed by BOLD functional magnetic resonance imaging, in response to fearful stimuli compared with individuals homozygous for the long allele. Conclusion:This S-allele results in altered transcription and reduced serotonin transporter availability, which is thought to make it less less effective at mopping up serotonin so more is present in the synaptic cleft, increasing activation of regions like the amygdala (as seen here). A meta-analysis of 14 studies in 2008 suggested "that this locus may account for up to 10% of phenotypic variance" (Munafo et al., 2008). These results demonstrate genetically driven variation in the response of brain regions underlying human emotional behavior and suggest that differential excitability of the amygdala to emotional stimuli may contribute to the increased fear and anxiety typically associated with the short SLC6A4 allele.

Schachter and Singer (1962) (4)

Aim: To test the two-factory theory of emotion. Method: Participants were told they were being injected with a new drug called "Suproxin" to test their eyesight. The participants were actually injected with epinephrine (which causes respiration, an increase in blood pressure and heart rate) or a placebo. There were four conditions that participants were randomly placed in: epinephrine informed, epinephrine ignorant, epinephrine misinformed and a control group. The epinephrine informed group was told they may feel side effects including that their hands would start to shake, their heart will start to pound, and their face may get warm and flushed. This condition was not expected to use cues to explain their physiological change. In the epinephrine ignorant group, the experimenters did not explain to the subjects what symptoms they might feel. This group was expected to use cues to explain their physiological change. The epinephrine misinformed group was told that they would probably feel their feet go numb, and have an itching sensation over parts of their body, and a slight headache. This group was expected to use cues around them for their physiological change. The control group was injected with a placebo and was given no side effects to expect. This group was used as a control because they were not experiencing a physiological change and have no emotion to label. After the injection, a confederate interacted with the students, who was either acting euphoric or angry. The experimenters watched through a one way mirror and rated the participants' state on a three category scale. The participants were then given a questionnaire and their heart rate was checked. Results:found that the impact of the confederate was different for the participants in the different conditions. From high to low euphoria their ranking was as follows: epinephrine misinformed, epinephrine ignorant, placebo, epinephrine informed. In the anger condition the ranking was: epinephrine ignorant, placebo, epinephrine informed. Both results show that those participants who had no explanation of why their body felt as it did, were more susceptible to the confederate. These findings are considered to support the researchers' hypotheses. Conclusion: Emotion is a function of both cognitive factors (appraisal) and physiological arousal "people search the immediate environment for emotionally relevant cues to label and interpret unexplained physiological arousal"

Siege et al. (2002) (5)

Aim: To try to understand why people with depression have poorer emotion regulation in response to negative stimuli, such as words. Method: Participants with depression viewed a word, then performed a working memory task. Results: Patients with depression showed a sustained amygdala response to the negative word that persisted through the working memory portion of each trial. Whilst healthy controls showed an increase in DLPFC activation during the memory task, and an associated reduction in amygdala response, patients with depression did not show this "switching off" effect during the working memory (distraction) part of the trial.

Lawerence et al. (2017) (5)

Aim: Training attention and responses AWAY from unhealthy and TOWARDS healthy foods Results: Intervention versus control participants showed significantly reduced brain reward and attention region response to high-calorie food images, reduced monetary valuation of high-calorie foods, and greater body fat loss over a 4-week period.

Lytel (2015) Development trajectories

Aim: to investigate brain development Method: a longitudinal brain imaging study was carried out Results: by the age of two, cortical thickness (CT) is on average 97% of adult values compared with surface are(SA) which was only 69% Conclusion: if you would like to do something to influence cortical thickness, it should preferably be done before the age of 2

Shu-Chen et al (2004) Inverted U-shape example

Aim: to investigate life course trajectory of intelligence. Method: Results: intelligence tends to peak in 20s and then goes down from there again. Conclusion:

Bartlett's (1932) (7)

Aim:Method: Participants were told a Native American legend called 'The war of the ghosts'. The participants were British; for the them the story was filled with unknown names and concepts, and the manner in which the story was developed was also foreign to them. The story was therefore ideal to study how memory was reconstructed based on schema processing.Results: He found that participants changed the story as they tried to remember it- a process called distortion. he found that these patterns of distortion took place:1. Assimilation: Details of the story were unconsciously changed to fit the norms of British culture. Words such as "Canoe" became boat. 2. Leveling: The story became shorter; often by not including elements which weren't as important or by missing out supernatural elements of the story.3. Sharpening: Changed the order in which the story was told to make it fit a structure which they were used to.Conclusion: The study helps to provide empirical evidence for schema theory. We interpret what we see and hear via learned "schemas" [schemata], or "scripts" -- knowledge of typical patterns or event sequences. •When we try to remember, we recover only fragmentary associations, from which we reconstruct the event/fact, filling in the gaps using »general knowledge schemas (in semantic memory) -E.g. a restaurant meal —> a waiter (as part of the "script") »fragments remembered from other episodic sources.

