PSY4930 Exam 3

what is cognitive learning?

(conceptual/symbolic): learning information in a classroom

what is requisition?

Controlled stimulus is associated with uncontrolled stimulus to bring back old fear memory, may only take a few times for old memory to reappear

Aversive associate learning (involves emotion) alters ______ coding in the primary olfactory cortex

odor

Emotion determines _____ object representation

odor

fear learning generates fear memory which is _____

old

in extinction learning there is an _____ and _____ symbol

old; new

______ ______ cortex supports positive and negative olfactory affect

orbital frontal

What is the secondary olfactory cortex?

orbitalfrontal cortex

in OCD the ______ is hyperactive

orbitofrontal cortex

HSF: ____ cells project to ventral visual cortex

p

The hippocampal complex memory consolidation involves the

parahippocampal cortex, perirhinal cortex, entorhinal cortex and the hippocampus

ventral is to _______cellular as dorsal is to ______cellular

parvo; magno

what happens in consolidation/storage?

pay attention: block out destructive information, involves cortex

OFC has a high level of ______ evaluation

perceptual

emotional memory can be enhanced with ______-learning stress: cortisol, retrieval and vividness

post

GABA (benzodiazepines)

potentiates the inhibitory actions of GABA

allostasis in autonomic nervous system and HPA axis will

precieve stress and trigger pyshiological response which starts the allostatic process to turn back to homeostasis

what happens in the sensitive period?

preference period to negative or positive care: salient attention no matter what it is

______ cortex cells mediate fear extinction

prefrontal cortex

the ______ _____ down regulates the amygdala

prefrontal cortex

Same odor will evoke different response in ______ ______ cortex after associative learning

primary olfactory

implicit memory is broken into

procedural (skills), emotional conditioning, priming effect and conditioned reflex

homeostasis

process by which a steady state of equilibrium, or constancy, in the body with respect to physiological functions and chemical compositions of fluids and tissues is maintained

Allostasis

process of adaptation to maintain stability through change -get body back to homeostasis -takes work

erasing fear memory involves

reactivation of fear memory using single conditioned stimulus

Lateral PFC helps with ______

reappraisal

lateral prefrontal cortex

reasoning that dilutes emotional intensity -positive evaluation -detachment -conscious/volitional

each time we retrieve a memory, it is _________; protein synthesis inhibitors can block this process

reconsolidated

Through retrieval, a memory is subject to two fates:

reconsolidation or forgetting/modification

if there is prolonged stress, you will see lack of ______

recovery

What are the 4 major types of relapse?

reinstatement, renewal, spontaneous recovery, requisition

Glutamate is excitatory

release of it will lead to depolarization of postsynaptic cell and open channel to allow positively charges ions to enter cell which causes it to become even more depolarized

memory rehearsal through _____ and _____ contributes to long term memory

repetition and retrieval

the central nucleus creates a ______ ______

response output

during _______, a memory can be susceptible to forgetting

retrieval

Perceptual learning/cortical plasticity can change threat codes to ______ codes

safety

what happens in retrieval

search process

norepineprhine (NE)--beta bocker

secreted mainly in Locus Coeruleus

what is observational learning?

seeing something>> Lateral nucleus is important

what is non associative learning?

sensitization and habituation (desensitization)

the ______ cortex tires to rewire and reorganize it so it represents input from environment

sensory

Fixed is to ______ as Contest is to _____-______

sensory; higher-level

Olfaction is a _____ emotion; emotion is the _____ object

sensory; olfactory

When there is _______, then it should decline overtime because the body has developed a system to deal with stress so it is not always stuck in full action because that would cause a lot of _______ load

adaptation; allostatic

What are the different adrenal gland zones?

adrenal cortex adrenal medulla

hormonal modulation of memory consolidation

adrenal stress hormones modulate consolidation of recently acquired information

The Anterior Cingulate Cortex has a high level of ______ appraisal

affective

what is reinstatement?

after extinction learning the animal is reexposed to the shock in absence of tone, that can still bring back fear memory

