Psyc 304 Midterm 2

Mary Ainsworth quote about attachment

"Attachment is an enduring affectional tie that unites one person to another over time and across space."

How much do most Ontarians pay for childcare for a 3 YO in a month?

$835 / month

PATHS

(Promoting alternative thinking strategies) 30 lessons taught by preschool teachers (about stuff like giving compliments, understanding how you feel, etc.). There are other activities where teachers are integrated as well and teachers help children during their experiences with peers.

NICHD study of early childcare and development experimental setup

1,300 children and infants participated, with 1,000 followed into adolescence. Throughout early childhood, detailed assessments were conducted of the type of non-maternal care that children received. Hours of care were also assessed, as well as quality of care.

The strange situation method of assessing attachment can only be used until around what age?

1-2 years

Gao & Maurer's 2010 study of recognition of facial expressions results for surprise

1. 5 YO were less accurate than adults at 100% intensity 2. 5 YO had higher thresholds (35.2%) than adults. (20.2%) to recognize any emotion 3. 5 YO and 7 YO made more misidentifications than adults

2 features of adult-child social play

1. Adults will self-handicap. 2. Adults will let the child have a chance to be in different roles.

Gao & Maurer's 2010 study of recognition of facial expressions results for happiness

1. At peak intensity, no age differences in recognizing happiness 2. No age difference in recognizing emotion from neutral (about 25%) 3. 5 YO misidentified happiness more often than adults, but 7 YO were adult-like

4 pieces of evidence against the necessity of direct teaching for language learning

1. Average 6 YO knows 10,000 - 14,000 words. 2. In some societies, parents make no effort to teach children words and these children develop rich vocabularies. 3. Research has shown that children learn at least some words (like personal pronouns) from speech they overhear (not directed at them) 4. Children can learn the meaning of words when they were not initially paying attention to the object.

5 things seen in orphanage 1 by Rene Spitz as a result of social deprivation

1. Babies reduced their exploration, locomotion, and motor action. 2. Babies reacted with terror, anger, and fear to any person. If the person remained, the baby would sometimes cling frantically to them. 3. Babies rocked back and forth, biting themselves, and showed other rocking patterns. 4. Babies developed vacant stares and seemed unaware of their environment. 5. 37% of these babies died by age 2

2 possible reasons why infants form bonds with their caregivers

1. Biological drives like thirst and hunger drive attachment since the child associates the caregiver with positive reinforcement. 2. social needs

3 high quality preschool programs

1. CAP 2. high scope / Perry 2. Chicago longitudinal

2 questions about from whom children learn language

1. Can children learn language from television? 2. Do children learn language equally well from all speakers?

3 reasons why disruptive behaviour in the classroom is a major threat to children's learning

1. Children engaging in disruptive behaviours have fewer opportunities to learn from peers and teachers. 2. Children engaging in disruptive behaviours are rejected by peers or suspended / expelled. 3. Other children in the classroom suffer because the teacher is spending time managing the disruptive child's behaviour.

2 important things to keep in mind in terms of cause when discussing social deprivation and its effects

1. Children may have been abandoned because of challenges they might have. (Who ends up in an orphanage is not random, but could be the result of cognitive difficulties, for example.) 2. In general, though, institutional environments are problematic in many ways, not just social deprivation. So babies are deprived socially, but they may also be deprived in other ways.

2 genotypes that show associations with particular attachment styles

1. DRD4 7-repeat polymorphism 2. 5-HTTLPR serotonin transporter gene

By 2 YO, what 3 types of emotion regulation do children show?

1. Different strategies to manage affective states (distracting themselves with play and self-soothing with favourite item) 2. responding to caregiver directives (instructions about inappropriate behaviours when upset) 3. better language skills (able to negotiate, for example)

2 important questions that arise when considering infants' bonds with their caregivers

1. Do early relationships between parents and children shape children's later relationships? 2. Is there a critical period for social interaction?

4 pieces of evidence for the dual-mechanism model

1. English-speaking adults also sometimes overregularize with low-frequency verbs. 2. Children over regularize less with verbs that their parents use more. 3. Children overregularize less with verbs that are part of a family of similar sounding irregular forms. 4. Children are more likely to judge over regulated forms as "silly" than the correct past tense form. Even when they are making these errors themselves, children correct adults who make them.

3 limitations to understanding that by 6 MO, infants can discriminate between both facial and vocal expressions

1. Evidence is not consistent (methodological differences may matter) 2. Not clear whether they are using affective info or other perceptual info when discriminating facial expressions (like seeing teeth in happy vs. not in sad) 3. Studies haven't used "real" emotional expressions - use exaggerations

What are 3 factors that were controlled for in Moffit et al's 2011 study on inhibitory control?

1. IQ 2. gender 3. SES

Walker-Andrews & Lennon's 1991 study of visual and vocal cues of emotion for infants 4 results

1. Infants who heard the same vocal expression did not look longer on test than on habituation. 2. Infants who heard a different vocal expression did look longer on test than on habituation. 3. Infants who saw a checkerboard instead of a facial expression did not look longer when the voice changed. 4. Infants who went from matched-vocal expression to a mismatched facial and vocal expression did not look longer on post-test than did infants who went from a mismatch to another mismatch or to a match. (so not actually pairing facial and audio expressions)

What are 2 things that are special about human communication

1. It is intentional (tries to influence the receiver) 2. It requires an understanding of the mental states of others (sensitive to the state of the receiver)

3 indications that social interaction is important for learning language

1. Kuhl et al's 2003 study with Mandarin phonemes 2. Infants' vocalizations more closely approximate speech after responses from caregivers. 3. When adults respond to an infant's pointing by explaining the function of an object, infants learn the function better than they do when adults demonstrate the function of an object the infant didn't point to.

How do behaviourists answer the 2 questions about how children learn language?

1. Lots of input is needed. 2. There are no language-specific structures.

Connectionist response to the 2 questions of language learning

1. Lots of input is needed. 2. There are no language-specific structures.

4 consensus statements on the state of the science on preschool from the PreKindergarten task force

1. Lower-income children and children who are second language learners gain the most from preschool. 2. In general, children who attend preschool programs are more ready for school than children who don't. 3. Not all preschool programs are equally good and curriculum matters. 4. If we want to maintain preschool gains, we need to improve elementary school education.

3 pieces of evidence that infant-directed speech helps language learning

1. May make speech segmentation easier (Thiessen et al. 2005) 2. Enables learning of new words that children didn't learn when they heard them in adult-directed speech. 3. Younger infants remember words they heard in infant-directed better than those they heard in adult-directed speech

By 1 YO, what 2 types of emotion regulation do children show?

