PSYC 100 EXAM 2

What are 4 theories why East Asian children consistently and significantly outperform US children in math?

(1) Teaching methods: Asian teachers spent more time lecturing and assign more homework, spend more time in school (2) Valuing Education: Asian parents seem to view education as more central to their children's lives than American parents (cram school, parents more involved, 'if you could have any wish') (3) Expectations: US parents set lower standards for children than East Asian parents (4) Language

What are three problems with keeping the surveys in English and using just bilingual participants?

(1) The participants will have poorer English skills than the translators; data would be meaningless if participants do not have the required language skills to understand what is being asked of them. (2) Participants with good English skills many no be representative of their culture. (3) The language in which one is thinking can greatly affect the ways one is thinking. When people are responding in English, they start thinking in ways that are more characteristic of native English speakers.

Interdependent View of Self

- Individual is a relational entity who is fundamentally connected to, and sustained by, a number of significant relationships - Self is defined by social relationships and roles, and behavior depends on the perceptions of others' thoughts, feelings, and actions - Must organize their own psychological experiences in response to what others are apparently thinking and doing - Individuals are not perceived as separate and distinct entities, but as participants in a larger social unit - Experience of identity is reflexive in that it is contingent on their position relative to others, and their relationship with them Solid ingroup-outgroup boundary

Independent View of Self

- Self-derives its identity from inner attributes - Basis of individual's identity and stable across situations and throughout lifespan - Perceived to be unique, self-contained (arise from individual and not through interactions), significant for regulating behavior, and individual feels obligation to present themselves in a consistent way - Feel much closer to ingroup than outgroup members, but don't view them in fundamentally distinct ways; fluid, permeable boundary between ingroup and outgroup

What is the 5-factor theory of personality? What is evidence for and against the cross-cultural applicability of this model (you do not need to know the results of studies from individual countries, but rather what is the main finding across cultures?)?

5-factor theory of personality: (1) openness to experience, (2) conscientiousness, (3) extraversion, (4) agreeableness, (5) neuroticism. For: It appears to be part of human nature for personality traits to naturally fall into these five distinct clusters. Against: Does it provide sufficient coverage to capture all personality variations worldwide; would we expect the same pattern if questionnaires were developed from trait terms derived from different languages and cultures; majority of samples use WEIRD studies

What is a response bias?

A factor that distorts the accuracy of a person's response to survey questions.

What is a sensitive period? What is are three pieces of evidence for a sensitive period in language acquisition?

A sensitive period is a period of time during development when It is relatively easy to acquire a set of skills. Three pieces of evidence for a sensitive period in language acquisition are: (1) The ability to discriminate different sounds; people are not able to discriminate easily between some phonemes that are not in their own language; young infants can discriminate all the phonemes humans are able to produce (150) (English = 42, No language has more than 70) (2) The brains of bilingual people; one part of their brain is active when they hear their second language and another when they hear their native language BUT those who learned their second language early show activation in the same location; after sensitive period the brain region is no longer as capable of restructuring to accommodate a new language. (3) Children raised with no language input until the age of 15 or so; severely cognitively disabled and very little language capacity

Extremity Bias

A tendency to express agreement in an extreme fashion, choosing one of the endpoints (US Whites more extreme than Asian-Americans) (see moderacy bias for solution) Acquiescence bias:Tendency to agree with most statements (East Asian compared to Westerners); solution is reverse coding

Moderacy Bias

A tendency to express agreement more moderately, choosing the midpoint (US Whites more moderate than African-American and Latin-Americans); eliminate middle options. Standardization (turn each response into a standardized z score) which shows which items participant endorsed the most and the least. Cannot take averages but can look for patterns.

How is infants' physical development affected by cultural practices?

An example would be cultures who put their children to sleep on their backs rather than their stomach, which can delay crawling, rolling over, or learning how to stand.

What is does an fMRI measure? An EEG?

An fMRI measures changes in the brain's blood oxygen levels. Can look at which regions of the brain are most active when people are engaged in a task. An EEG measures brain activity via electrodes placed on the scalp. Identifies brain activity in response to events that vary across culture, and it provides more precise assessment of the time course of brain activity, although it is not as accurate at localizing brain regions as the fMRI.

What is attachment theory and what are the typical findings regarding attachment styles in the US?

