PSYC 2103 CH.1

How does evolutionary theory apply to human development?

Evolutionary theory contends that to understand human development, one needs to recognize what was adaptive thousands of years ago. Some of the best human qualities, such as cooperation, spirituality, and self-sacrifice, may have originated thousands of years ago, when groups of people survived because they took care of one another.

Which statement on ethnicity is TRUE? -Ethnicity means the same thing as culture. -Membership in an ethnic group is equivalent to a common cultural experience. -Ethnicity means the same thing as race. -Membership in an ethnic minority group is not equivalent to a common cultural experience.

Membership in an ethnic minority group is not equivalent to a common cultural experience.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of longitudinal research?

The biggest advantage of longitudinal research is that it is useful in tracing development over many years. Disadvantages include dropout of participants, participants becoming increasingly aware of the questions or the goals of the study, and the influence of the historical context.

What are the strengths and weaknesses of the survey method?

The biggest strengths of the survey method are that it is quick and direct. Its biggest weakness is that answers may not be accurate because people may lie, want to come across favorably, or be influenced by the wording of the questions.

What do developmental psychologists believe has the GREATEST influence on human development?

both nature and nurture

The process of forming a male gender identity takes place mainly in the _____ stage of psychosexual development.

phallic

Fairuza is studying peer rejection among middle-school students. Fairuza's FIRST step in designing her research would be to:

pose a research question.

Isabel, who is 5-years-old, writes her first poem in kindergarten using words and drawings. She is in Piaget's _____ period.

preoperational

Dr. Jackson examines friendships in children. With respect to the three domains described in the textbook, Dr. Jackson specializes in _____ development.

psychosocial

Dr. Kilbey is studying the impact of exosystems on human development. Which would she be MOST interested in examining?

religious organizations and the workplace

According to Freud, each stage of development in the first six years is characterized by:

sexual pleasure

What are the five steps of the scientific method?

(1) Pose a question; (2) develop a hypothesis; (3) test the hypothesis (usually by doing research); (4) draw conclusions; and (5) report the results.

A researcher finds a moderate effect of heat stress on problem solving performance among a sample of elementary school children. Which of the following effect sizes did the researcher probably find? .78 .53 .24 .05

.53

Which significance level indicates that chance alone would produce the results obtained in a study once in 100 times?

0.01

Suppose that nature = 1 and nurture = 10. Where would you place John Watson?

10

developmental theory

A group of ideas, assumptions, and generalizations that interpret and illuminate thousands of observations about human growth. A developmental theory provides a framework for explaining the patterns and problems of development.

race

A group of people who are regarded by themselves or by others as distinct from other groups on the basis of physical appearance, typically skin color.

cross-sequential research

A hybrid research design in which researchers first study several groups of people of different ages (a cross-sectional approach) and then follow those groups over the years (a longitudinal approach). (Also called cohort-sequential research or time-sequential research.

scientific observation

A method of testing a hypothesis by unobtrusively watching and recording participants' behavior in a systematic and objective manner—in a natural setting, in a laboratory, or in archival data.

correlation

A number between +1.0 and -1.0 that indicates the degree of relationship between two variables, expressed in terms of the likelihood that one variable will (or will not) occur when the other variable does (or does not). A correlation indicates only that two variables may be somehow related, not that one variable causes the other to occur.

socioeconomic status (SES)

A person's position in society as determined by income, occupation, education, and place of residence. (Sometimes called social class.)

ecological-systems approach

A perspective on human development that considers all the influences from the various contexts of development. (Later renamed bioecological theory.)

longitudinal research

A research design in which the same individuals are followed over time, as their development is repeatedly assessed.

cross-sectional research

A research design that compares groups of people who differ in age but are similar in other important characteristics.

survey

A research method in which information is collected from a large number of people by interviews, written questionnaires, or some other means.

experiment

A research method in which the researcher tries to determine the cause-and-effect relationship between two variables by manipulating one (called the independent variable) and then observing and recording the ensuing changes in the other (called the dependent variable).

hypothesis

A specific prediction that can be tested.

culture

A system of shared beliefs, norms, behaviors, and expectations that persist over time and prescribe social behavior and assumptions.

cognitive theory

A theory of human development that focuses on changes in how people think over time. According to this theory, thoughts shape attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors.