Ramirez & Beilock (2011)

Aim:tested whether reducing/eliminating worrying could decrease the freezing under pressure effect Method:2 groups of participants took a pre-test and post-test of high pressure maths problems; control group sat quietly for 10 mins between tests, expressive writing group asked to write about their feelings re. math test Results: similar performance pre-test, but more accurate performance in writing group post-test Conclusion: writing about worries before a test could free up WM resources needed for test(stress and working memory)

Pessoa et al. (2002) (5)

Amygdala lesions abolish bias for emotional words

Jared and Seidenberg (1991) (8)

Are words read visually (by means of a direct mapping from orthography to semantics) or phonologically (by mapping from orthography to phonology to semantics)? In contrast to previous models, the present model uses an architecture in which meanings are jointly determined by the 2 components, with the division of labor between them affected by the nature of the mappings between codes. The model is consistent with a variety of behavioral phenomena, including the results of studies of homophones and pseudohomophones thought to support other theories, and illustrates how efficient processing can be achieved using multiple simultaneous constraints. •It turns out to depend on how familiar the word is. •So if both the test word (HAIR in the example) and its homophone (HARE) are of high frequency, the homophone effect disappears »High frequency words don't produce much of a homophone effectLow frequency words do. •Conclusion: If repeated experience has established a strong O->S mapping (i.e. for a high frequency word), spelling activates meaning quickly enough for semantic decision (or comprehension) before indirect activation of meaning via pronunciation. If not (i.e. for low frequency words), phonological mediation contributes.

Hakamata et al. (2010) (5)

Attentional bias modification: Patients with anxiety and depression are trained to attend away from negative stimuli. This can lead to a reduction in symptoms.

Mayer and Rahmann (2018) (6)

Attentional blink paradigm where the second stimulus is difficult to process; Greek and Russian ppts were better at discriminating the light from the dark blue stimulus (no difference for green) than German ppts who performed the same for blue and green stimuli; light and dark blue have different words in Greek and Russian; native language influences our perception

Baddeley and hitch (1977) (7)

Baddeley and Hitch (1977) examined rugby union players who had played every match in the season and players who had missed some games due to injury. The players were asked to recall the names of the teams they had played against earlier in the season. Baddeley and Hitch found that players who had played the most games forgot proportionately more games than those who had played fewer games due to injury. These results support the idea of retroactive inference, as the learning of new information (new team names) interfered with the memory of old information (earlier team names). if you control for time, the number of games played during the interval is a significant predictor of forgetting. In general, there is ample evidence that retrieval failure is increased by interference from similar material

Sharot et al. (2007) (5)

Biological support for flashbulb memories. Activation of the amygdala was measured using fMRI imaging in participants who recalled memories of 9/11 attacks in Sep 2001, which they had witnessed. The measurements were taken years after the actual events, but amygdala activation was still seen. This suggests that the amygdala is involved in the formation of flashbulb memories (localized function).

Bechara and Damasio (2002) (5)

Different groups show impaired decision-making over the course of the Iowa gambling task. Patients with ventromedial frontal lobe lesions are particularly impaired and people with substance use disorders also fail to show the adaptive learning pattern.

Strayer, Drews, & Crouch (2006) (9)

Driver in simulator: follows pacer car in slow lane of interstate (motorway) for 15 minutes, tries to maintain distance, pacer car brakes occasionally Baseline vs Alcohol (80 mg/100 ml) vs Casual talk on hand-held or hands-free mobile (call initiated before and terminated after measured driving) • Mobile phone users: slower reactions, more tail-end collisions, slower recovery • Alcohol: More aggressive driving (closer following, harder braking) • • No sig difference between effects of talking on hand-held and hands-free!

Ostry, Moray & Marks (1976) (9)

Eight college students in Exp I detected letters in streams of digits under conditions of divided or selective attention for a period of 10 hrs. There were marked practice effects both on the detectability of targets and on the response criteria used by observers. The detectability of targets and the response criteria were both strongly dependent on events in the contralateral channel. The same effects were observed in Exp II with 6 students in which the task was to detect animal names in streams of nouns. The data are similar to those obtained in recent experiments using pure tones, so that a unified theory of attention should be possible, valid alike for semantic and non semantic messages. Such a theory is outlined.