The _______ is important in emotion processing in fear perception. Without it, there are impairments in fear perception and the visual facial fuisform area is not activated

amygdala

damage to the _________ would leave factual information intact, impair implicit but explicit still intact

amygdala

the _________ is responsible for acquiring new knowledge but not storing it

amygdala

when threat codes are changed to safety codes, ________ is not activated by sensory cortex

amygdala

which subcortical structures are involved in emotional memory processing?

amygdala and basal ganglia

two systems involved in emotional situtaion

amygdala and hippocampal systems

implicit vs. explicit, _________ vs. __________ (structures)

amygdala vs. hippocampus

in the neural network of emotional regulation, the cortical structures down regulate activities to the ________, _________, and ______

amygdala, brainstem, and insula

social anxiety disorder and specific phobias have hyper-reactivity in which three structures?

amygdala, hippocampus, insula

______ plays a large role in emotion perception

amygdala: projects feedback input: releasing neurotransmitters

PTSD has hyerresponsive _______, and deficiency in the ________ and _______

amygdala; acc and hippocampus

during the sensitive period, ______ is not fully developed and ______ circuit is not well connected

amygdala; fear

retrieval of emotional memory from long term storage depends on the ______ and ______ complex

amygdala; hippocampal

Anxiety heightens ______ reactivity and suppresses ______ inhibition

amygdala; prefrontal cortex

Anxiety

an adaptive, healthy emotional state and response

People with ______ are better able to distinguish fear and disgust

anxiety

______ amplifies fear learning and responses and weakens extinction learning

anxiety

______ shifts sensory encoding and affective processing of a neutral stimuli

anxiety

______ is more relevant than valence

arousal

Learning can change the circuit: strengthens response from _________ cortex to nucleus

auditory

catecholamines modulate _______ system

autonomic

The laterl nucleus projects to three different areas.....

basal nucleus, accessory basal nucleus, medial nucleus

The ________ nucleus and ________ _______ nucleus further process association between learned cue and unconditioned stimulus

basal; accessory basal

What are two important parts of the organization stage of perception?

constructive theory: how we categorize information schemata: organizational structures to make sense of what we have noticed: based on previous experience, knowledge, attitudes to create abstract concepts like prototypes

Emotion perception is influenced by _______. What is an example of this?

context -same face, different perception due to body

contextual fear conditioning vs. cue-specific fear conditioning

contextual: CS--Context (cage or setting) cue-specific: CS--Cue (tone or smell)

exposure therapy

continuous exposure to stimulate resulting in dimished anxiety/fear leading to decrease in escape/avoidance behaviors via negative reinforcement/extinction

Subcortical pathway involves the

controlled stimulus>medial geniculate/posterior intralaminar nucleus>Lateral nucleus>central nucleus to produce response

cortical pathway involves the

controlled stimulus>medial or magnocellular nucleus> auditory cortex> lateral nucleus> central nucleus

A more complex stimulus comes from the ________ pathway

coritcal

P cells are involved in ______ pathway

cortical

During development of fear/preference learning, _____ levels advance or retard the development

cortisone

allostatic load

cost or burden of wear and tear due to repeated cycles of allostasis

extinction during the ______ period can lead to unlearning, wiping out memory in the sensory system

critical

Magnitude of this priming effect _______ as sensitivity for odor detection increased

decreased

emotion regulation

deliberately or automatically attempts to influence which emotions one has, when one has them, and how these emotions are experience or expressed

Long term potenitaion results in ___________ (excitable)

depolarization

what happens in approaching independence?

develop fear and independence -can afford to be rejective and selective

_____ elicits parasympathetic response (ready to faint/play dead)

disgust

insula is important for _____ emotion perception

disgust

damage to the hippocampus can

disrupt contextual fear conditioning

identical smells become ______ after conditioning

distinct

ventral PFC helps to ________ regulate

down

This process involves prefrontal _________ ________ of amygdala output

down regulation

cognitive restructuring

each have a unique cognitive scheme, final product of all experiences and learning

colors are only symbols. _____ is a perceptual object

emotion

proximity can be influenced by _____

emotion

damage to the somatosensory area can compromise...

emotion recognition

_____ induces stress and arousal> epinephrine/NE and corticoid ______> NE in the ________> _______ projects to the neocortex, hippocampus, caudate> modulates memory consolidation

emotion; release; amygdala; amygdala

What is the amygdala involved in?