1. More complex motor responses (retreating, reaching, and self-soothing) 2. Explicitly social signalling (recognizing that others can help them and seeking out others' support)

Gao & Maurer's 2010 study of recognition of facial expressions results for disgust

1. No age difference at 100% 2. 7 YO have higher thresholds (31.1%) than do adults (23.9%) 3. 5 YO make more misidentifications than do adults

Gao & Maurer's 2010 study of recognition of facial expressions results for fear

1. No age differences in recognition at 100% intensity 2. 5 YO had a higher intensity to identify emotion (29.7%) than other groups (adults = 20.7%) 3. No age differences in misidentification

Gao & Maurer's 2010 study of recognition of facial expressions results for anger

1. No difference between age groups at 100% intensity 2. All three groups of children had higher thresholds (24-28%) than did adults (21%) to discriminate from neutral 3. No age group differences in misidentification

5 reasons why peek-a-boo is good for studying expression recognition in infants

1. Provides an opportunity to present infants with exaggerated emotional expressions in a familiar context 2. Peek-a-boo is good for attracting infant attention 3. By 4 MO, infants have expectations about how peek-a-boo is played 4. Multimodal 5. Elicits behavioural response

2 features of recognition of vocal expressions of emotion in development

1. Recognizing emotion in the voice is harder than recognizing it in the face 2. It takes longer to develop recognition of vocal expressions than facial expressions

Mischel's 1970 delay of gratification study showed that the ability to delay gratification in preschool predicts what 4 things?

1. SAT scores, controlling for IQ 2. education level 3. parent ratings of academic and social competence in adolescence 4. BMI and drug use in 30s

4 features of rhythmical stereotypes locomotor play

1. Seen in infancy 2. May involve body rocking or foot kicking. 3. Infants spend around 5.2% of their time engaged in such behaviours. 4. There are no gender differences.

2 overall conclusions of the development of recognition of facial expressions in children from Gao & Maurer's 2010 study of recognition of facial expressions

1. Some emotions are more difficult to recognize in the face than others (happiness and anger are easier, while surprise and disgust are harder to recognize) 2. Recognition of facial expressions of emotions is adult-like at 10-11 YO (happy adult-like around 5-7 YO and surprise adult-like around 7-10 YO)

3 features of exercise play

1. Swinging, jumping, swimming, skipping, etc. 2. Increases from the toddler to preschool period, peaks at around age 4-5 years, then declines. 3. Boys engage in more exercise play than do girls.

Nativist answers to the 2 questions of language development

1. There is little input needed. 2. There are innate language structures.

3 reasons why the Bucharest early intervention program wasn't unethical

1. There were not enough foster care placements for all children. 2. The researchers never interfered with a placement. 3. No. child was removed from foster care and sent back to an institution.

3 pieces of evidence that 3 and 4 YO are choosy about who is teaching them language

1. They prefer knowledgeable speakers to speakers who express uncertainty (Sabbath & Baldwin, 2001) 2. They prefer adults to children BUT prefer a reliable child to an unreliable grown up (Jaswal & Neely, 2006) 3. Older 4 YO prefer a speaker who has used correct syntax to one who used incorrect syntax.

5 ways to measure language exposure of babies

1. Truman show 2. LENA 3. daily diary 4. day-in-the-life interview 5. just one question

3 questions about word learning

1. What is required for learning a word? 2. Is direct teaching necessary for word learning? 3. How do young children determine the meanings of new words?

2 questions about how children learn language

1. What kind of input does the child need to learn a language: lots or little? 2. Are language-specific structures or processes required?

3 benefits to children going to preschool

1. academic / cognitive 2. social / behavioural 3. long term benefits

9 dimensions of temperament figured out by the New York longitudinal study

1. activity level 2. rhythmicity 3. approach and withdrawal 4. adaptability 5. intensity of reaction 6. threshold of responsiveness 7. quality of mood 8. distractibility 9. attention span / persistence

What are 2 reasons why children might not wait as long when they can see both rewards in Mischel & Ebbesen's delay of gratification task?

1. acutely obvious that it's not that much better to get the second option 2. super salient that there's candy cause there's double the candy

two axes on which to characterize emotions

1. arousal (low to high) 2. valence (negative to positive)

Gao & Maurer's 2010 study of recognition of facial expressions results for sadness

1. at 100%, 7 YO were less accurate than adults 2. 5 YO and 7 YO had a higher threshold to identify an emotion (42%) than did adults (31%) 3. 7 YO made more misidentification errors than adults

3 types of insecure attachment

1. avoidant attachment 2. resistant attachment 3. disorganized attachment

3 ways to classify emotions

1. behaviour 2. physiological response 3. subjective internal state

How was inhibitory control assessed between ages 3 and 11 in Moffit et al's 2011 study (4 criteria)?

1. better at waiting their turn 2. less easily distracted 3. more persistent 4. less impulsive

Mischel's 1970 delay of gratification study showed that the ability to delay gratification in preschool predicts what 2 aspects of EF?

1. better inhibitory control at age 18 and at age 40 2. better attention (as rated by parents) in adolescence

According to Moffit et al's 2011 study on inhibitory control, what 5 outcomes were predicted by better inhibitory control during childhood at 32 years of age?

1. better physical health 2. better mental health 3. greater income 4. fewer arrests 5. happier

5 features of babies that make them cute

1. big heads 2. big eyes 3. round faces 4. high foreheads 5. big mouths

2 improvements in EF during the school years

1. can focus attention in the face of complex distractors 2. working memory capacity increases

4 methods for internal emotion regulation

1. cognitive reappraisal 2. suppression of behaviour signals of emotion 3. distraction 4. self-soothing

Order how adults learn language (production, comprehension, reading)

1. comprehension 2. reading 3. production

3 features present in a high quality preschool

1. curricula that teaches foundational skills 2. training for teachers 3. organized and engaging classroom

5 characteristics and behaviours that contribute to the bonds between children and caregivers

1. cuteness 2. smiling 3. clinging 4. contingent responding 5. social referencing / joint attention

2 types of pointing

1. declarative (to denote, but doesn't want) 2. imperative (to direct, wants something)

2 functions of pretend play

1. early literacy 2. theory of mind

4 types of children and percentages of each, according to NYLS

1. easy (40%) 2. difficult (10%) 3. slow to warm up (15%) 4. average (35%)

5 features of temperament

1. emerges in infancy 2. linked to biological processes 3. shaped by genes 4. shaped by experience 5. stable over time

4 features of Bowlby's theory of attachment (not phases)

1. emphasized the role of cognition in attachment 2. children become capable of mentally representing their parents' goals and viewpoints 3. children coordinate their behaviours 4. children are active agents in their development

3 categories of temperament according to Rothbart

1. extraversion / surgency (reactivity) 2. negative emotionality (reactivity) 3. effortful control (regulation)

5 types of emotional cues that can collide

1. facial 2. vocal 3. body language 4. semantic 5. situational

3 behaviours that indicate emotion

1. facial expressions 2. vocal cues 3. posture

4 features of orphanage 1 investigated by Rene Spitz in Latin America in the 1940s

1. for children who had been abandoned 2. sterile, clean, healthy 3. limited social interactions with caregivers 4. cribs covered with sheets so they couldn't see the world

5 features of orphanage 2 investigated by Rene Spitz in Latin America in the 1940s

1. for children whose moms were incarcerated 2. in a prison 3. not clean 4. babies had toys 5. interacted with each other and had some interactions with caregivers

4 behaviours other than facial expressions and vocal cues that can define emotions

1. freezing 2. withdrawing 3. laughing 4. crying

Chicago school readiness project had what 3 interventions

1. have clear rules and rewards 2. reward positive behaviour 3. consecrate negative behaviour

According to NYLS, children with acting our problems showed what 4 temperament dimensions?