Attachment theory proposes that infants and parents are biologically prepared to establish close attachments with each other. Secure attachment: occasionally seek their mother's presence when she is around, and intensify their desire to be close to her after being left alone in an unfamiliar situation (confident and exploratory when she is present) Avoidant attachment: show little distress at their mother's absence and avoid her upon return Anxious-ambivalent attachment: shoe frequent distress when their mother is either present or absent Typical findings in the US:most common is secure attachment (62%), avoidant (23%) and anxious-ambivalent (15%).In Northern Germany, avoidant attachment is ideal - more independent from caregiver.

Why is demonstrating a sensitive period for the acquisition of culture so much harder than for language? What evidence does your author present to show that there may also be a sensitive period for cultural acquisition?

Author studied cultural identification. It is much harder because it is not at all simple to see whether someone has mastered a particular culture; more challenging to identify ways of understanding the world indicating whether one has acquired certain cultural meanings. When people attempt to learn a second culture later in life they preserve an echo of the emotional repertoire of their host culture; seem to have a sensitive period when it's easier to absorb meanings in the social environment, and organize their lives around their meanings.

Types of Parenting Styles

Authoritarian parenting places high demands on children, with strict rules and little open dialogue between parent and child (low levels of warmth or responsiveness by the parent to the child) Authoritative parenting: a child-centered approach in which parents hold high expectations of the maturity of their children, try to understand their children's feelings and teach them how to regulate those feelings, and encourage their children to be independent while maintaining limits and controls on their behavior (parental warmth, responsiveness, and democratic reasoning); Ideal in US Permissive parenting: parents very involved with their children, with much expressed parental warmth and responsiveness, but placing few limits and control on the children's behavior. Neglectful parenting: parents are cold, unresponsive, and indifferent to their children

How do differences in personal space of infants and amount of face-to-face time between infants and mothers shape cultural differences in infants' relationship with their mothers and even their understanding of themselves?

Babies that tend to occupy their own physical space and often have face-to-face contact with mothers: enables them to interact with their mothers as separate beings (as in turn-taking conversations) and their mothers are more responsive to their individual needs. Babies that share same physical space with mothers have less face-to-face contact with their mothers. Some babies have more interactive experiences with their mothers and this affects the rate at which they acquire certain developmental skills. Western parents more likely to mirror infants expressions (children more likely to recognize themselves in the mirror)

What is the difference between a between-groups manipulation and a within-group manipulation? What is the benefit of using within-group manipulations for cross-cultural research?

Between-group manipulation: Researcher randomly assigns IV to participants and compares two groups with varying levels of IV. Groups are the same in every way prior to experimental manipulation. Differences between groups at the end of the study are due to IV, Rules out competing explanations. Can confidently say that any differences in the response of participants to the conditions are due solely to the independent variable and not to other factors. Within-group manipulation: each participant receives more than one level of the IV; no random assignment is necessary because every participant receives all the conditions However, researchers may randomly assign order of conditions and some participants go through Condition A and then B, while others go through Condition B and then A.

What is cognitive dissonance? Why does this concept seem more applicable to folks with independent self-construals?

Cognitive dissonance is the distressing feeling we have when we observe ourselves behaving inconsistently, or against our own sense of self-consistency. One was to rid ourselves of this feeling is to act more consistently. Another strategy is to change our attitude (dissonance reduction). Those who are independent tend to be motivated for consistency across situations

Why can't culture be an independent variable?

Cultural comparisons are not true experiments because culture cannot be manipulated, but rather quasi-experiments; other variables can be manipulated.

Why should we expect cross-cultural variation in attachment styles? What evidence suggests that stranger anxiety is not a universal?

Cross-Cultural Variation: children's earliest experiences, and the relationships they develop with their caregivers, are clearly influenced by the child-rearing practices that are most common in their cultural environments Stranger anxiety is not universal: variability in child-caregiver relationship (example. multiple caregivers), Beng don't show anxiety towards strangers; dependent on the context in which children are socialized.

What is cultural priming? Give an example.

Cultural priming: making certain cultural ideas more accessible to participants Cultures differ in certain ways of thinking, but if we assume differences are a matter of degree, these thoughts can be made accessible even in cultures that may not chronically think in that way. Study demonstrated that thoughts about independent aspects of the self are more characteristic of Americans than Chinese, and thoughts about interdependent aspects of the self are more typical pf Chinese than Americans. People could be led to consider more independent aspects of themselves if thoughts about people's distinctness could be activated in their minds and vis versa.

Measurement Equivalence

Do the measures accurately measure what they are supposed to measure in both cultures? Literal translations do not always mean the same thing (cold turkey); different cultures define constructs differently (such as enmeshed families).