emotional learning (output to hippocampus)

the subcoritcal structures have been implicated in ________ ________

emotional reactivity

the prefrontal cortex is important in

encoding and retrieval

What are the three stages of memory?

encoding, consolidation and retrieval

What are the stages and mechanisms of long term memory

encoding, consolidation/storage, and retrieval

the adrenal cortex is to _______ system as adrenal medulla is to _______ _____ system

endocrine; autonomic nervous

What happens in Stage 3 of the network that supports high level of fabrication?

entire brain is involved: global ignition: conscious awareness of what you see

which hormones play an important role in memory?

epinephrine/norepinephrine and glucocorticoids

explicit memory is broken into

episodic (biographical events) and semantic (words, ideas, concepts)

unlearning invovles

erasing memory: modification from decomposition helps erase memory, target old memory alone

Types of Long term memory

explicit (declarative) implicit (non declarative)

What is the hippocampus involved in?

explicit learning (knowledge and events)

hippocampal system

explicit memory about emotional situation (contextual memory)

fear memory erasure in human and applications

exposure therapy

______ helps to get rid of the emotion associated with the memory, still remember everything but able to disassociate from emotion

extinction

can experience relapse in ______ learning

extinction

ventromedial prefrontal cortex and orbitofrontal cortex is active in fear _______

extinction

exposure therapy

extinction and desesitization; regulate fear down to baseline

erasing fear during reconsolidation

extinction can "overwrite" or update a fear memory if it occurs within the window following retrieval of the memory

what is spontaneous recovery?

extinction just decreases overtime and old memory takes over

What is the ventromedial prefrontal cortex involved in?

extinction learning (replacing associative learning/conditioning) -learn new rule opposite of associative learning

GABA is in _______ learning and is ______

extinction; inhibitory

_____ elicits more of a sympathetic response (important in fight or flight)

fear

what happens in the transitional or post sensitive period

fear and attachment: show mixture of fear and attachment

circuit of contextual conditioning

fear towards shock but also environment where the shock would occur

_____ enhances early facial processing while _____ suppresses it

fear; disgust

glutamate is in ______ learning and is _______

fear; excitatory

anxiety amplifies ______ learning and response while it weakens ______ learning

fear; extinction

hebbian learning

fire together, wire together -change in the strength of connection as a function of the post and pre synaptic activities

dorsal is to ______ as ventral is to specialized

general

______ helps regulate the endocrine system while _____ helps regulate the autonomic nervous system

glucocoriticoids (cortisol) stress hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine)

________ receptors are main regulators in the HPA axis and have been shown to influence endocrine and behavioral measures of fear in various animal studies

glucocorticoid (GR)

What is the primary olfactory cortex?

Piriform Olfactory Cortex

Types of emotion regulation:

behavioral regulation and cognitive regulation

what happens during encoding?

being actively engaged in process

what are modulatory factors?

belongingness, saliency, biological preparedness, predictability, controllability

______ reflexes to the piriform/amygdala and then to orbital frontal cortex

bulb

Entry of ______ triggers protein synthesis which is critical for long term memory

calcium

can also trigger a behavioral response in which

can do certain things to help situation: like turning away, moving away

what are critical juices in allostasis that trigger steroid receptors that modulate hormone systems?

catecholamine and glucocorticoids

port for fear expression (controlled in brain stem)

central amygdala

the basal nucleus, accessory basal nucleus, medial nucleus project to the _______ _________

central nucleus

what is renewal?

change the context after extinction, put back to context where they acquired the fear memory in the absence of shock or tone, they can still become afraid

Gustation (taste)

chemical substances stimulate taste receptors (taste buds) in the papillae on the tongue examples: sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami (savory)

neuroanatomy of fear learning

circuit is formed by subcortical and cortical pathways

what is associative learning?

classical conditioning or operant conditioning

When scared, a novel/threatening image will appear _______

closer

Odor pleasantnesss (valence) significantly shifted likeability ratings but only for those participants lacking _______ awareness of the smells

conscious

what factors can modulate emotion perception?

consciousness and attention

Through ________, short term memory becomes enduring long term memory

consolidation

the medial temporal region is important in

consolidation

What are the key neurotransmitters for memory?