psychoanalytic theory

A theory of human development that holds that irrational, unconscious drives and motives, often originating in childhood, underlie human behavior.

behaviorism

A theory of human development that studies observable behavior. Behaviorism is also called learning theory because it describes the laws and processes by which behavior is learned.

humanism

A theory that stresses the potential of all humans, who have the same basic needs, regardless of culture, gender, or background.

sensitive period

A time when a certain type of development is most likely, although it may still happen later with more difficulty. For example, early childhood is considered a sensitive period for language learning.

critical period

A time when a particular type of developmental growth (in body or behavior) must happen for normal development to occur.

dynamic-systems approach

A view of human development as an ongoing, ever-changing interaction between the physical, cognitive, and psychosocial influences.

scientific method

A way to answer questions using empirical research and data-based conclusions.

conditioning

According to behaviorism, the processes by which responses become linked to particular stimuli and learning takes place. The word conditioning is used to emphasize the importance of repeated practice, as when an athlete conditions his or her body by training for a long time.

What is the role of the IRB?

An IRB, or Institutional Review Board, is a group that permits only research that follows certain guidelines. Most medical and educational institutions have an IRB to maintain strict ethical codes and standards.

life-span perspective

An approach to the study of human development that takes into account all phases of life, not just childhood or adulthood.

social learning theory

An extension of behaviorism that emphasizes the influence that other people have over a person's behavior. Even without specific reinforcement, every individual learns many things through observation and imitation of other people. (Also called observational learning.)

social construction

An idea that is built on shared perceptions, not on objective reality. Many age-related terms (such as childhood, adolescence, yuppie, and senior citizen) are social constructions, strongly influenced by social assumptions.

What factors comprise a person's SES (socioeconomic status)?

Answers can include (but are not limited to) income, occupation, education, neighborhood, and family size.

What are some cohort differences between your generation and the one of your parents?

Answers can include (but are not limited to) the values, events, technologies, and culture of each era.

What is the basic idea of cognitive theory?

Cognitive theory focuses on changes in how people think over time. According to this theory, thoughts shape attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors.

empirical evidence

Evidence that is based on observation, experience, or data; not theoretical.

What is implied when human development is described as dynamic?

Human development is an ongoing, ever-changing interaction between the body and mind and between the individual and every aspect of the environment.

independent variable

In an experiment, the variable that is introduced to see what effect it has on the dependent variable. (Also called experimental variable.)

dependent variable

In an experiment, the variable that may change as a result of whatever new condition or situation the experimenter adds. In other words, the dependent variable depends on the independent variable.

nature

In development, nature refers to the traits, capacities, and limitations that each individual inherits genetically from his or her parents at the moment of conception.

nurture

In development, nurture includes all the environmental influences that affect the individual after conception. This includes everything from the mother's nutrition while pregnant to the cultural influences in the nation.

cohort

People born within the same historical period. They experience historical events (such as wars), technologies (such as the smartphone), and cultural shifts (such as women's liberation) at the same ages.

ethnic group

People whose ancestors were born in the same region and who often share a language, culture, and religion.

replication

Repeating a study, usually using different participants, perhaps of another age, location, socioeconomic status (SES), or culture.

qualitative research

Research that consider qualities instead of quantities. Descriptions of particular conditions and participants' expressed ideas are often part of qualitative studies.

quantitative research

Research that provides data that can be expressed with numbers, such as ranks or scales.

Which statement is NOT true of the scientific method? -Research findings should be made available to other scientists. -Conclusions should be based on objective interpretation. -Scientific studies should not be repeated because doing so wastes time and resources. -Good research is based on data.

Scientific studies should not be repeated because doing so wastes time and resources.

Oral, anal, and phallic are the first three stages of _____'s theory of psychosexual development.

Sigmund Freud

Can you think of an example (not one in the book) of a social construction?

Stereotypes—such as assuming from media coverage that Catholic priests are sexual predators (the vast majority of them are most certainly not)—are social constructions.

What basic question is at the heart of the nature-nurture controversy?

The basic question is: How much of any characteristic, behavior, or emotion is the result of genes, and how much is the result of experience?

differential susceptibility

The idea that people vary in how sensitive they are to particular experiences. Often such differences are genetic, which makes some people affected "for better or for worse" by life events. (Also called differential sensitivity.)