Morris et al. (1998) (5)

Emotional stimulus cause increased functional connectivity (syncronised activity) between amygdala and visual cortex

O'Connor, Fukui, Pinsk, Kastner (2002) (9)

Examined the attentional response modulation in the human lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN). Functional MRI data of the LGN and visual cortex were collected as 4 individuals (aged 22-38 yrs) attended to, ignored, or anticipated the onset of flickering checkerboard stimuli. Results show evidence for attentional response modulation in the LGN. Selective attention modulated neural activity in the LGN by enhancing neural responses to attended stimuli, attenuating those to ignored stimuli, and increasing baseline activity in the absence of visual stimulation. It is concluded that the LGN may be the initial stage in the processing of visual information that is modulated by attentional signals, and that attention effects are not confined to cortical processing. The LGN may serve as a gatekeeper in attentional gain control.

Crombag, Wagenaar, Van Koppen (1996) (7)

Examined whether it was relatively easy to make adults believe that they had witnessed something they had not seen themselves but only heard reports about from others, and to make them report about particular details of the event. In Study 1, 97 male and 96 female students and educational personnel were asked whether they saw a TV film of the crashing of an El Al Boeing 747 on apartment buildings in Amsterdam and how long it took for the fire to start after the crash. In Study 2, 35 male and 58 female law students were asked about a number of visual details of the crash. 55% of Ss in Study 1 and 66% of Ss in Study 2 confirmed that they had seen the crash on the TV, although no TV film exists. Women were more vulnerable to this effect than men.

Armstrong and Olatunii (2012) (5)

Eye-tracking suggests increased vigilance for threat and slower disengagement(anxiety)

Bechara et al (1994) (5)

Following damage to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, humans develop a defect in real-life decision-making, which contrasts with otherwise normal intellectual functions. Here, using a novel task which simulates real-life decision-making(IOWA GAMBLING TASK) in the way it factors uncertainty of premises and outcomes, as well as reward and punishment, we find that prefrontal patients, unlike controls, are oblivious to the future consequences of their actions, and seem to be guided by immediate prospects only. This finding offers, for the first time, the possibility of detecting these patients' elusive impairment in the laboratory, measuring it, and investigating its possible causes.

Fukui et al. (2005) (5)

However, the critical neural circuitry involved in this complex task has not yet been fully clarified even in healthy subjects. Using a 3-T scanner, we performed an event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging study in 14 healthy subjects performing the task. The statistical parametric mapping showed that the risk anticipation component (risky decisions minus safe decisions) exclusively activated the medial frontal gyrus. Furthermore, we found a significant interindividual correlation between the task performance and the magnitude of brain activity during risky decisions. These results indicate that the Iowa Gambling Task does recruit the neural circuitry that is critical in decision making under uncertainty, particularly when subjects perceive the risk of their decision.

Etkin et al. (2011) (5)

In this review, we examine a wealth of recent research on negative emotions in animals and humans, using the example of fear or anxiety, and conclude that, contrary to the traditional dichotomy, both subdivisions make key contributions to emotional processing. Specifically, dorsal-caudal regions of the ACC and mPFC are involved in appraisal and expression of negative emotion, whereas ventral-rostral portions of the ACC and mPFC have a regulatory role with respect to limbic regions involved in generating emotional responses. Moreover, this new framework is broadly consistent with emerging data on other negative and positive emotions.

Lackner and Garrett (1972) (9)

Interpretation of lexically ambiguous words in attended message influenced by meaning of words in unattended message

Eich, Weingartner, Stillman & Gillin (1975) (7)

It is concluded that the accessibility of retrieval cues which provide access to higher-order memory units which have been encoded in the dissociated state depends on restoration of that state at the time of attempted recall.

Strayer (2015) (9)

Method: Across three studies, participants completed eight in-vehicle tasks commonly performed by the driver of an automobile. Primary, secondary, subjective, and physiological measures were collected and integrated into a cognitive distraction scale. Results: In-vehicle activities, such as listening to the radio or an audio book, were associated with a low level of cognitive workload; the conversation activities of talking to a passenger in the vehicle or conversing with a friend on a handheld or hands-free cell phone were associated with a moderate level of cognitive workload; and using a speech-to-text interfaced e-mail system involved a high level of cognitive workload. Conclusion: The research established that there are significant impairments to driving that stem from the diversion of attention from the task of operating a motor vehicle and that the impairments to driving are directly related to the cognitive workload of these in-vehicle activities. Moreover, the adoption of voice-based systems in the vehicle may have unintended consequences that adversely affect traffic safety.