1. higher activity level 2. less adaptable 3. more persistent 4. with age, became more distractible and showed lower threshold for responsiveness

4 possible functions of rough-and-tumble play in childhood

1. historically, argued that it was an opportunity to practice fighting skills 2. learning to decode social skills 3. helping boys form social groups 4. way to learn about behaviours of others and demonstrate your own strengths

2 of the first gestures performed by babies

1. holding something up 2. pointing

2 things required to learn a word

1. identifying the arbitrary relationship between the word and its meaning 2. memorizing its meaning for later use

3 key objectives to PATHS

1. improve emotional understanding and communication 2. improve self-control 3. promote positive peer relationships

4 features of separation anxiety

1. indicates a specific bond (usually between child and caregiver) 2. infant becomes distressed when person leaves 3. another person cannot fill in 4. culturally universal

Executive functioning is comprised of which 3 separate skills, in coordination?

1. inhibitory control 2. working memory 3. set shifting

Attachment in infancy has been linked to what 6 later outcomes?

1. language development 2. self-recognition 3. peer relationships 4. loneliness 5. math achievement 6. behaviour problems

4 domains of play

1. locomotor 2. object 3. social 4. pretend

5 characteristics of infant or child directed speech

1. louder voice 2. slower speech 3. accentuate boundaries between words 4. fewer words 5. repeat and expand on child's utterances

According to NYLS, children with withdrawn problems showed what 2 temperament dimensions?

1. lower in activity level 2. negative mood

So, what are 2 categories of children who primarily benefit from preschool?

1. lower-income children (may get experiences in preschool that they're not getting at home that may aid brain development) 2. dual language learners (since their English academic skills may lag behind, but preschool will improve their English skills)

4 immediate benefits of play

1. may help children learn important new skills 2. imaginary play is linked to perspective-taking 3. allows practice in "novel" situations 4. generate new responses in novel environments

2 functional uses of emotions

1. mobilize and coordinate our response systems 2. communicate our needs to others and shape interpersonal behaviours of others

6 control variables in Watts et al's 2018 study on delay of gratification

1. mother's education 2. weight at birth 3. mother's vocab 4. learning materials 5. language stimulation 6. physical environment

3 factors that predict quality of attachment

1. parenting 2. genes 3. child-specific factors

2 observations that led to people arguing for the nativist approach to language learning

1. people will create language; animals don't learn language 2. poverty of stimulus argument (You rarely hear people speaking in perfect, grammatically correct sentences, so the language we hear isn't good enough to really learn a language.)

4 components of language

1. phonetics and phonology 2. semantics 3. syntax 4. pragmatics

Locomotor play is linked to what 2 things?

1. physical strength 2. endurance

2 defining features of locomotor play

1. physically active 2. not functional

3 ways vocal cues can indicate emotions

1. pitch 2. intensity (volume) 3. speed

2 possible deferred benefits of play

1. play is practice for adulthood 2. practicing behaviours that are important functionally

Why might it have been that in Silk et al's 2003 study of adolescents' emotion regulation no strategy was associated with decreased negative affect? (2 reasons)

1. possible that strategies work in some situations, but not others (ex. problem solving may work in situations that are controllable, but not all situations are controllable) 2. possible that voluntary engagement strategies prevent affect from getting worse, but don't actually make it better

Bowlby's 4 phases of attachment

1. preattachment 2. attachment in the making 3. clear-cut attachment 4. reciprocal relationships

What are 3 tasks that require working memory?

1. reading 2. writing 3. doing math

2 ways to know how many words babies know

1. recognition task ("Find the dog!" when shown 4 photos, 1 of which has a dog) 2. parent report ("Which of these words does your child understand? Say?")

2 types of preschool

1. regulated 2. unregulated

2 weaknesses of behaviourist approaches to language learning

1. reinforcement is rare / not necessary / often ineffective (children rarely get explicit feedback on their language) 2. behavioural theory predicts that children learning multiple languages at once should be much slower and they're not

2 types of locomotor play

1. rhythmical stereotypes 2. exercise play

6 features of peer social play

1. rough-and-tumble play 2. physically vigorous behaviours 3. exaggerated movements 4. soft, open-handed kicks 5. role-taking and self-handicapping 6. 50:50 rule that each person is dominating only half the time

3 functions of rough-and-tumble play in adolescence

1. rough-and-tumble play is linked to aggressive behaviour 2. dominant adolescents initiate with less dominant peers 3. may be a way of using aggression to control resources

2 aspects of dual-mechanism model causing overregularization

1. rule 2. memory

2 limitations of Mischel's 1970 delay of gratification study

1. sample was selective (all children attending Stanford preschool) - may not generalize 2. did not control for other variables that might explain the association (like SES)

8 behaviours indicating attachment at later stages (beyond infancy)

1. seeking that person when upset 2. showing affection to him or her 3. trying to ensure physical and/or psychological access to that person 4. sharing events of personal significance 5. seeking help with problems 6. competing for that person's attention 7. seeking that person's positive regard 8. being sensitive to that person's evaluations of the self and one's accomplishments

Security develops based on what 3 types of responding by the caregiver?

1. sensitive 2. responsive 3. contingent

2 complex emotions and their composites

1. shame - sadness, anger, fear of repercussions 2. pride - happiness, need to know norms about what's hard to be proud of completing a difficult task

What are 6 stages of things that infants smile at from birth - 6 months?

1. smiling at internal states 2. smiling at tactile stimulation 3. smiling at external visual stimuli 4. smiling at external auditory stimuli 5. smiling at faces 6. smile of recognition

What 2 things does executive functioning allow for?

1. solving problems 2. achieving goals

4 contributions that the NYLS provided to the field

1. systematic study of individual differences between children 2. examined infants' actual behaviour 3. complex dynamic (interplay between children's temperament and environmental experiences) 4. goodness-of-fit idea (any temperament or personality is not in and of itself a problem but depend on the environment)

3 tasks that require executive functioning

1. taking turns in a game 2. getting dressed 3. solving math problems

2 definitions of temperament

1. tendency towards particular behaviours and emotional responses in specific situations 2. individual differences in affect, activity, attention, and self-regulation

What are 2 things Freud thought about infants forming bonds with their caregivers?

1. thought the mother-child bond was critical 2. breastfeeding is a primary source of oral gratification

2 physiological ways the body responds to emotions

1. through the autonomic nervous system 2. by being startled

3 takeaways of emotion regulation

1. transitions from passive to active 2. involves an increasingly complex repertoire of cognitions and behaviours 3. not all strategies are equally successful

4 other factors to consider in determining if a baby is bilingual, besides just exposure

1. tri/multilingualism, which can matter (Byers-Heinlein & Werker, 2009) 2. simultaneous vs. sequential exposure of languages 3. contexts of exposure (ex. one parent-one language) 4. language pairs (Is it harder for the baby to learn more similar or more different languages?)

