PSYC 230 Chapter 12

Gestalt approach to problem solving

Success in solving a problem is influenced by how it is represented in the mind Problem solving as representation and restructuring --How people represent a problem in their mind --How solving a problem involves a reorganization or restructuring of this representation

Functional fixedness

restricting the use of an object to its familiar functions, can overlook alternative uses

Creative Cognition

A technique developed by Finke to train people to think creatively.

Mental Set

A preconceived notion about how to approach a problem Based on a person's past experiences with the problem (or similar problems), what has worked in the past Both the candle problem and the two-string problem were difficult because of the preconceptions about the uses of objects (functional fixedness) A mental set can arise out of the situation created as a person is solving a problem Mental set can influence problem solving both because of preconceptions about the functions of an object (candle and two-string problems) and because of preconceptions about the way to solve a problem (water jug problem)

Tower of Hanoi problem

A problem involving moving discs from one set of pegs to another. It has been used to illustrate the process involved in means-end analysis

Insight

A sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem

The fortress problem involves a fortress and marching soldiers, while the radiation problem involves a tumor and rays. Therefore, the two problems have very different A. surface features B. operators C. structural features D. mental sets

A. surface features

Which problem provides an example of how functional fixedness can hinder solution of a problem? A. Tower of Hanoi problem B. Two-string problem C. Mutilated checkerboard problem D. The radiation problem

B. Two-string problem

The ability to shift experience from one problem solving situation to a similar problem is known as A. analogical encoding B. analogical transfer C. insight D. in vivo problem solving

B. analogical transfer

Gick and Holyoak proposed that analogical problem solving involves the following three steps: A. restructuring, searching, and simulating. B. noticing, mapping, and applying. C. surfacing, structuring, and generalizing. D. well-defining, insighting, and means-end analysis.

B. noticing, mapping, and applying.

The information processing approach describes problem solving as a process involving A. creative cognition B. search C. design fixation D. insight

B. search

Gestalt psychologists consider problem solving as a process involving A. sensory operators. B. continuity and form. C. reorganization or restructuring. D. multiple goal states.

C. reorganization or restructuring.

Kaplan and Simon's experiment presented different versions of the mutilated checkerboard problem. The main purpose of their experiment was to demonstrate that A. people arrive at the solution to an insight problem suddenly, but proceed more methodically towards the solution of a non-insight problem. B. people often have to backtrack within the problem space to arrive at an answer to a problem. C. the way the problem is represented can influence the ease of problem solving. D. a person's mental set can hinder finding a solution to a problem.

C. the way the problem is represented can influence the ease of problem solving.

Which of the following statements does NOT apply to the results of research on differences between how experts and novices solve problems? A. Experts possess more knowledge about their fields than novices. B. Experts often organize problems differently than novices, based on principles. C. Experts often spend more time analyzing problems than novices. D. Being an expert in one field can transfer to better problem solving in another field.

D. Being an expert in one field can transfer to better problem solving in another field.

Kohler's circle problem (1929)

Determine the length of the line marked as x knowing that the radius of the circle has length r. r = 10. Doesn't require math!

Metcalfe & Wiebe (1987)

Distinguish between insight problems and noninsight problems Hypothesis: There should be a difference in how subjects feel they are progressing toward a solution in insight problems vs. noninsight problems Insight: you should not be very good at predicting how near they are to the solution Noninsight: involves more methodical process, you're likely to know when you are getting closer to the solution Insight problems: Triangle problem: How can you remove three of the blue dots to get the triangle to point down? Chain problem: How can you join all 4 of the chain pieces by cutting and reclosing only 3 links? Noninsight problem: Algebra: solve for x(1/5)x + 10 = 25 Warmth judgments every 15 seconds (cold/warm/hot) Insight problems solved suddenly Noninsight problems solved gradually

Limitations of Expertise

Expertise is only an advantage in the expert's specialty: experts are no better than novices when given problems outside of their field Experts are less likely to be open to new ways of looking at problems (functional fixedness) Younger and less experienced scientists in a field are often the ones responsible for revolutionary discoveries

The Russian Marriage Problem

In a small Russian village, there were 32 unmarried men and 32 unmarried women. The village matchmaker successfully arranged 32 happy marriages. One drunken night, two men, in a test of strength, stuffed each other with pierogies and died. Can the matchmaker now arrange 31 heterosexual marriages among the 62 survivors? The answer is obvious: no This is exactly the situation in the mutilated checkerboard problem!