Harmer et al. (2004) (4) (5)

Method: Forty-two healthy male and female volunteers were randomly assigned to 7 days of double-blind intervention with the SSRI citalopram (20 mg/day), the SNRI reboxetine (8 mg/day), or placebo. On the final day, facial expression recognition, emotion-potentiated startle response, and memory for affect-laden words were assessed. Questionnaires monitoring mood, hostility, and anxiety were given before and after treatment. Results: In the facial expression recognition task, citalopram and reboxetine reduced the identification of the negative facial expressions of anger and fear. Citalopram also abolished the increased startle response found in the context of negative affective images. Both antidepressants increased the relative recall of positive (versus negative) emotional material. These changes in emotional processing occurred in the absence of significant differences in ratings of mood and anxiety. However, reboxetine decreased subjective ratings of hostility and elevated energy. Conclusions: Short-term administration of two different antidepressant types had similar effects on emotion-related tasks in healthy volunteers, reducing the processing of negative relative to positive emotional material. Such effects of antidepressants may ameliorate the negative biases in information processing that characterize mood and anxiety disorders. They also suggest a mechanism of action potentially compatible with cognitive theories of anxiety and depression.

Van Dillen et al. (2007) (5)

Method:compared the neural basis of distraction and reappraisal. They examined distraction as one emotion regulation strategy by asking participants to view and rate their mood in response to viewing negative images but "filling up" working memory with a simple or complex arithmetic task in-between. Results: Their results showed that a more demanding cognitive task reduces negative mood. In their fMRI study this appeared to be related to increased DLPFC activation during the complex arithmetic task.

Reicher (1969) (8)

Method:task is to identify a briefly flashed letter Results: Performance better in word condition in spite of control for guessing Conclusion:The data suggested that the 1st stages of information processing are done in parallel, but scanning of the resultant highly processed information is done serially.

Harmer et al. (2006) (4)

Methods: The current study assessed the effects of 7 days administration of the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI), citalopram, on amygdala responses to masked presentations of fearful and happy facial expressions in never-depressed volunteers using blood oxygenation level-dependent (BOLD) functional magnetic resonance imaging. A double-blind, between-groups design was used with volunteers randomized to 20 mg/day citalopram versus placebo. Results: Volunteers receiving citalopram showed decreased amygdala responses to masked presentations of threat compared with those receiving placebo. Citalopram also reduced responses within the hippocampus and medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) specifically during the fear-relevant stimuli. These neural differences were accompanied by decreased recognition of fearful facial expressions assessed after the scan. By contrast, there was no effect of citalopram on the neural or behavioral response to the happy facial expressions. Conclusions: These results suggest a direct effect of serotonin potentiation on amygdala response to threat-relevant stimuli in humans. Such effects may be important in the therapeutic actions of antidepressants in depression and anxiety.

Critical analysis for attentional bias evidence

Mixed evidence for AB in depression - some studies have found evidence of a bias, but others have not. Discrepant findings may be explained by the experimental conditions under which a bias is found. Studies have generally been more successful when using depression relevant stimuli, rather than threat stimuli. Also when stimuli are presented for longer durations - some researchers have interpreted this as evidence that attentional biases in depression operate at later stages of processing - depression might be particularly related to difficulty disengaging attention from negative stimuli. Eye-tracking studies have supported this interpretation - maintained gaze, but no orienting bias.

Bechara et al. (1999) (5)

Participants with damaged ventromedial Pre-Frontal Cortexes took more risks in a gambling task using electronic card decks, despite continuing losses. Participants with no brain damage quickly learned to reduce their losses by choosing less risky ways to play. These differences were also reflected in a Somatic Marker, the skin conductive response (i.e. nervous sweating) that non-damaged participants had when they recognized the riskier play and avoided it.

Warrington and Shallice (1969) (7)

Patient KF had very poor immediate repetition of short sequences of words, but able to learn such sequences if presented slowly.

Adlam, Patterson, Hodges (2009) (7)

Patients with semantic dementia (SD), who have an incontrovertible deficit in semantic memory, are reported to show good day-to-day memory for recent events; but experimental evidence on their anterograde episodic memory/new learning is somewhat sparse and does not always tell a consistent story. We describe the performance of five SD patients, relative to controls, on (a) a range of semantic memory measures that predictably revealed substantial impairment, and (b) a newly designed naturalistic and incidental episodic task, which included information regarding the items and context of the semantic tasks. As a group, the patients' episodic memory for these natural events was good, even after a 24-h delay, although case-by-case analysis revealed some heterogeneity in performance. These findings are discussed with regard to the neural substrate of episodic memory and psychological models of long-term memory.