2 ways that children learn the meanings of words

1. use of social info 2. assumptions about what words mean

2 types of information held in working memory

1. verbal 2. visual-spatial

4 components of play

1. voluntary 2. non-functional 3. nature of behaviours may not resemble those in a functional context 4. positive affect

4 emotion regulation strategies in adolescence

1. voluntary engagement 2. involuntary engagement 3. voluntary disengement 4. involuntary disengagement

2 ways to measure emotion regulation in adolescence, according to Compas et al

1. voluntary or involuntary 2. engagement or disengagement

2 pieces of information given by your gaze

1. what you want 2. what you're referring to

Around what age do children begin engaging in pretend play with peers?

1.5 - 2 years

Infants how young become upset if adults keep a still face?

1.5 months

Iverson and Goldin-Meadow's 2005 study on first words and gestures

10 children were followed from 10 - 24 months. Items that children gestured were then produced in speech. A child who pointed at a cat is more likely to produce the word "cat" than a child who didn't. Children who were first to produce gesture-word combinations were also the first to produce two word phrases.

What percentage of all observed behaviour in preschool was construction?

10%

What percentage of behaviour in primary school is rough-and-tumble play?

10%

What percentage of middle-SES North American infants show insecure resistant attachment?

10%

In the US, how many 3 and 4 YO attend Head Start?

10% of 4 YO and 8% of 3 YO, 40% of whom are from families living below the poverty line

The average 6 YO knows how many words?

10,000 - 14,000

results of Chronaki et al's 2015 study of development of recognition of vocal expressions

10-11 YO were less accurate than adults at identifying sad, angry, and fearful vocal expressions at 100% intensity

What percentage of people are highly sensitive with sensory processing sensitivity?

10-35%

Moffitt et al 2011 study experimental setup

1000 children born in the same city were followed for 32 years.

Camras et al's 2007 study of babies' emotional responses experimental setup

11 MO babies were put in one of 2 situations: either put in an arm restraint to elicit anger or shown a growling toy gorilla to elicit fear. They were then videotaped and coded.

Camras et al's 2007 study of babies' emotional responses results

11 MO who were put in arm restraints struggled and tried to withdraw from the person. Those who were shown the scary gorilla breathed more quickly and stayed still. The facial expressions of babies between conditions did not differ, though. Infant facial expressions don't reliably show specific emotions.

Study of inhibited and uninhibited children results in the lab

117 children were identified as either inhibited or uninhibited. They were observed as they encountered unfamiliar people, objects, and situations in the lab. Inhibited children showed crying and withdrawal, while uninhibited children showed minimal crying and spontaneous approach. Children behaved in a similar way several weeks later, showing stability over time.

At what age do most often say their first words?

12 months

Green, Whitney & Pategal's 2011 study of tantrums setup and results

13 2 and 3 YO children wore onesie with high-quality microphone sewn into it and were able to code vocalizations in tantrums

Pluess and Belsky's 2009 study based on NICHD experimental setup

1300 children and infants participated, 1000 of whom were followed into adolescence. Throughout early childhood, detailed assessments were completed of the type of non-maternal care children received, including hours of care and quality of care. Do negative emotionality and quality of childcare affect behaviour problems and social skills at age 4.5 years? Specifically, does the association between quality of childcare and later behaviour problems and social skills depend upon negative emotionality?

In Vancouver in 2013, what percentage of parents reported using one language at least 90% of the time?

14%

What percentage of middle-SES North American infants show insecure avoidant attachment?

15%

What percentage of middle-SES North American infants show insecure disorganized attachment?

15%

Reynolds et al's 2011 study of the Chicago longitudinal study experimental setup

1539 families were part of the study, where 989 of them had children who completed a preschool program (child-parents centre education program). The control group consisted of 550 children from lower-income families who didn't complete CPC preschool (16% attended Head Start), but did take part in an enriched kindergarten program. Groups were matched on age, poverty status, and comparable demographically. Children were assessed once they had grown up and were 28 years of age.

results of Phillips et al's 2016 study on academic / cognitive benefits of Head Start

1774 students in grade 7 and 8 in Oklahoma, 357 of whom attended Head Start, while the other 1417 did not. Those who had attended Head Start had higher scores on state math test, were less likely to be held back a grade, and were less likely to be chronically absent. Nevertheless, there was no different on state reading test, GPA, number of honours courses taken, or suspensions.

Raver et al's 2017 Chicago school readiness project study experimental setup

18 Head Start classrooms were randomly assigned to either the Chicago school readiness intervention or received a teacher's aide (to control for the extra person who was the mental health consultant in the other condition). Before and after the intervention, executive functioning, attention / impulsivity, receptive vocabulary and letter naming, and basic math skills were measured.

What percentage of 3 YO in the US are in preschools?

19% in public preschool, 23% privately funded, and 58% are not enrolled

At what age did Heibeck & Markman's 1987 study and Markson's 1999 study show fast mapping in children for learning new words?

2 YO

reciprocal relationships

2+ years. Infants start to understand that the caregiver is coming back

How often do English-speaking children in grade 1 over regularize the past tense when given the opportunity?

2.5% of the time

regulated preschools in Quebec requirements

2/3 staff must have a college or university early childhood credential and there are mandatory staff:child ratios, but there are no regulations around curriculum in Quebec

How many children waited the whole time in Mischel & Ebbesen's 1970 study on delay of gratification when they could see only the immediate reward and when they could see both rewards?

2/8 children waited the full time when they could only see the immediate reward and none of the children waited the full time when they could see both rewards.

What percentage of Canadians speak a native language other than English or French?

23%

Describe the study done on bilingual infants and bilingual undergrads, looking at the cost of code switching (Byers-Heinlein, Morin-Lessard & Lew-Williams, 2017)

24 French-English bilingual infants (20 MO), who's dominant and non-dominant languages were measured via exposure and 24 French-English bilingual undergrads participated. Undergrads all began acquiring both languages between birth and age 6. They had a self-reported comprehension proficiency of 8 / 10 or above. They then self-reported their dominant language. During same language trials, babies and adults were shown pictures of things with either an English or a French sentence in infant-directed speech like, "Look, find the dog!" In code-switched trials, sentences in infant-directed speech were said to children that switched from dominant to non-dominant language or vice versa (For example, "Look, find the Chien!"). Looking time was then measured via an eye-tracker to see if participants understood the word.

What percentage of all observed behaviour in preschool was pretend play with objects?

26%

Barrera & Mauer 1981 study of infants discriminating facial expressions experimental setup and results

3 MO habituated to either a smiling or frowning face are then tested with one or the other. They do indeed look longer at the novel facial expression, but it is the same model both times.

Carey and Bartlett 1978 study looking at words experimental setup

3 YO children were asked to walk over to 2 trays (one blue and one olive). They were told, "Bring me the chromium tray. Not the blue tray. The chromium tray."