East Asians and Westerners appear to be motivated to be consistent, but in different ways. Explain.

East Asians will rationalize decisions they make for others, which suggests a motivation to have their behavior be consistent with others' expectations. North Americans appear to aspire toward self-consistency.

What are the favorable outcomes to acting consistently and do these seem to differ across cultures?

For Americans, there is a strong positive correlation between consistency and well-being, social skills, and likeability, much weaker for Koreans. Being consistent across situations was associated with higher feelings of authenticity for European Americans but not for East Asians.

What is methodological equivalence? Give an example of methodological inequivalence.

Having one's methods perceived the same way in different cultures' methods should measure the same phenomenon across cultures. Trade off: experimental control (cannot be exactly the same) for comparable meaning. For researchers to make meaningful comparisons across cultures, participants must understand the questions or situations the same way, and this is referred to as methodological equivalence. Variety of statistical techniques are applied to survey data to ensure it. Ex was Greenfield applying survey methodology to Zinacantecan women: they expected that the interaction with Greenfield would follow social norms in that when you answer a question, the questioner doesn't ignore your answer and go ahead and ask another question that sounds almost the same as before. Made them angry.

Sampling Equivalence

How were samples selected? Are the samples representing the same segment of the population from each country? (Compare college students from Bangladesh and Germany)

What does unpackaging mean? What does it tell us and what doesn't it tell us?

Identifying underlying variables that create cultural differences. Helps to reveal specific experiences related to cultural differences and shows what is at least partially responsible for the observed cultural difference. Correlation does not equal causation. Unpacking does not necessarily mean we have identified all the variables behind cultural difference.

Given that people differ greatly within cultures, what does it mean when we say that a culture is individualistic (or collectivistic)?

On average, people in that culture are exposed to more cultural messages that encourage them to think independently.

Why does the context in which participants fill out surveys matter more than researchers previously thought, particularly when comparing across cultures? How does this relate to the construct of independent vs interdependent self-construals?

In a study, Americans did not answer differently based on the conditions in which they answered the Twenty-Statement test (alone, in a room with a professor, next to a student, in a large group), but the Japanese had varied response. They were much less self-critical when they were by themselves that when they were with others, especially the professor.

How do incremental and entity theories of the self differ? What cultural differences do we see in the tendency to hold each of these theories and why does that seem to be the case? How do these theories influence 1) how individuals respond in the face of failure and 2) the construction of college entrance exams in Japan & US?

Incremental theory of self: the belief that we can easily change, and are expected to change Entity theory of self: aspects of the self are resistant to change North Americans are less likely to hold an incremental view than people from some Asian cultures; if your elf varies from situation to situation, your probably wouldn't have an entity theory of self. When people with an entity theory about intelligence encounter a failure, they are more likely to blame their intellectual ability. People with an incremental theory respond by focusing on their efforts and the strategies they used. In America, the SAT is designed to measure innate aptitudes and not study habits, which is unlike that in Japan where testing is made to reflect students' mastery of a large amount of material. In US, IQ tests determine academic placement in grade school, and in Japan IQ tests not given in school (teachers do not discuss different abilities of students).

What different moral values seemed to underlie the different decisions regarding sleeping arrangements of the 7 person family between the US Americans and Indians? Which moral value was the same across cultures?

Indians: four moral principles were incest avoidance, protection of the vulnerable, female chastity anxiety, and respect for hierarchy. US Americans: incest avoidance, sacred couple, and autonomy ideal (young children who are needy and vulnerable should sleep alone to learn self-reliance). The moral value that was the same across culture was incest avoidance.

How do independent and interdependent self-concepts relate to ingroup and outgroup relations?

Interdependent: ingroup relationships serve to direct appropriate behaviors, and people have several obligations toward these relationships. Serious role and not easy to get in, but hard to fall into the outgroup category. Boundaries are stable. Independent: new relationships formed, and old ones dissolved without much impact on identity; more willing to form new connections, maintain larger networks, and less distressed when relationships fade over time. Ingroup-outgroup boundary is not as important to self-construction for independent people, and so It is fluid and permeable.

Why does the presence of a mirror impact US Americans's self-evaluations more than Japanese's self-evaluations? Why are US Americans' self-evaluations more similar to those of Japanese when looking in a mirror?

Japanese are already in a state of objective awareness. When Americans are considering themselves as an object, like a mirror image, they appear to be having ideas about the self that are similar to those of the Japanese, with or without a mirror.

What should be the initial step in studying people from another culture and what are three ways one could go about accomplishing this?