Levine et al. (1982) (8)

Reading comprehension slow but accurate.But unable to choose which 2 of 4 written words sounded the same, or rhymed. Evidence that phonological mediation is not necessary(a) Effects of damage to phonological route (phonological dyslexia) Van Orden (1987) suggest phonological route exists as well

Frings et al. (2010) (5)

Results: suggest FAST (current trial) & SLOW (previous trial) interference effects. Conclusion:The fast effect is usually interpreted as reflecting fast and automatic allocation of attention to stimuli of high relevance / arousal, whereas the slow effect might result from a general slowdown after the processing of negative stimuli; this general slowdown might indicate a warning system that screens the environment in the presence of possibly threatening information (McKenna & Sharma, 2004).

Critchley HD et al. (2005) (4)

Results:Heart rate for correctly identified sad and angry faces > happy or disgusted faces. Expressions of disgust mis-identified as sadness or anger evoked heart rate changes more typical of sadness and anger than disgust, as predicted by the James-Lange model Conclusion: Facial expressions can be differentiated on the basis of evoked heart rate response. provides support (partially) for James-Lange theory.

Winkielman et al. (2005) (5)

Revealed strong effects of subliminally presented (unconscious) emotional faces on behaviour (consumption, willingness to pay and wanting for more drink), with no effects on subjective mood or on ratings of liking of a drink. This affective priming effect was only present in thirsty participants (i.e. it is dependent on participants being in a relevant motivational state).

Tim Dalgleish (2004) (4)

Review paper depicting emotion throughout history: Two fathers of affective neuroscience: Charles Darwin wrote a book called "The expression of emotion in man and animals" which highlighted that humans express emotions in the same way that animals do (very similar facial expressions) and that there are basic universal emotions. These two contributions had a profound influence on affective neuroscience by promoting animal research to understand emotions in humans and that basic emotions had separate neutral substrates. Around 10 years later, James, in his seminal paper entitled 'What is an Emotion?', controversially proposed that emotions are no more than the experience of sets of bodily changes that occur in response to emotive stimuli. The James-Lange theory has remained influential. Its main contribution is the emphasis it places on the embodiment of emotions, especially the argument that changes in the bodily concomitants of emotions can alter their experienced intensity. Early neuroanatomical theories: The Cannon-Bard theory: The hypothalamus is the brain region that is involved in the emotional response to stimuli and that such responses are inhibited by evolutionarily more recent neocortical regions. Removal of the cortex frees the hypothalamic circuit from top-down control, allowing uncontrolled emotion displays such as sham rage. The Papez circuit: Papez proposed that sensory input into the thalamus diverged into upstream and downstream — the separate streams of 'thought' and 'feeling'. The thought stream was transmitted from the thalamus to the sensory cortices, especially the cingulate region. Through this route, sensations were turned into perceptions, thoughts and memories. MacLean's limbic system: The first part is the evolutionarily ancient reptilian brain (the striatal complex and basal ganglia), which he saw as the seat of primitive emotions such as fear and aggression. The second part is the 'old' mammalian brain (which he originally called the 'visceral brain'), which augments primitive reptilian emotional responses such as fear and also elaborates the social emotions. This brain system includes many of the components of the Papez circuit — the thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus and cingulate cortex — along with important additional structures, in particular the amygdala and the PFC. Finally, the 'new' mammalian brain consists mostly of the neocortex, which interfaces emotion with cognition and exerts top-down control over the emotional responses that are driven by other systems. The amygdala: This line of research established the amygdala as one of the most important brain regions for emotion, with a key role in processing social signals of emotion (particularly involving fear), in emotional conditioning and in the consolidation of emotional memories. The PFC: The PFC has been implicated in emotion in many ways, but there is no consensus as to its exact functions. - The PFC is also associated with reward processing, bodily signals and top-down regulation. The ACC: Contemporary affective neuroscientists view the ACC as a point of integration of visceral, attentional and emotional information that is crucially involved in the regulation of affect and other forms of top-down control. The Hypothalamus: The hypothalamus, therefore, seems to be part of an extensive reward network in the brain, also involving the PFC, amygdala and ventral striatum. How many emotion systems? Single-system models: In its simplest form, this hypothesis emphasized a specialized role of the right hemisphere in all aspects of emotion processing, though more refined views have proposed that hemispheric specialization is restricted to the perception and expression of emotion, rather than its experience. Eg. Papez, Cannon and Bard, Mclean. Dual-system models: Davidson's valence asymmetry model is related to the right-hemisphere hypothesis, with the emphasis, in this case, being on differential contributions of the left and right hemispheres to positive and negative emotions, respectively. Other dual-system theorists, beginning with Schneirla in 1959, have proposed that the emotions can be broken down into approach and withdrawal components, and have used different terminology and proposed different neuroanatomical substrates for each component. Multiple-system models: Other theorists, inspired by the prototypical work of Darwin, have proposed that a small set of discrete emotions are underpinned by relatively separable neural systems in the brain.