How does multidisciplinary research connect with the three domains?

The interaction between and among domains is essential to understanding the whole developing person. Every individual is a tapestry of many-colored threads, and every aspect of growth touches on all three domains.

operant conditioning

The learning process by which a particular action is followed by something desired (a reinforcer which makes the person or animal more likely to repeat the action) or by something unwanted (a punishment which makes the action less likely to be repeated). (Also called instrumental conditioning.)

difference-equals-deficit error

The mistaken belief that a deviation from some norm is necessarily inferior to behavior or characteristics that are more typical.

science of human development

The science that seeks to understand how and why people of all ages and circumstances change or remain the same over time.

epigenetics

The study of how environmental factors affect genes and genetic expression—enhancing, halting, shaping, or altering the expression of genes.

What is the difference between "genetics" and "epigenetics"?

The term "genetics" refers to the influence of genes. "Epigenetics" is a new discipline that explores the many ways environmental factors affect genes and genetic expression.

In what two contrasting ways is human development plastic?

The term plasticity denotes two complementary aspects of development: Human traits can be molded (as plastic can be), and yet people maintain a certain durability of identity (as plastic does).

Why do developmentalists prefer cross-sequential research, even though it takes longer and is more expensive?

This research allows researchers to study several groups of people of different ages and then follow those groups over the years. This type of research is the most time-consuming and complex, but it yields the best information.

How does information processing differ from Piaget's theory?

Unlike Piaget's stage theory, information processing provides a detailed description of the steps of cognition, with attention to perceptual and neurological processes.

In the science of human development, what is the term used to describe the time when certain things must occur for normal development to take place?

a critical period

The longer Shelley works, the less sleep she gets. For Shelley, there is _____ correlation between hours worked and hours slept.

a negative

From birth to age 9, what sort of correlation exists between age and height? Please choose the correct answer from the following choices, and then select the submit answer button.

a positive correlation

Paige is five. She is in the _____ childhood stage of development.

early

As compared with their likelihood at public schools, child homicides are _____ likely at private schools.

equally

Matthew considers himself Scots-American because his maternal ancestors were Presbyterians born in Aberdeen. In this example, Scots-American is a(n):

ethnic group.

Which theoretical perspective is matched with the CORRECT emphasis?

evolutionary - survival and reproduction

According to Bronfenbrenner's model, a hospital in the community is an example of which system?

exosystem

Megan, 54, volunteers with an organization that helps at-risk teenagers develop self-control and increase self-esteem. This is an example of Erikson's stage of:

generativity versus stagnation.

Each of the following refers to the influence of experience EXCEPT: -nurture. -learning. -the environment. -heredity

heredity

Dynamic-systems theory emphasizes the idea(s) that:

human development is always changing and that change in one area affects all others.

Dr. Snodgrass has been adjusting light intensity in the presence of birds to see how it affects their perception of colors. Which type of variable is light intensity?

independent

John, 72, is trying to make sense out of his life. He feels great disappointment when he thinks about the goals that he never reached. His behavior falls into which of Erikson's stages?

integrity versus despair

In order to investigate the effects of a new technique for teaching math, Dr. Miller studies a group of first graders over the course of the next five years. What kind of research is Dr. Miller conducting?

longitudinal research

Elsa wants to research preschoolers' eating habits. She is reviewing video footage taken during snack time and lunch hour at four preschools. Her method of study is:

scientific observation.

Lucille is collecting survey data on adult attachment styles among a sample of college students. With respect to the steps of the scientific method, Lucille is:

testing a hypothesis.

Posing a research question is:

the first step of the scientific method.

What is the BEST example of a cohort effect?

the popularity of children's names in a given decade

Which set does NOT contain a discrepant element? {genetics, learning, maturation} {maturation, heredity, nature} {nurture, experience, maturation} {genetics, the environment, experience}

{maturation, heredity, nature}

According to the ecological-systems approach, a good example of an exosystem is:

an elementary school.

A study of 141 nations revealed that _____ percent do NOT use the word "race" on their census forms.

85

What reasons might a political leader have to not fund developmental research?

A political leader may not want to fund this type of research because of potential unethical research. Some of the benefits (promotion, acclaim) of publishing remarkable, unreplicated findings encourage unethical research, such as slanting conclusions.