glutamate and NMDA receptors

What are the three different chemical senses?

gustation, olfaction, flavor

in anxiety the amygdala reactivity is ______ and the prefrontal cortex inbition is ________

heightened; suppressed

Which road carries emotion?

high

cortical is to ______ road as subcortical is to _______ road

high; low

When attention is not available, people with ______ damage can still see increased fusiform response to fearful faces

hippocampal

_______ projects to the basal and accessory basal regions of the amygdala

hippocampus

contextual learning is dependent on the _______

hippocampus

memory

constructed -not a copy or reproduction of past experience -invovles a complex construction that draws in various information

damage to the _________ doesn't show factual information, impair explicit but implicit still intact

hippocampus

which structure is important in contextual conditioning?

hippocampus

Emotion serves _______; _______ drives emotion

homeostasis; homeostasis

Long term depression results in __________ (less excitable)

hyper polarization

What does HPA stand for?

hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis

The ______ is a nodal point in the pathways mediating autonomic, emotional, endocrine and somatic functions

hypothalamus

GR are abundant in what three structures?

hypothalamus, amygdala, and hippocampus

glucocoritcoids and catochlamines provided negative feedback to the ______ and ______ which can cause an increase or decrease of activity

hypothalamus; pituitary gland

if the system is not responsive and body is not turning back, that could indicate problems in ______ system

immune

amygdala system

implicit emotional (fear) memory

the prefrontal cortical structures have been implicated in ______ and _______ emotion regulation

implicit; explicit

______ processing initially involves specialized encoding of individual subtypes to support discrete reflexive operations

Threat

_______ _______ cortex is involved in extinction learning

Ventral Prefrontal cortex

What are the two subsystems?

Visual System and Parallel Visual Pathway

Flavor

a combination of taste and smell with the smell part contributing to the enormous complexity of flavor example: numerous

attention control

a main cognitive bias in an emotional state is attentional bias to the emotional stimuli;

Damage to the vmPFC/OFC will _______ time needed to learn extinction leanring

increase

extinction of learning:

inhibition of fear

Attachement learning

initial emotions -more about attachment and affliction with something

memory alteration

instead of creating new memory, you modify the old memory

what is social learning?

interaction helps you to acquire skills

damage to the Orbital frontal cortex can cause...

interferencing in emotion processing especially threat related

what is learned hopelessness/helplessness?

involves operant conditioning

Negative affect is supported by ______ OFC

lateral

The vmPFC/OFC project to the ______ _____ to suppress associative representation so that the input to the central amygdala

lateral amygdala

_______ ________ is critical for association of shock and tone

lateral amygdala

What is the primary entry point for information?

lateral nucleus

more glutamate is produced after

learning

neurotransmitters modulate ______

learning

Olfactory emotion is not only processed in the _____ system but is also encoded in the _______ cortex

limbic, sensory

Long-Term Potentiation

long-lasting enhancement in signal transmission between neurons resulting from stimulation

What is the sensory cortex involved in?

long-term memory (modality-specific)

During stress hypo responsive period:

low HPA function, low cortisone -maternal care can help reduce stress respone

Step 2

magneisuim is moved out and channgel is open therefore calcium (positively charged) enters post synaptic cell making it more depolarized which in turn increases postsynaptic potential

Can be limited by _____ in NMDA so that the ions can not flow through

magnesium

Positive affect is supported by ______ OFC

medial

emotion modulates _____ at all three stages

memory

reconsolidation

memory is retrieved

anxiety disorders are ________ heritable

moderately

What is step 1?

more action potential and more firing of presynaptic cell> glutamate is released into synapse>binds to receptors and increases inflow of positively charged ions into postsynaptic potential>depolarizes cell

What happens in Stage 2 of the network that supports high level of fabrication?

most structures are involved: networks ignites to more regions -Striate cortex projects forward to fusiform face area and the superior temporal gyrus and Amygdala and orbitofrontal cortex -projects to bottom part of brain, expanded but not fully distributed

what are the process of emotion modulation?

motivational/affective value guides encoding and storage, and shifts memory retrieval

What is the basal ganglia involved in?

motor learning and implicit learning

Brain operates as a _____ network

neural

extinction memory generates fear inhibition learning which is _____

new

Extiction--New learning

not reinforced, repetition will eventually eliminate fear response **extinction learning does not erase associative learning**

________ can affect cortisol diurnal rhythem

obesity

what are the two types of social fear learning?

observational learning and instructed learning

what is observational learning?

observing other experience with a CS and US -watch classmate get rewarded or punished

obsessive compulsive disorder keys symptoms are

obsession (thoughts) and compulsion (behavior)

what are the neuronal mechanisms?