Jenkins and Dallenbach (1924) (7)

Sleep prevents interference from occurring thus sleep improves memory for material learned in last few hours

Tulvig et al. (1988) (7)

Some features of K.C.'s retrograde amnesia can be interpreted in terms of the distinction between episodic and semantic memory, and in terms of the distinction between episodic and semantic autobiographical knowledge. K.C.'s semantic knowledge, but not his episodic knowledge, showed progressive improvement, or priming, in the course of the investigation.

Murray and Forster (2004) (8)

The authors argue that models of lexical access that incorporate a frequency-ordered serial comparison or verification procedure provide an account of this effect and predict that the underlying function directly relates access time to the rank order of words in a frequency-ordered set. For both group data and individual data, it is shown that rank provides a better fit to the data than does a function based on log frequency. Extensions to a search model are proposed that account for error rates and latencies and the effect of age of acquisition, which is interpreted as an effect of cumulative frequency.

Lavie (1995) (9)

The early and late selection debate may be resolved if perceptual load of relevant information determines the selective processing of irrelevant information. This hypothesis was tested in 3 studies; all used a variation of the response competition paradigm to measure irrelevant processing when load in the relevant processing was varied. Perceptual load was manipulated by relevant display set size or by different processing requirements for identical displays. These included the requirement to process conjunctions versus isolated features and the requirement to perform simple detection of a character's presence versus difficult identification of its size and position. Distractors' interference was found only under low-load conditions. Because the distractor was usually clearly distinct from the target, it is concluded that physical separation is not a sufficient condition for selective perception; overloading perception is also required. This allows a compromise between early and late selection views and resolves apparent discrepancies in previous work.

Ellis and Sin (1983) (8)

The patient, RD, showed poor speech comprehension but good reading comprehension. His spontaneous speech and his attempts at reading aloud contained many neologisms and some verbal paraphasias.we interpret the neologisms as due to problems with retrieval of the phonological specifications of words from a speech output lexicon, and we present evidence showing that success in lexical retrieval was affected by word frequency and not by any syntactic distinction between content (open-class) and function (closed-class) words. ( his neologisms seem to be based on partial retrieval of phonological information). Evidence that phonological mediation is not necessary. Van Orden (1987) suggest phonological route exists as well

Glisky et al. (1986) (7)

The present paper describes a procedure, the method of vanishing cues, which facilitated the acquisition of computer-related vocabulary in four memory-impaired patients. The method involves the systematic reduction of letter fragments of to-be-learned words across trials. Although learning was slow and strongly dependent on first-letter cues, all patients acquired a substantial amount of the vocabulary and eventually were able to produce the target words in the absence of fragment cues. Further, they retained the vocabulary over a 6-week interval and showed some transfer of the knowledge they had acquired. These findings suggest that memory-impaired patients may eventually be able to use a microcomputer as a prosthetic device.

Adlam et al. (2001) (7)

The results supported the hypothesis in that the patients showed a sharp, though not complete, recall-recognition dissociation, exhibiting impairment on both measures relative to their matched controls, but with a far greater loss in recall than in recognition. Whether their relatively spared recognition ability is due to restriction of their medial temporal lobe damage to the hippocampus or whether it is due instead to their early age at injury is still uncertain.(semantic dementia)

Reder & Anderson (1980) (7)

The thematic relationship enables the learner to form associations between the separate facts using pre-existing knowledge schemas, which provide multiple retrieval paths

Phillips and Christie (1977) (6)

These findings provide evidence that visual memory has two components that are closely analogous to the short-term (STM) and long-term (LTM) components of verbal memory. Visual STM, here called visualization, has a capacity of one pattern, cannot be activated LTM, and does not seem to be the gateway to LTM.