How is behaviorism a reaction to psychoanalytic theory?

Behaviorism arose in direct opposition to the psychoanalytic emphasis on unconscious, hidden urges. Behaviorists emphasize nurture, the specific, observable responses from other people and the environment to whatever a developing person does.

How can both continuity and discontinuity be true for human development?

Development is multi-directional; if human traits were all charted over time from birth to death, some traits would appear while others disappear, with increases, decreases, and zigzags.

What are some of the contexts of your life?

Development takes place within many contexts, including one's physical surroundings (climate, noise, population density, etc.) and family configurations (married couple, single parent, cohabiting couple, extended family, etc.).

How do Erikson's stages differ from Freud's?

Erikson's stages differ significantly from Freud's in that they emphasize family and culture, not sexual urges.

How does the exosystem affect children's schooling?

Exosystems (community structures, and local educational, medical, employment, and communications systems) influence microsystems, which intimately and immediately shape human development. In this example, the school's structure and administration (the exosystem) influence a child's classroom and teacher (the microsystem), which intimately and immediately shape his or her development.

What is the role of the unconscious in Freud's theory?

In Freud's theory, our unconscious drives and motives influence every aspect of our thinking and behavior.

How do classical and operant conditioning differ?

In classical conditioning, one stimulus may be associated with another (tone-then-food sequence with Pavlov's dogs). With operant conditioning, reinforcement and punishment may guide future behavior.

Which statement BEST captures the relationship between income and socioeconomic status?

Income is an element of socioeconomic status.

Why would a scientist conduct a cross-sectional study?

It is the quickest and least expensive way to study development over time.

Why does correlation not prove causation?

Just because two variables are correlated does not mean that one causes the other—even if it seems logical that it does. It proves only that the variables are connected somehow.

Why is humanism particularly relevant for the medical professions?

Medical professionals realize that pain can be physical (the first two levels) or social (the next two), and they are aware that their focus on physical health might overlook the person's higher needs.

Why do careful observations not prove "what causes what"?

Observation is crucial in developing hypotheses for the causes and sequences of behavior, but experiments are needed to determine cause-and-effect relationships.

What are the stages envisioned by Freud?

Oral (birth to 1 year); anal (1 to 3 years); phallic (3 to 6 years); latency (6 to 11 years); genital (adolescence); and adulthood

Why should a study not be done without informed consent and confidentiality?

Participants must be kept confidential and give informed consent to prove they understand and agree to the research procedures and know what risks are involved. A dilemma occurs when severe consequences might follow either participation or non-participation.

According to Maslow, what are the needs of a person?

Physiological (needing food, water, warmth, and air); safety (feeling protected from injury and death); love and belonging (having loving friends, family, and a community); esteem (being respected by the wider community as well as by oneself); and self-actualization (becoming truly oneself, fulfilling one's unique potential).

What is one additional question that you can think of about development that you think should be answered?

Possible examples may include but are not limited to the following: Do we know enough about prenatal drug use to protect every fetus? Do we know enough about dying to enable everyone to die with dignity? Do we know enough about poverty to enable everyone to be healthy?

What are the advantages and disadvantages of qualitative research?

Qualitative research reflects cultural and contextual diversity, but it is also more vulnerable to bias and harder to replicate.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of quantitative research?

Quantitative research data can be categorized, ranked, or numbered and thus can be easily translated across cultures and for diverse populations. However, when data are presented in categories and numbers, some nuances and individual distinctions are lost.

Which statement is MOST accurate based on the textbook's discussion of the word "race"?

Race is an important concept.

Why is replication important?

Replication confirms, modifies, or refutes the conclusions of a scientific study.

Why do experimenters use a control (or comparison) group as well as an experimental group?

The purpose of an experiment is to find out whether an independent variable (the imposed treatment or special condition) affects the dependent variable (whatever they are studying); therefore, one needs to compare the impact of the independent variable on one group that receives the independent variable (the experimental group) and one group that does not (the control group).

How is social learning connected to behaviorism?

The social learning theory is a major extension of behaviorism because it argues that humans are social beings—they learn from observation without personally receiving any reinforcement.

What is the difference between race and ethnicity?

The term race has been used to categorize people on the basis of physical differences, particularly outward appearance. Ethnicity is a different social construction, affected by the social context rather than a direct outcome of biology.