Learning about cultures under study. Simplest is to read existing texts and ethnographies. Another approach is to find a collaborator from the culture you are studying who is interested in pursuing the same research with you. Immersing yourself in another culture, and learning it firsthand, is an effective strategy (although it is time consuming and costly).

Which is more common: cultures high in individualism or cultures high in collectivism? Why does this challenge the generalizability of psychological theories, even within in the US?

Most people participate in collectivistic cultures where interdependent selves are more common; 80% of the world's population. There are even pockets of collectivism in the United States, the largest being Hawaii.

What are the linguistic and cultural explanations for US & Canadian children's noun bias in vocabulary expansion and the lack of noun bias among East Asian children? How do different communications styles used by Chinese and US/ Canadian mothers teach children different values about themselves and their relation to others?

Noun bias: children's tendency to think more about, and in terms of, nouns relative to verbs and other relation words (not universal - little evidence exists for I in cultural groups besides North America) In English syntax, nouns tend to come in noticeable locations; whereas in some East Asian languages place verbs at the end (can be dropped when the context is clear and the verbs remain the most important part of the sentence). Cross-culturally, young children learn to communicate about objects differently. Westerners tend to perceive the world analytically, seeing objects as discrete and separate, whereas East Asians are inclined to perceive the world holistically, emphasizing the relationship between objects.

What are one benefit and two costs to cross-cultural studies that compare university students of 2 industrialized countries? Be sure to explain these costs (or drawbacks) with sufficient detail to ensure you understand the issue.

One benefit of comparing students from industrialized countries: Lends itself to making meaningful comparisons, as students the world over tend to be familiar with many of the kinds of procedures used in psychological studies, and they're generally an easily accessible sample for university researchers. Two costs to comparing students from industrialized countries: Significant problem with generalizability. There is also a problem with the study's power - its capacity to detect an effect to the extent that such an effect really exists (culture is IV). Students from industrialized societies share many similar experiences, so a failure to find cultural differences in a phenomenon between such populations does no necessarily mean the phenomenon is not influenced by culture; it could instead mean there isn't a powerful enough contrast to be able to detect the influences of culture.

Reference-group effects

One's response to questions depend on the group that one is using for reference; solution is to create objective, concrete measures (specific scenarios, quantitative responses, behavior, and psychological measures. EX Behavioral measures (accuracy of clock in bank, time it takes to walk a certain distance on a crowded block, how long it takes to by a stamp in a post office.

What is special about the conclusions one can draw from the experimental method and what aspect of the experimental method allows these conclusions to be drawn?

Only research method that provides evidence of causality. An experiment involves the manipulation of an independent variable and measurement of the influence the manipulation has on a dependent variable. All other extraneous influences can be held constant. Changes our between-culture comparison from one of comparing the magnitude of means across cultures to one of comparing the pattern of means across cultures.

How does social class seem to be related to independent vs interdependent self-concept?

People from higher socioeconomic backgrounds generally have more independent selves than those from poorer backgrounds within the same country.

How do these different self-concepts relate to individualism and collectivism?

People in individualistic cultures are more likely to engage in thoughts and behaviors that foster their own independence, and hey come to feel distinct from others and emphasize the importance of being self-sufficient. People in a collectivistic culture are more likely to engage in thoughts and behaviors that foster the interdependent aspects of their elf-concept (children co-sleep with parents, education decided by family, marriage arranged by parents, etc..).

Social desirable responding

People who strongly show this bias are motivated to be evaluated positively by others, and as a result they might disguise their true feelings to appear more socially acceptable. One way of addressing this particular response bias is to design studies that assess the construct of interest without having people directly report on it.

Why is there thought to be more 'storm and stress' among adolescents in individualistic and modern societies?

Sheer range of opportunities that confront adolescents as countries industrialize and become more urbanized. The more individualistic a culture, the slower people are to take on adult roles. Increases stress and confusion.

How does agricultural practices of the past seem to relate to cultural differences in gender norms today and why? [please remember that this a theory and data is correlational, meaning there are other explanations for this phenomenon, for example, were there distinguishing characteristics of these societies that influenced the choice or even the possibility of various agricultural practices?]

Shifting cultivation: women do most of the agricultural work (can also watch children while working) Plow cultivation: men do most of the agricultural work because controlling the plow requires muscular strength and quick bursts of energy; women could not watch children if doing this work. In societies where plowing was more common women do not participate much at all in the labor sphere and instead focused almost exclusively on domestic matters; tends o preserve some of the gender norms even when country moves out of agricultural and into industrial work.