Rensinck, O'Regan and Clark (1997) (6)

These results support the idea that observers never form a complete, detailed representation of their surroundings In addition, the results indicate that attention is required to perceive change, and that in the absence of localized motion signals attention is guided on the basis of high-level interest

Schweizer S et al. (2011, 2012) (5)

This 'brain training' task activates the working-memory network (fronto-parietal regions) & deactivates emotional regions (amygdala, insula). Task performance improves with training. Performance also improves on untrained emotion regulation tasks

Critical analysis for Caspi et al. (2003) (4)

This finding is somewhat controversial as a number of conflicting meta-analytic results have been reported (Karg, Burmeister, Shedden, & Sen, 2011; Risch et al., 2009), although these may have arisen due to methodological differences, e.g. effects observed with objectively measured but not self-reported adverse events (http://bjp.rcpsych.org/content/198/6/424). The gene x environment interaction is unlikely to be as simple as that depicted in the Caspi et al (2003) study. More recently researchers have found that having the s- allele makes individuals more emotionally sensitive in general - this has given rise to the "Orchid hypothesis": If an s-allele carrier is raised in a positive, nurturing environment they will thrive but if in a negative, adverse environment they will be particularly negatively affected. Also, the type of stress may be important - social stressors (but not non-social stressors) interact with 5-HTTLPR variation to predict major depressive disorder onset (Vrshek-Schallhorn et al., 2013). Social stressors may be particularly important for the development of depression. Those with the s-allele but who have strong social support may be protected against the effect of environmental adversity.

Bahrick et al (1975)

This study asked participants to recall students from their high school by name or by face. It found that autobiographical memory is reliable, but recognition is more reliable than free recall of names or faces.

Mitterschifthaler et al. (2008) (5)

This study showed that patients with depression show greater interference from negative emotional words in the emotional stroop task, combined with increased activation in the rostral anterior cingulate (brodmann area 32). This increased activation is positively associated with the level of stroop interference.

Lewis and Anderson (1976) (7)

Two experiments are described in which subjects studied made-up, fantasy facts about well-known persons and then were asked to verify actual facts about these persons. Reaction time to the actual facts was longer the more fantasy propositions studied about a person. Reaction time was also longer when the verification test involved a mixture of actual and fantasy facts rather than just actual facts.

Glanzer and Cunitz (1966)

Used free recall (recalling the to-be remembered items in any order) of a list of 20 items combined with an interference task to show the primacy-recency effect.

Eimer and Holmes (2002) (5)

Using event-related brain potentials (ERPs), we investigated the time course of facial expression processing in human subjects watching photographs of fearful and neutral faces. Upright fearful faces elicited a frontocentral positivity within 120 ms after stimulus presentation, which was followed by a broadly distributed sustained positivity beyond 250 ms post-stimulus. Emotional expression effects were delayed and attenuated when faces were inverted. In contrast, the face-specific N170 component was completely unaffected by facial expression. We conclude that emotional expression analysis (~120 ms) and the structural encoding of faces (~170 ms) are parallel processes. Early emotional ERP modulations may reflect the rapid activation of prefrontal areas involved in the analysis of facial expression. (i.e. at approx. 170 ms the well-known N170 component specifically related to face-processing arises. This is an early face specific ERP component (N170) that has been linked to the pre-categorical structural encoding of faces).

Mangun et al. (1993) (9)

Voluntary attention to a spatial locus modulates early components of the ERP in extra-striate visual cortex

Segall, Campbell and Herskovits (1963) (6)

Western cultures are more susceptible to the Müller-Lyer illusion and the Sander parallelogram illusion compared to cultures from rural Africa and the Philippines. People who live in urban environment which contains more rectangular shapes are more prone to these (mistake lines as depth cues for distance) People in rural areas experience more flat terrain and actual distance

Moray (1959) (9)

cocktail party event. people noticed their own name (about 1/3 of the time) if it was inserted in the unattended message

Ebbinghaus (1885) (7)

created the forgetting curve and serial position effect in memory. Learned many lists of 13 nonsense syllables to criterion(2 correct serial recalls) and then re learned each after a variable interval.

LaBerge (1983) (9)

investigated the spatial extent of attention to visually presented letters and words using a probe technique in 2 studies with 135 undergraduates. The primary task required Ss to categorize (a) 5-letter words, or to categorize the middle letter of (b) 5-letter words or (c) 5-letter nonwords. The probe task required Ss to respond when the "7" appeared in 1 of the 5 letter positions. Probe trials were inserted at the onset of letter and word processing in Exp I and 500 msec after letter and word processing in Exp II. In both experiments, probe trials produced a V-shaped function of RTs across probe positions for the letter-categorization task for word and nonword stimulus conditions. In contrast, a relatively flat RT function was found for the word-categorization tasks. Data suggest that the spotlight width in the letter tasks is 1 letter space and that the spotlight width in the word task is typically 5 spaces.