What are the three domains of development?

The three domains are biological, cognitive, and psychosocial.

How might differential susceptibility apply to understanding students' varied responses to a low exam grade?

This concept applies here because it explains that people vary in how sensitive they are to particular experiences, depending on their genetic makeup. Some students might take a poor grade to mean that they are failures, while others shrug off the low grade and know to try harder next time.

How does a culture pass on values to the next generation, according to Vygotsky?

Vygotsky believed mentors use the universal process of guided participation to teach children cultural knowledge, skills, and habits. Guided participation often happens informally, through mutual involvement in several widespread cultural practices with great importance for learning: narratives, routines, and play

When new information is inconsistent with what we already know, we may change our thinking to incorporate the new information. This would be an example of:

accommodation. self-efficacy.

Most educational and medical institutions have an internal group that monitors research to ensure it follows certain guidelines. What is this group called?

an Institutional Review Board (IRB)

White coat syndrome occurs when a patient sees a doctor and exhibits a rise in blood pressure. According to behaviorism, this BEST demonstrates:

classical conditioning

Jill, a good student, found it incomprehensible that she failed her physics exam after studying for a week. She is in the state of:

cognitive disequilibrium.

A developmentalist is studying the popularity of children's names over the years. She is really looking at the _____ effect.

cohort

Edward is 8 years old. According to Piaget, Edward is in the _____ stage of cognitive development.

concrete operational

Garrett is 10 years old. According to Piaget, Garrett is in the _____ stage of cognitive development.

concrete operational

"When the going gets tough, the tough get going." This saying encourages resilience. With respect to the flower metaphors in the textbook's discussion of differential susceptibility, the saying exhorts people to be:

dandelions.

Eugene is 27 years old, and he feels very insecure about some of the personal and career choices he has made so far. Consequently, he is reluctant at this point to undertake a serious, committed relationship with another person. Based on Erikson's theory, it is likely that Eugene will:

develop a sense of isolation.

Dr. Garacchi studies how obesity rates vary from childhood through old age. Dr. Garacchi is MOST likely a _____ psychologist.

developmental

Dr. Murray seeks to understand how and why people change over time. She studies all kinds of people from different age groups, cultures, orientations, and backgrounds. She is MOST likely a(n):

developmental scientist.

Dr. Murphy studies a cohort of schoolchildren and follows their progress through college. Dr. Murphy is MOST likely a:

developmentalist.

Shannon has a new baby and she is embracing her new role as a mother. The new baby has had an impact on her family relationships, her sleeping and eating habits, and her career goals. Developmentalists would say that the change in one area of her life having an impact on so many other areas is a result of:

dynamic systems.

The independent variable is also called the _____ variable.

experimental

According to sociocultural theory, the process by which mentors teach cultural knowledge, skills, and habits is called:

guided participation.

A father wants his son to start helping his mother do the laundry. According to social learning theory, the father should:

help out with the laundry himself.

Dr. Vreeland believes that heredity is primarily responsible for personality traits. Dr. Abshire believes that environmental influences are primarily responsible for personality traits. One might say they are on different sides of the _____ debate.

heredity-versus-environment

The terms operant conditioning and instrumental conditioning refer to _____ learning mechanisms.

identical

In a study on the effects of noise on test performance, noise would be the _____ variable.

independent

In Erikson's theory, children in elementary school are generally in the _____ stage.

industry-versus-inferiority

In Pavlov's experiments with dogs, the food was the:

meaningful stimulus.

Dr. DiLorenzo is performing statistical analyses to combine the results of a number of studies investigating the relationship between day-care quality and developmental outcomes among children aged 2 to 4. Dr. DiLorenzo is conducting a:

meta-analysis.

Dr. Towne believes that heredity is primarily responsible for personality traits. Dr. West believes that environmental influences are primarily responsible for personality traits. One might say they are on different sides of the _____ debate.

nature-versus-nurture

When an infant recognizes that things continue to exist even when they are no longer in sight, the infant has attained what Piaget called:

object permanence.

The primary focus of behaviorism is:

observable behavior.

Marie smokes cigarettes and bites her nails. According to Freud, she is unconsciously stuck in which stage?

oral

As children age, they tend to sleep fewer hours. Which coefficient BEST expresses this relationship? .34 −.04 −.99 −.43

−.43