What two kinds of analyses are possible with situation sampling and what do each of these analyses tell us?

Situation sampling (two step method): differences are the result of culture shaping us by providing us with situations in our culture. Culture does not affect us abstractly, but in particular, concrete ways. (1) Participants from each culture generate a list of situations during which they experience some psychological phenomenon (2) Another group of participants assesses a list of situations generated by both cultures in Step 1

People do not have unidimensional independent or interdependent self-construals but differ in the proportion of time they think of themselves in these ways. What seems to influence those proportions?

Situations that people encounter every day, in which there are situations that highlight independent aspects of self, or interdependent aspects of self (in collectivistic cultural contexts). Cultures are highly variable and have a great variety of people.

How do Baumrind's tripartite typology seem bound in Western understandings of development and inadequate to capture cross-cultural parenting differences?

Strict parenting styles are common in non-Western cultures, and certain elements of various non-Western cultures' dominant parenting styles are inconsistent with the authoritarian category. Stricter based on age; the way warmth and responsiveness are communicated by parents varies considerably across cultures, and what might look like cold behavior in one culture is not perceived as cold in another.

How does strict parenting seem to be associated with different outcomes cross-culturally? How are the child's experiences similar across cultures?

Strong parental control has been associated with increased family cohesion, perceived parental warmth and acceptance, and better academic achievement in China, Japan, and Korea. Meanwhile in various Western countries strong parental control is associated with fewer positive outcomes. Whether strict and controlling parenting will yield desirable results overall depends on the values a culture prioritizes. Similarities across culture: children are less happy with strongly controlling parents

In what way does formal education shape how you think?

Structured education leads people to cluster information as they learn, improves perceptual skills for analyzing two-dimensional patterns, and it teaches how to reflect on the ways information is organized (such as categorizing). Education facilitates abstract logical reasoning. Grouping done by relationships (nonformal education) and attributions (formal education) Individuals without formal schooling unwilling to go beyond what they knew from personal experience (concrete concepts); unable to reason with abstract concepts Each year of school increased IQ by 1-5 points; makes it difficult to compare those with and without formal schooling (comparison of Bolivian villages with and without formal schools with Raven's Progressive Matrices- those with schools had 75% and without 31% scored correctly) What we learn and how we learn are shaped by culture's values.

What is the difference between subjective and objective self-awareness? What cultural differences might we expect in terms of self-awareness and why would this be the case? Does research on cultural differences in memories support this?

Subjective self-awareness: Consider ourself from the inside out with the perspective of the subject (the "I" that observes and interacts with the world); concerns are with the outside world, and we are largely unaware of ourself. (Americans) Objective self-awareness: Consider ourselves from the outside in, looking at ourselves objectively (the "me" that is observed and interacted with by others); conscious of how we are being seen and evaluated by others. (Chinese) Cultural differences in self-awareness: (1) consider how people would think about themselves if they were adopting an object, outside-in perspective as opposed to a subjective, inside-out perspective; if someone is trying to meet with expectations of others her thoughts about herself would be guided by how others perceive her. Cultural differences in memories: Asian Canadians revealed significantly more third-person imagery in their memories of being at the center of attention than did the European Canadians across a variety of situations. Asian Canadians are much more in the habit of considering the perspective of others.

Deprivation effects

Tendency for people (or cultures) to value what they want, not what they have (EX Americans value humility more than Chinese; Chinese value choosing one's own goals more that Americans); There is no clear solution for this bias except to interpret results with caution.

What core part of Chinese parenting seems to be left out of Baumrind's typology?

The core part of Chinese parenting that is left out is training, making sure that children adhere to socially desired behaviors as well as devotion and sacrifice on the part of the parents. Also, permissive until school age.

Why are cultural messages relevant to cultural psychologists? What kinds of cultural messages have been used for cross-cultural investigations? What steps are involved in analyzing cultural messages? What safeguards can be used when coding data to prevent bias?

The goal of much research in cultural psychology is to assess how cultures influence thinking, and the most common approach is to measure people's thoughts to see the effects of culture. Must first understand what the cultures are like in the first place and have a reliable way to measure them. Steps for studying cultural messages: 1. Focus on an identifiable and quantifiable subset (laws, magazine advertisements, web pages, children's stories, lyrics, ect) 2. Develop specific hypothesis 3. Code the data: Transform messages into quantifiable data to test the hypothesis Coders are kept blind o the hypotheses of the study so they'll provide more objective assessments, and multiple coders are employed to ensure reliability before results are analyzed.