-changes in neural parameters -creation of new synapses -elimination of synapses -changes in the synaptic weights or connection strengths

Drug Therapy targets are

-glutamatergic -serotonin -neuropeptides -norepinephrine -GABA -corticotrophin release factor

cognitive regulatoin

-reappraisal of the meaning of an emotionally provocative stimulus -control of attention (diverting attention away) -perceptual training

Two pathways for hormones to modulate amygdala

1) ANS (sympathetic nervous system)> increase in norepinephrine/epinephrine 2) HPA> increase in cortisol

What factors influence perception?

1) Biological: state of body/brain 2) Social Norm: can change smells 3) Emotion: slope can appear very steep when depressed or tired, visually appear steeper

What are the two types of ganglion cells in the Visual System?

1) Parvocellular: 90% of total population of ganglion cells. Small, color-related, high contrast, slow, dominate in ventral pathway 2) Magnocellular: 5% of total population, Large, motion-related, low contrast, fast, dominate in dorsal and subcortical pathway

What are the Three Stages of Perception?

1) Selection: we don't perceive everything that makes contact with us 2) Organization: to sort stimuli into groups and categories 3) Interpretation: subjective processes of explaining our perceptions in ways that make sense to us. (highly subjective)

What are the four systems of allostatic load?

1) cardiovascular system 2) metabolism 3) brain 4) immune system

cognitive reappraisal has 4 different types

1) down-regualtion: factual but negative 2) self-reference: relate to self 3) up-regulation: more positive perspective of situation 4) self detachment: detaching self from situation

Indirect: Two ways 1) The amygdala influences ______ ______, thereby influencing the visual information projected to the ______ 2) Amygdala influences ______ via projections to the basal forebrain or Prefrontal Cortex

1) eye fixation, retina 2) attention

what are the categories of learning

1) non associative learning 2) associative learning 3) cognitive learning 4) observational learning 5) social learning 6) learned hoplessness/helplessness

what are the four main changes (independently or interactively) in the brain?

1) reduced neuronal excitability 2) atrophy of nerve cells in the hippocampus 3) inhibition of neurogenesis in the hippocampus 4) permanent loss of nerve cells in hippocampus

What are the developmental stages with fear/preference learning

1) sensitive period 2) transitional or post sensitive period 3) approaching independence

What are the two processes that can block stress formal

1) using beta blocker then emotional content is no longer remembered more 2) damage to amygdala

patients with depression secrete excess ______ and _____ during the day. Have ______ increase in baseline

ACTH; cortisol smaller

What follows the Piriform Olfactory Cortex?

Amygdala

______ mediates hormonal effects

Amygdala

_-________ receptor blockade in healthy adults during encoding impairs emotional memory

Beta-Adrenregic

Parallel Visual Pathway: Dorsal vs. Ventral

Dorsal: -"where", (color blind, LSF, M-cell) Ventral: -"what" (color sight, HSF, P-cell)

What is multi stage emotion processing comprised of?

Early: automatic, unconscious/quick and dirty Late: controlled, conscious, elaborated

_________ is inhibitory and when they are activated, they will suppress the response of an area (inhibiting the output of the central nucleus)

GABA

glucocorticoids modulate _____

HPA

High-road vs. low-road

High-road: slow and fine -ventral pathway, color sight, HSF, p-cell: Low-road: quick and dirty -subcortical -goes into amygdala and then visual cortex to inform what actually is -doesn't involve dorsal/ventral separation but rather based on emotion

What are the main brain structures of learning?