Lewis et al's 1992 study of complex emotions in toddlers experimental setup

3 YO children were observed doing problem-solving tasks. Each tasks had an easy and a hard version. The children were videotaped doing the task. Their emotions were coded based on if 3/5 of the characteristics of pride or shame were present within 30 seconds of the task finishing. The characteristics of pride were erect posture, smiles, eyes directed at parents, pointing at outcome or applauding, and positive self-evaluation. The characteristics of shame were slouched body, eyes lowered, withdrawal from task, and negative self-evaluation.

After 1 year, what did the Head Start impact study show in terms of social / behavioural functioning?

3 YO group had fewer behavioural problems and greater social skill

Markson and Bloom 1999 study on fast mapping experimental setup

3 YO, 4 YO, and undergrads underwent training. Here, they were shown 10 objects, 4 of which were familiar and 6 of which were novel. They were taught a new word for one of the objects, by the experimenter saying, "Let's use the kobo to measure which is longer. We can put the kobo away now." They were then taught a fact about one of the objects, by the experimenter saying, "We can use the thing my uncle gave to me to measure which is longer. We can put the thing my uncle gave to me away now." Finally, they watched as a sticker was placed on an object. 1/3 of participants were tested immediately, 1 week later, and 1 month later, respectively. In test, subjects were shown the original tray of items and asked to identify the Kobo, the item given to the experimenter by her uncle, or were given a sticker and asked to put it where it should go.

Koenig, Clement, & Harris' 2004 study on untrustworthy language teachers experimental setup

3 and 4 YO children watched videos of actors labeling familiar objects. One actor was reliable (got names right), while another was unreliable (mislabeled objects). They were then shown videos in which the same actors labeled unfamiliar objects.

At what age can bilinguals discriminate even rhythmically-similar languages?

3-4 months

Around what age do infants start smiling at external visual stimuli?

3-8 weeks

In Quebec, a childcare provider can care for how many children under 12?

4

Study of inhibited and uninhibited children that evaluated 500 4 MO

4 MO were presented with different stimuli. High reactive infants became very distressed (20%) and low reactive infants showed minimal motor activity and distress (40%).

Montague & Walker-Andrews' 2001 peek-a-boo study experimental setup

4 MO were tested. An experimenter sat facing the child. He covered his face with a red cloth for 3 seconds. He removed the cloth and made an emotional facial expression for 7 seconds. The experimenter said "peek-a-boo" in a matching voice. For trials 1-3, the experimenter was happy. For trial 4, the target emotion was tested. For trials 5-7, the experimenter was happy. For trial 8, the target emotion was tested again. The dependent variable was looking time (how long infants looked at the facial expression).

results of dimensional change card sort task in preschoolers

4 year olds easily shift when the rules change. 3 year olds get stuck. They can tell you the new rule, but then they cannot perform in accordance with this rule

In Vancouver in 2013, what percentage of parents reported only using one language?

4%

What percentage of behaviour in early adolescence is rough-and-tumble play?

4%

What percentage of behaviour in preschool is rough-and-tumble play?

4%

Friend & Becker Bryant's study on vocal vs. semantic emotional cues experimental setup

4, 7, and 10 YO heard sentences spoken by an adult. These sentences either had happy content with happy paralanguage, happy content with angry paralanguage, angry content with angry paralanguage, or angry content with happy paralanguage. After each sentence, children were asked to say whether the adult was feeling happy or angry (were told to imagine a mom talking to a child in the next aisle of a grocery store).

Morton & Trehub's study of vocal vs. semantic emotional cues experimental setup

4-10 YO and adults heard happy and sad sentences in happy and sad paralanguage. They then indicated whether or not the person speaking was happy or sad. With the way scoring worked, higher scores = more reliance on content.

Serrano et al's 1992 study of infants discriminating facial expressions experimental setup

4-6 MO infants were habituated to 3 different models making the same facial expression. They were then tested with two models making the same expression and two models making a different expression.

estimated receptive vocabulary size of native English speaking adults

40,000 words

What percentage of 4 YO in the US are in preschools?

44% in public preschool, 26% in privately funded, and 30% are not enrolled

What percentage of Quebecers are bilingual in English and French?

45%

What percentage of children who are deaf are born to parents who are also deaf?

5 - 10%

Gao & Maurer's 2010 study of recognition of facial expressions experimental setup

5 YO, 7 YO, 10 YO, and adults were shown photos of people from 0% one emotion to 100% that emotion. They then had to match that emotion to an emoji representation of the emotion. They were measured on their accuracy at 100% intensity, the intensity needed to differentiate the facial expression from neutral, and the misidentifications of one emotion for another

Around what age does pretend play peak?

5 years of age

Head start impact study experimental design

5,000 3 and 4 YO children were randomly assigned to either attend Head Start or else be control (didn't have access to Head Start, but could go to a different preschool program - approx. 60% of control group took part in another preschool program).

Around how many words do babies know at 18 months?

50 words

In the Netherlands in 2007, what percentage of parents reported being monolingual at home?

50%

At what age does babbling begin in infants?

6 - 10 months

By what age do infants show the basic emotions by their facial expressions?

6 MO

Results of Harlow's experiment where monkeys were raised in isolation for 6 months and then paired with a peer

6 MO monkeys who had been raised in isolation were paired with younger, typically developing 3-4 MO monkeys. These younger monkeys would provide social contact but would not aggress. At first, the isolation-raised monkeys would withdraw and the peer would come and hug them. After 2 weeks, isolation-raised monkeys began returning hugs. After 6 months, isolation-raised monkeys looked typical in terms of their social behaviours.

Ekman faces

6 universal faces for anger, surprise, disgust, fear, happiness, and sadness that exist cross-culturally

attachment in the making

6 weeks - 6-8 months. Infants responds differently to familiar caregivers than to strangers. The baby would smile more to the mother and babble to her and will become quiet more quickly, whenever picked by the mother, but don't protest when separated from caregiver

At what age do infants begin to smile primarily at familiar people?

6-7 months

At what age do specific bonds emerge?

6-7 months

clear-cut attachment

6-8 months - 18-24 months. Infants show separation anxiety and want caregiver there as a base

What percentage of North American infants in middle-SES families show secure attachment?

60%

What percentage of children in Canada have a sibling?

75%

In Quebec, what percentage of mothers of 0-2 year olds work outside the home?

77%

Silk et al's 2003 study of adolescents' emotion regulation experimental setup

7th and 10th grade students were paged at random times throughout the day for one week. They were asked about their current affect, as well as their peak affect (worst experience in the last hour). When an adolescent rated a peak negative mood state greater than 3, they answered questions about how they regulated it. These strategies were separated into voluntary engagement, involuntary engagement, or disengagement.

strange situation experimental setup

8 episodes happen and each is supposed to cause discomfort for the baby. These might include the mom leaving, needing to play with a stranger, and the mom returning. Babies are coded as secure or one of the insecure attachment styles. A balance is sought between attachment need and exploration.

At what age do children develop separation anxiety?

8 months

At what age do infants understand basic phrases?

8 months

In Quebec, what percentage of mothers of 3-5 year olds work outside the home?