What are the two main goals of cross-cultural research?

The goals of many studies is either to demonstrate cultural similarities in the way people think (thereby reflecting universal psychological tendencies), or to demonstrate cultural differences (Thereby reflecting culturally shaped psychological tendencies). Many studies are designed with the specific purpose of understanding how people's various experiences in their cultures resulted in the different ways they think.

Equivalence VS Power

The more different two cultures are, the more power you have to detect cultural differences. However, the more different two cultures are, the more likely you are to have problems with equivalence

Why should we expect cultural differences to become more pronounced with age? Does the research appear to support this hypothesis?

The more pronounced cultural differences should emerge for adults because their minds have had much more time to be shaped by cultural experiences. Yes; children ages 7, 9, and 11 from China and Canadia.7 year olds responded similarly about predicting a future state, 9 year olds more likely to expect a trend reversal, which became slightly more pronounced in 11 year olds

What is the most common strategy for selecting cultures for a cross-cultural comparison and why?

The most common strategy for selecting cultures for a cross-cultural comparison is to choose samples based on a theoretical variable you are investigating. Sometimes you might want to explore the degree of universality of a particular psychological process. This is to make meaningful comparisons.

What methodological problem undermines the ability to compare personality traits across countries (why do self-reports of personality correlate poorly with objective measures of conscientiousness, for example)?

The reference group effect is a problem, because people evaluate their conscientiousness by comparing themselves to local norms rather than international norms.

What is thought to be the purpose of the developmental milestone, the "terrible twos"? How does this contrast with how Japanese tend to view the same behavior? What values does this teach the children?

The young toddler beings to establish his or her individuality, and this is seen as the foundation for mature relationships. Japanese tend to view this behavior as an indicator of immaturity. They are wanting their children to learn how to accommodate others and to become part of a harmonious social group (interdependence)

How do these differences in self-awareness seem to relate to our self-evaluations [although, please note that the self-awareness itself was not measured in this study (Kim, Cohen, & Au, 2010), so this may be an example of cultural attribution fallacy]?

Those who were objectively self-aware (from collectivistic cultures) make predictions regarding their future behavior that tend to be more accurate than those who are subjective self-aware (individualistic). Americans tend to see themselves in a way they would like to see themselves subjectively.

What are three limitations regarding the universality of attachment theory and conclusions that have been made regarding the ideal attachment style?

Three Limitations: (1) the behaviors of mothers and children vary somewhat in the Strange Situation procedure, which suggests that the procedure might not have the same meaning everywhere; (2) although secure attachment is the most common style observed, the other attachment styles are still identified with some regularity, which suggests they might be useful as well; (3) secure attachment was not consistently the most common kind of attachment in certain samples.

Why is translating surveys so difficult? How does one go about ensuring a good translation of surveys? What is the back-translation method?

Translating surveys is so difficult because many words and terms do not have equivalents in other languages; it is crucial to ask questions that have comparable meanings in the culture being studied. One way to go about ensuring a good translation is to be sure that at least one of the primary investigators on a project is fully bilingual in the languages that are being compared. The back-translation method is when you take an English survey, translate it, and then translate it back into English to look for any problems.

How are the differences between independent and interdependent views of the self reflected in differences in the way people describe themselves on the 20 statements test?

Westerners and those who were more Westernized tended to respond in a way that was more independent and those who were not westernized tended to answer in a way that was more interdependent.

Describe how these different views of self are represented differently in brain activation patterns.

Westerners showed different regions of brain activation, suggesting that they represent themselves and their mothers in distinct ways. Chinese showed activation patterns in the same brain regions for the two tasks (medial prefrontal cortex: linked to self-representations). Suggests that their representations for themselves and for their mothers are not that distinct, and both representations reflect on the self-concept.

Are there gender differences in independent vs interdependent self-construals: what does the research suggest?

Women are apparently more interdependent than men only with respect to their attention to others' feelings and concerns; on the other factors associated with individualism and collectivism, gender differences are not apparent

What the underlying principle of situation sampling? What are the two steps?

examining how people from different cultures respond to the same situation: if people in one culture indicate they would consistently respond differently from people in the other culture, this suggests that certain learned cultural experiences have become habitualized, such that they govern reactions in all kinds of situations. examining cultural differences in the types of experiments/situations that people have: to the extent that situations are consistently responded to differently from one culture to another, this would suggest that the two cultures provide participants with different experiences.