Phineas Gage (5)

railroad worker who survived a severe brain injury that dramatically changed his personality and behavior; case played a role in the development of the understanding of the localization of brain function. The lasting effects of the accident were in Gage's personality. A previously kind and thoughtful man was now rude and antisocial. "Gage," his friends said, was "no longer Gage." His physician at the time, Dr. Harlow, said in 1868 that "his equilibrium... between his intellectual faculties and animal propensities seems to have been destroyed. He is fitful, irreverent, indulging in the grossest profanity (which was not previously his custom), manifesting but little deference for his fellows, impatient of restraint or advice when it conflicts with his desires." The emotional and social behaviour of Phineas Gage was distinctly and permanently altered due to brain damage.

Wixted (2004) (7)

recently formed memories that have not yet had a chance to consolidate are vulnerable to the interfering force of mental activity and memory formation (even if the interfering activity is not similar to the previously learned material). This account helps to explain why sleep, alcohol, and benzodiazepines all improve memory for a recently learned list, and it is consistent with recent work on the variables that affect the induction and maintenance of long-term potentiation in the hippocampus.

Mayberg et al. (2005) (5)

showed that the very ventral AC (subgenual cingulate, BA 25) was implicated in both transient sadness in healthy controls and depressed mood (increased blood flow in both states). Decreases in blood flow in this region followed a range of successful treatments for depression. Following pioneering experimental surgery on 6 patients with very severe depression, Mayberg et al. found that stimulating the white matter in BA 25 caused dramatic improvements in mood and reversed the abnormal pattern of brain activity (decreased Cg25 and increased Cg24). We still don't really know how deep brain stimulation works or how these findings relate to the fMRI findings presented in the previous slides but there is intriguing overlap in the involvement of the AC in sad mood, negative cognitive bias and depression.

Rayner and Pollatsek (1988) (8)

the resulting data supported the position that phonological codes are activated very early in an eye fixation. Phonological coding is defined as the representation of information about the sound structure of verbal stimuli in memory.

Godden and Baddeley (1975)

»Divers learned word lists either on dry land or under water. »They were tested on land or under water »In between, all subjects moved between environments •As a general rule, information is more easily retrieved if tested in the same context in which it was acquired.

Mandler (1967)

»Groups 1 and 2 sorted words on cards into 2-7 categories of their own devisingGroup 1 were also told to try to learn the words. Group 2 were not. ==> No difference in a later recall test, even though group 1 was specifically ask to learn the words »Group 3, who just placed the cards into columns while trying to learn the list, remembered less than Groups 1 and 2. •MORAL: organising the material is what produces effective acquisition, not effort to learn (by itself).

Sperling (1960)

• Report of whole array poor (3-4 items) • Cued report of single row good (3-4 items); • if cued at display offset: this "partial report superiority" is lost over about ~ 1 sec (with bright pre- and post- field) à image of all the objects briefly outlasting the display ("iconic sensory" memory) • If pre- and post- fields dark, advantage lasts ~5 sec

Loftus & Palmer (1974) (7)

•100 Ss see film of car crash •then answer a series of questions, including "About how fast were the cars going when they smashed into/hit each other?" •Group 1 ("smashed into") Group 2 ("hit")One week later, they answer some more questions, including"Did you see any broken glass?" [There was none.] •Group 1 Group 2 16/50 say "yes" 7/50 say yes (p<.025) •Mis-information implied by the interrogation after the event is incorporated into the subject's reconstruction of the event.

Van Orden (1987) (8)

•Many more false positive errors to lures that sound the same as category members than to visually similar control items [e.g. 19% vs 3%] •Why would we make more mistakes for homophones when classifying by meaning? —> access meaning via phonology found evidence for the indirect-access view, which is the view that word recognition goes through the phonological representation of the word prior to the word's identification. Levine et al. (1982) and Ellis and Sin (1983) suggest non phonological route exists as well

Craik & Tulving (1975)

•showed a series of unrelated words, and gave one of three orienting tasks: »Is it written in upper/lower case? »Does it rhyme with X? »Does it fit into a sentence(e.g. "The man broke his ____") •Later unexpected recognition test—> •MORAL: processing the meaning is better than processing surface form

Garnham (1979) (8)

•tested cued verbatim recall for lists of sentences, e.g. John cooked the chipsFRY was a better retrieval cue than COOK —> We infer automatically and remember what we infer as if it were explicitly stated (even when instructed to remember verbatim)