82%

In Quebec, what percentage of mothers of 6-15 year olds work outside the home?

86%

Kuhl et al's 2003 study experiment 2 experimental setup

9 and 10 MO were randomly assigned to learn Mandarin from audio input or AV input. the AV group watched a DVD made using the same Mandarin speakers as experiment 1, while the audio group just heard the audio from the DVD. Experimenters then tested which infants could discriminate Mandarin phonemes.

Watts et al. 2018 study on delay of gratification experimental setup

918 children took a variant of the marshmallow test when they were 54 months (4.5 YO). They were asked to wait, but this time only for 7 minutes. 552 children had mothers who had not completed college (lower SES) and 336 children had mothers who had completed college (higher SES).

Belsky & Pasco Faron's 2008 study of attachment experimental setup

A large sample of infants were classified based on strange situation at 15 months. Maternal sensitivity was measured at 24 months and cognitive and social outcomes were measured at 36 months.

Who was brought into the classroom in the Chicago school readiness project?

A mental health consultant was brought in, who helped teachers when they were implementing new strategies and conducted workshops on burnout.

How might maternal well-being affect attachment?

A mother with depression might have trouble responding in warm, contingent ways, leading to less secure attachment.

Set shifting / cognitive flexibility

Adjusting to new demands, trying something new if something isn't working

Silk et al's 2003 study of adolescents' emotion regulation results

Adolescents reported using more voluntary engagement strategies than involuntary engagement and disengagement strategies. Disengagement and involuntary engagement predicted greater anger and sadness. Nevertheless, no strategy was associated with decreased negative affect.

Camras et al's 1993 study of adults' perceptions of infants' faces experimental setup

Adults were shown videos of infants displaying prototypical facial expressions for discomfort, anger, or sadness. The adults could also see the baby's entire body. They rated how much the baby was showing each of discrete emotions.

Morton & Trehub's study of vocal vs. semantic emotional cues results

All adults used paralinguistic features to determine the speaker's emotion, while almost all young children relied on speech content to determine emotion.

Carey and Bartlett 1978 study looking at words results

All the 3 YO retrieved the olive coloured tray. 6 weeks later, most children remembered that the word for this tray was "chromium".

Can any animals acquire language?

Animals don't acquire language, however, some animals can acquire some components of human language, like how dogs follow limited commands and monkeys can learn a few signs.

overregularization

Applying a grammatical rule too widely and thereby creating incorrect forms

At what age do children show an early understanding of syntax and how do we know this?

Around 18 months. They will put together 2-3 words, but they seem to understand how to put these words together. For example, they say, "eat dessert", which represents an action-object conceptual relationship, rather than saying, "dessert eat."

cognitive development and social deprivation

As age increases, children raised in orphanages fall further cognitively behind children raised by their parents in community.

day in the life interview

Ask how much baby has heard each language by going through the whole day with parents. Go through every time period of the baby's life and get a final percentage of time the baby is hearing each language.

DRD4 7-repeat polymorphism

Associated with impulsive, hyperactive behaviour. Children with this polymorphism are more likely to develop insecure attachment when they were also raised by mothers who showed negative parenting characteristics.

5-HTTLPR serotonin transporter gene

Associated with negative emotionality. Infants with a short allele were more likely to develop insecure attachment in the context of poor parenting.

Connectionist approaches to language learning

Assume that language results from environmental input. But, the brain can handle many kinds of info simultaneously. Can generate rules, even when that rule was never explicitly stated. Exposure to lots of words and sentences will allow you to generate the rules.

Study following inhibited and uninhibited 4 MO for 18 years

At 14 and 21 months, children were observed in the lab encountering unfamiliar events. 1/3 were classified as inhibited: fearful and avoidant, while 1/3 were classified as uninhibited: minimal signs of fear. High reactive infants were more likely to be inhibited toddlers and low reactive infants were more likely to be uninhibited toddlers. As 15 YO, 1/5 reactives and 1/4 low reactives had some of the expected psychological features as adolescents. But, less than 5% of high or low reactives developed a profile that looked like the other category. Early reactivity did not so much predict who you would be, but who you would not be.

Study of inhibited and uninhibited children results at 4, 5, and 7 YO

At 4 YO, inhibited children were more withdrawn when playing with an unfamiliar child. Inhibited children were also more solitary upon starting kindergarten. When assess again at 5 YO and 7 YO, about 1/3 retained their behavioural style and less than 10% switched from one category to the other.

At what age do babies understand their own names?

At 5 months, infants prefer to listen to a recording of their own name than a stress-matched word.

At what age do babies prefer to listen to familiar words?

At 6 months, infants prefer to listen to familiar words like "baby".

6 results from Reynolds et al's 2011 Chicago longitudinal study

At age 28, compared to the control group, the preschool group: 1. was more likely to finish high school 2. was more likely to finish high school on time 3. had a higher income 4. was more likely to have health insurance 5. was less likely to have a substance use problem 6. was less likely to have been arrested

results of NICHD study of early childcare and development results

At age 4.5 years, children in higher quality care had better language and math skills. At 15 years, children in higher quality care had better academic outcomes and children in lower quality care demonstrated more aggressive behaviour.

Study testing if newborns could discriminate between English and Tagalog results

At test, control babies showed no difference in sucks / minute (as would be expected since they heard the familiar language). Monolinguals and bilinguals both could tell the difference between languages from birth though, based on increased sucks / minute when the language at test was different than habituation.

Larson et al's 2002 study of negative affect in adolescence experimental setup

At time 1, 5-8th graders carried pagers and booklets for one week. When they were paged, they had to fill out a page in the booklet. They were paged approximately 7 times a day and participants responded to more than 75% of the pages. They also rated how they were feeling on three 7-point scales, one for happiness, cheerfulness, and friendliness. At time 2, the same children were now in grades 9-12 and completed the same task.

variegated babbling

Babbling sequences in which the syllable content varies ("bamanamanapa")

insecure avoidant attachment response to strange situation

Babies explore when with mother and are not distressed when the parent leaves. They respond to a stranger the same as to a parent. They avoid the parents upon return or are slow to greet parent. They often fail to cling when picked up.

What exposure cut-off does Dr. Byers-Heinlein use to define bilingualism in her lab?

Babies who hear at least 25% in one language and 75% in the other language (or closer to 50/50).

What exposure cut-off does Dr. Byers-Heinlein use to define monolingualism in her lab?

Babies who hear one language 90% of the time

insecure resistant attachment response to strange situation

Before separation, infants seek closeness to a parent and fail to explore. They are most distressed when the parent leaves. On return, the infant is both clingy and angry and cannot be comforted easily.

What were the results of Harlow's 1958 study?

Both those monkeys that were fed by the cloth mother and those that were fed by the wire mother spent more time with the cloth mother. This suggests that mom is providing something other than food, which is driving the behaviour to want to be with mother.

Is rough-and-tumble play more common among boys or girls?

Boys are 2-3 times more likely to engage than girls.

distractibility (NYLS)

Can you get so absorbed in a book that you lose track of time?

attention span / persistence (NYLS)

Can you stick to an activity for a long time? Do you keep doing your homework even when your friends come by to see if you want to go out?