Subgoals

In the means-end analysis approach to problem solving, intermediate states that move the process of solution closer to the goal.

Gick & Holyoak's process of analogical problem solving

Noticing the analogous relationship --Most difficult, crucial --Easier when problems are similar, or prompted Mapping correspondence between source and target --Tumor = Castle Applying the mapping to generalize a parallel solution --Soldiers split up = use several weak rays

Analogical Paradox

People find it difficult to apply analogies in laboratory settings, but routinely use them in real-world settings.

Duncker's radiation problem

Suppose you are a doctor faced with a patient who has a malignant tumor in his stomach. It is impossible to operate on the patient, but unless the tumor is destroyed the patient will die. There is a kind of ray that can be used to destroy the tumor. If the ray reaches the tumor at a sufficiently high intensity, the tumor will be destroyed. Unfortunately, at this intensity the healthy tissue that the ray passes through on the way to the tumor will also be destroyed. At lower intensities the ray is harmless to healthy tissue, but it will not affect the tumor either. What type of procedure might be used to destroy the tumor and at the same time avoid destroying the healthy tissue? Solution: bombard the tumor with several low-intensity rays from different directions, which destroys the tumor without damaging the healthy tissue (modern radiosurgery uses same principle)

Candle problem (Duncker, 1945)

Task: Attach the candle to the wall so it will burn without dripping wax on the floor You are given a candle, a box of matches, and thumb tacks

Practical Creativity

The ability to find multiple solutions to a practical problem

latent inhibition

The capacity to screen out irrelevant stimuli Reduced latent inhibition can result in increased openness to experience, which has been associated with greater creative outcome

Restructuring

The process of changing how a problem is represented

Analogy

The process of noticing connections between similar problems and applying the solution from one to others

problem space

The set of possible pathways to a solution considered by the problem solver

Analogical Transfer

The transfer from one problem (source) to another (target) Russian Marriage Problem (source) Mutilated checkerboard problem (target)

Mutilated checkerboard problem

Two red corner squares removed from checkerboard: can't cover the remaining squares with 31 dominoes. Demonstrates how the way a problem is stated can influence its difficulty (red/black, bread/butter, pink/black)

Analogical Problem Solving

Using the solution to a similar problem to guide the solution of a new problem

Operators

actions that move the problem from one state to another; governed by rules that specify which moves are allowed and which are not

Water-jug problem

figure out how to obtain a required volume of water, given three empty cups for measures (Luchins, 1942)

Means-end analysis

heuristic in which the difference between the starting situation and the goal is determined and then steps are taken to reduce that difference You do this by creating subgoals: intermediate states that are closer to the goal

Preinventive forms

ideas that precede creation of finished creative product

Problem

occurs when there's an obstacle between a present state and a goal Not immediately obvious how to get around the obstacle Difficult because the solution is not immediately obvious

Experts

solve problems in their field faster and with greater success than novices (beginners)

surface features

specific elements of the problem

Fixation

tendency to focus on a specific characteristic of the problem that keeps them from arriving at a solution

Analogical Encoding

the process by which two problems are compared and similarities between them are determined

Divergent thinking

thinking that is open-ended; involving a large number of potential "solutions"

Two-string problem (Maier, 1931)

tie together two strings hanging from the ceiling Far enough apart that you cannot reach both at once Solution: tie the pliers to one of the strings to create a pendulum, can now be swung within reach Functional fixedness - we usually think of using pliers as a tool, not as a weight on a pendulum