Hippocampus, amygdala, ventral medial prefrontal cortex, sensory cortex, basal ganglia

Perception

Information processing rather than signal processing -translates the physical to psychological

_____ processing is characterized by generalized elaborate analysis to facilitate convergent defensive behavior (context-relevant)

Later

_______ ______ cells mediate fear learning

Lateral amygdala

LSF vs. HSF

Low Spactial Frequency: (low contrast, low pixel) -dark and light -Activates m-cell in retina and goes to visual thalamus and then to visual cortex and then to dorsal visual pathway if making movement High Spacital Frequency: (high contrast, high pixel) -fine details -activated p-cells -Thalamus projects to ventral pathway (which allows to see what it is, not much motion but where eyes and tail are at) -sensitive to color

LSF activated ____ cells: fast rely to amygdala and orbitofrontal cortex

M

Glutamate binds with _______ receptors and causes ______ to flow into cell

NMDA; calcium

What factors influence the selection stage of perception?

Saliency, biology, emotion

What happens in Stage 1 of the network that supports high level of fabrication?

Stage 1: two sensory areas -Superior colliculus projects to amygdala (anterior part of temporal lobe) "quick and dirty" -Amygdala projects to regions around it which finally get back to striate cortex which is in the primary visual cortex of the occipital lobe -allows to see if face is expressing a strong emotion or not (danger or not)

______ _______ are subject to influences from odors that escape awareness, whereas the availability of conscious odor information may disrupt such effects

social preferences

neocortex>> hippocampus>>

stores new memories; recalls recent memories

Cortisol is critical in the process of acute ______

stress

chemical imbalances can cause ______

stress

Smell of odor will be reported as _______ for a person with anxiety

stronger

M cells are involved in _______ pathway

subcortical

the ________ (thalamus) pathway is faster

subcortical

Ventral visual pathway ______ early specialized encoding of individual emotions

supports

disgust ______ early visual response seen in HSF but fear _____ it

suppresses; increases

Aversive conditioning can create greater arousal of ________ nervous system after conditioned.

sympathetic

Ventral prefrontal cortex and orbitofrontal cortex

targeting emotional content/evaluation -extinction -reversal -empathizing -implicit/automatic

olfactory system doesn't involve the ______. Instead it has direct bulbar input to _______

thalamus; amygdala

When postsynaptic potential is unbalanced,

the NDMA receptors opens and posivilty charged Magnesium (blocker) ion is moved out into more negative cleft to help balance the charge

fear learning model of anxiety

the conditioning model of anxiety disorders: pathological anxiety develops by way of classical conditioning

How is perception personal?

the process by which we become aware of objects and events in external world -process of making sense of world

behavioral regulation

thought suppression; doesn't work well

role of amygdala and anxiety: assessing _____ input

threat;

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)

tries to break cycle by targeting all 3 aspects -cognitive restructuring -exposure therapy

circadian rhythem will go _____ after stressful event occurs, then the body will compensate and it will ______ till it reaches _______ state: nice responsive curve

up; decline; baseline

What happens in the Triangular test?

used to see if they can discriminate odors: need to single out bottle from other two; emotional conditioning in the positive controlled stimulus pair are distinguishable; but in the negative controlled stimulus the pair of smells are not distinguishable

Heart rate responses tracked odor ______ independently of odor awareness

valance

which cortical structures are involved in emotion processing?

ventromedial prefrontal cortex, Anterior cingulate cortex, Lateral prefrontal cortex

_____________ __________ cortex and the _________ _________ cortex is involved in the inhibition of the circuit

ventromedial prefrontal cortex; orbital frontal

what is instructed learning?

verbal information about aversive qualities >>hippocampus is important

Direct: The amygdala projects feedback input to the ______ ______, releasing ______ to up regulate visual processing.

visual cortex, glutamate

Olfaction (smell)

volatile (airbone) chemical molecules stimulate the olfactory receptors in the epithelium in the nasal cavity example: numerous

critical period

when a memory can become subjective to changes

Stent's Rule

when an axon of cell A repeatedly and persistently fails to excite the postsynaptic cell B while cell B is firing under the influence of other presynaptic axons, metabolic change takes place in one or both cells such that A's efficiency, as one of the cells firing B, is decreased -out of sinc, out of link

What kind of matter is involved in the olfactory tract?

white