Lure retrieval task (Pellegrini & Gustafson's 2005 study)

Children are presented with an out-of-reach object and tools they could use to reach it. There was no association between the amount children played with objects during their year and their problem solving on a lure retrieval task.

Mischel & Ebbesen 1970 delay of gratification study experimental setup

Children chose a preferred and a less preferred reward. They were told that they could have the less preferred reward anytime or else they'd have to sit still in their chair and wait for the experimenter to come back (wait time was 15 mins).

Statistical learning approaches of language development

Children figure language out by getting input and then working out the patterns.

Bucharest early intervention project experimental setup

Children in orphanages were randomly assigned to foster care (N=68) or to stay in the institution (N=68) because there were not enough foster care placements for all the children. The mean age of placement into foster care was 22 months. Researchers also looked at children who were never institutionalized and were raised by their families. These children were followed over time (30 months, 42 months, 54 months) and their cognitive skills, language skills, and psychopathology were assessed.

What results did the Raver et al 2017 study with the Chicago school readiness project show?

Children in the intervention group had higher scores than children in the control group on executive functioning, attention / impulsivity, receptive vocabulary and letter naming, and basic math skills. Helping teachers helped kids.

Between 6 and 12 months of age, what happens in terms of the discrimination of phonemes?

Children start to only be able to discriminate phonemes in languages to which they have been exposed.

Results of Koenig, Clement, and Harris' 2004 study on untrustworthy language teachers

Children weren't misled by inaccurate labels for objects they knew. They were able to track who was a reliable teacher and who was not. Children who identified an actor as reliable were more likely to endorse that actor's label for the novel object.

"homesign" system

Children who are deaf who are not exposed to sign language will invent a "home sign" system of gestures to communicate with their family. These signs will get more complex with age, but lack features of language including complex syntax.

By the end of 1st grade, what results were seen in terms of social / behavioural functioning in the Head Start impact study?

Children who had completed Head Start had better relationships with their parents.

stability of EF

Children who have stronger EF continue to have stronger EF in adolescence. Mountain evidence suggests that eF is stable across childhood and adolescence.

results found in NICHD study of early child care and youth development in terms of social / behavioural functioning

Children who were in childcare at an early age were more socially skilled, but these associations were small and they disappeared.

Bucharest early intervention project results

Children who were in institutional care had poorer cognitive functioning than did children raised in their families of origin. At 54 months, the institutionalized group had an average IQ of 77.1, the foster care group had an average IQ of 81.0, and the non-institutionalized group had an average IQ of 109.3. Children who were assigned to foster care had better cognitive outcomes than did children who remained in the institution.

3 results seen in the high-scope Perry Preschool and Carolina Abecedarian Project studies

Children who were in preschool saved money for the state due to: 1. increased income tax 2. reduced incarceration 3. reduced health care costs

According to Reynolds et al's 2011 Chicago longitudinal study, who benefits from preschool?

Children whose mothers graduated high school showed no difference from control in terms of high school completion, felony charges, or substance abuse. Meanwhile, for children whose mothers never completed high school, they were less likely to complete high school themselves, more likely to be charged with a felony, and more likely to engage in substance abuse if they had not attended preschool. Therefore, preschool looks protective for children who are at risk.

language acquisition device

Chomsky's concept of an innate, prewired mechanism in the brain that allows children to acquire all natural languages, which one depends on input. It does not have specific rules because rules vary by language. But, it includes abstract principles that guide learning in any language.

results from Domitrovich et al's 2017 study looking at PATHS

Compared to children in the control group, children in intervention group were more socially competent (reported by parents) and had better emotion recognition skills.

Facial affect associated with infant crying and laughter, respectively

Crying is accompanied by negative facial affect and laughter is accompanied by positive facial affect.

So, why might it be better to do day in the life interviewing, rather than LENA?

Day in the life interviewing only takes about 15 minutes, whereas LENA requires undergrads to code all languages heard by the baby. LENA also requires the parents to visit researchers to obtain the device and then return it.

question asked by Pluess and Belsky about children's temperament

Do the associations between childcare experiences and social outcomes vary as a function of children's temperament?

intensity of reaction (NYLS)

Do you blow up when something irritates you? Do you get really excited when something good happens to you?

activity level (NYLS)

Do you fidget or bounce your leg when you're sitting still?

rhythmicity (NYLS)

Do you get to sleep, wake up, get hungry about the same time each day?

Kagan's model of temperament

Does a child withdraw or behave fearfully in stressful new situations? Are they inhibited or uninhibited children?

approach and withdrawal (NYLS)

Does the idea of traveling to a brand new city in a country you have never been excite you?

Is there a critical period for second language acquisition?

Earlier exposure to second language is associated with better outcomes. The upper bound on the critical period is somewhere between 5 YO and puberty. But, there are multiple critical periods depending on aspects of language. (For example, exposure between 7 YO might be necessary to achieve optimal outcomes for syntax, but other skills can improve later.)

How do emotions differ from temperament?

Emotions are transient states

emotions and adaptability

Even negative emotions can be adaptive and even positive emotions can be maladaptive.

Conclusions based on Markson & Bloom's 1999 study of fast mapping

Fast-mapping is not limited to word learning, since facts about objects can also be learned. It may, however, be limited to linguistically presented material. Children are not better at fast mapping than adults.

Overregulatization development curve

First, children get irregular forms right (feet, went). They then get them incorrect (feets, goed). They then get them right again (feet, went.)

What task is used to determine inhibitory control?

Flanker task

Harlow's second study with monkeys who had been raised with the surrogates setup and results

Half the time, infant monkeys would be put in a new situation alone, at which point they would cower in the corner and self-soothe. The other half of the time, the cloth mother would be put in the new situation with the infant mother. In this case, infant monkeys would initially cling to the cloth mother but then explore the space.

After 1 year, the Head Start impact study showed what in terms of academic / cognitive benefits?

Head Start children had improved literacy skills, improved writing skills, and improved math skills, but the differences weren't big.

slow to warm up children (NYLS)

High in withdrawal and slow to adapt, but low intensity reactions

difficult children (NYLS)

High withdrawal, biologically irregular, negative mood, not adaptable, high intensity reactions

follow-up study to Aron et al's 2005 study of sensitivity results

Higher association between negative affectivity and the difficulty of the task with higher sensitivity

Nativist approach to language learning

Humans have a specialized brain system just for language.

Results of Mischel & Ebbesen's 1970 study on delay of gratification

If preschoolers could only see the immediate reward, they waited about 5 minutes. If they could see both rewards, they would wait about 1 minute. Children waited the longest when they could not see either reward.

adaptability (NYLS)

If you and a group of friends were on your way to see a movie that you really wanted to see and then your friends decided they wanted to go hiking, how easy would it be for you to go along with that decision?

Why might there have been a large performance difference based on SES in Watts et al's 2018 study on delay of gratification?

If you have scarce resources, it may not be adaptive to wait for a better reward.

results of Morningstar et al's 2017 study of development of recognition of vocal expressions

Improvement from 8 - 17 YO in recognition of vocal expressions of affect

example of full and independent language developing in a death community

In Nicaragua in the 1970s, people who were deaf came from all over the country to a newly formed school for the death. They began to spontaneously create their own sign language, which had the features of language (ex. syntax).

pupil dilation in Byers-Heinlein, Morin-Lessard & Lew-Williams' 2017 study

In adults, pupil dilation is an index of cognitive load. In this study, they found that in both infants and undergrads, pupils dilated in response to language switch when they switched into non-dominant language.

Results of the study done on bilingual infants and bilingual undergrads, looking at the cost of code switching (Byers-Heinlein, Morin-Lessard & Lew-Williams, 2017)

In same language trials, babies looked at the correct picture about 60% of the time and adults looked at the correct picture almost all the time. In the code-switched trials, babies looked at the correct picture at chance levels and adults still were usually able to find the correct word, but it was significantly harder for them than the same language trials.

Results of Markson & Bloom's 1999 study on fast mapping

In the conditions where the object was named or a fact was given about it, both children and adults performed well above chance at all time points. In the sticker condition (visually presented fact), performance decreased over time for all age groups and only adults performed above chance at 1 month.

Results of the Watts et al. 2018 study on delay of gratification

In the lower SES sample, 45% of children waited the full 7 minutes, while 23% waited fewer than 20 seconds. In the higher SES sample, 68% of children waited the full 7 minutes, while only 10% waited fewer than 20 seconds.

So overall, are there associations between preschool and social / behavioural functioning?

In the short term, some preschool programs have been associated with improvements in social / behavioural functioning, but preschool programs as they are typically delivered (like Head Start) haven't yielded long-term gains in social skills. The evidence is not as consistent as the link between preschool and academic outcomes.

What did the Carolina Abecedarian project (CAP) show in terms of cardiovascular disease?

In their 30s, participants who went to preschool had fewer risk factors for cardiovascular disease.

Is attachment stable over time?

In theory, it should be but the data is inconsistent. Attachment may change because of changes in family circumstances, like divorce or the birth of a sibling.

Note about overregularization research

In theory, it should occur in all language. But, much of the research has been done with English speakers, and there is evidence that this type of error may be less common in other languages (like French).

Pluess and Belsky's 2009 study based on NICHD results

In those with low negativity, behaviour problems didn't change with childcare quality. In children with high negativity, behaviour problems were likely with low childcare quality and behaviour problems were far less likely (even less likely than in those with low negativity) when they were in high quality childcare. In those with low negativity, there was no change in social competence with childcare quality. In those with high negativity, social competence was low with low childcare quality, but very high with high childcare quality.

Harlow's 1958 study experimental setup

Infant rhesus monkeys were paced in a cage with either a wire or a cloth mother. Half of the monkeys were then fed by the wire mother, while the other half were fed by the cloth mother.

What was the conclusion of Saffran et al's 1996 study?

Infants are rapidly able to segment a speech stream based on statistical information.

Serrano et al's 1992 study of infants discriminating facial expressions results

Infants dishabituated slightly when a different face showed the same emotion, but dishabituated much more when they saw a new facial expression.

How much input is needed for statistical learning in infants?

Infants learn words from very little information. In the Marcus et al 1999 study, infants only had the frequency of which syllables went together. There were no other cues, in terms of pauses or inflections. It demonstrated that infants can learn a huge amount very quickly.

results of Saffran et al. 1996 study 1 on statistics of sound experimental setup

Infants listened longer to the new words, showing that they can tell the difference between words they have heard and new words.

What were the results of Marcus et al's 1999 study on statistical learning?

Infants looked longer at the novel sequence.

results of Saffran et al. 1996 study 2 on statistics of sound experimental setup

Infants looked reliably longer at the part words (the words that contained syllables that had previously spanned word boundaries).

conclusions of emotional facial expressions in infancy

Infants make facial expressions that correspond to discrete negative emotions but untrained adults do not reliably differentiate among them (often see disgust) and babies don't make these facial expressions in the expected situations.

Study done on 6 MO infants to show that they understand the referent of common words

Infants sat on a caregiver's lap in front of 2 video screens. One showed a video of their mom and the second showed a video of their dad. They then heard either "mommy" or "daddy". Infants spent more time looking at the named parent. They did not, however, look longer at the woman or man when they heard the word "mommy" or "daddy", so they did not just associate "mommy" with women, but actually had a specific reference to their own mother.

Walker-Andrews & Lennon's 1991 study of visual and vocal cues of emotion for infants experimental setup

Infants were shown either a happy face, an angry face, or a checkerboard. This visual stimulus was paired with a recording of a woman sounding angry, happy, or sad. Infants were habituated to this combination. On test, the picture did not change, but some infants heard the same vocal expression, while others heard a different vocal expression.

Kuhl et al's 2003 study experiment 1 results

Infants who heard the Mandarin were able to discriminate Mandarin phonemes, while those who heard English were not.

Kuhl et al's 2003 study experiment 2 results

Infants who were only exposed to audio or even to AV info could not discriminate Mandarin phonemes.

easy children (NYLS)

Interested in new things, biologically regular, high in positive mood, adaptable, low intensity reactions

average children (NYLS)

Intermediate on the dimensions

New York Longitudinal study experimental setup

Interviews with mothers about children's activities and routine that focuses on actual behaviours. The interviews occurred at 3 month intervals until the child was 3 YO. The interviews occurred at 6 month intervals until the child was 5 YO. After that, interviews became annual. School observations, IQ tests, and teacher interviews also took place.

Kuhl et al's 2003 study experiment 1 experimental setup

It examined whether exposing American-English infants to Mandarin when they were 9-10MO would stop the loss of sensitivity to Mandarin phonemes. Infants were randomly assigned either to Mandarin or English language sessions, during which native Mandarin or English speakers read children's books and played with toys. After language instruction, experimenters checked if infants could discriminate Mandarin phonemes.

How is developing a bond adaptive for both infants and parents?

It is adaptive for infants to have safety and a secure base and it is adaptive for parents to pass on their genes.

Head start

It is the largest and longest existing preschool program in the US that started in 1964 during the war on poverty. It was meant to provide opportunities to children living in economically disadvantaged circumstances. It provided a "whole" child model, providing education, nutrition, mental, dental, and mental health care

Is there a critical period for social interaction?

It is unclear, but the earlier children leave an institution, the better. The age of placement was also associated with language outcomes. Children who left the earliest had higher expressive vocabulary scores. Children placed in foster care before 24 months had very improved language outcomes at 30 and 42 months. Children placed later had severe delays in expressive and receptive language.

Why might overregularization show a U-shaped developmental curve?

It might mean that children need to figure out a new way to get the same task done.

LENA way to measure language exposure of babies

It's a little digital recorder that records 16 hours of speak / day to get an idea of the language environment. No algorithms can understand what language is being spoken though, so undergrads code when a baby is hearing each language.

Behaviourist approaches to understanding language

Language develops from operant conditioning. For example, parents could label objects for their child, which would lead to the child associating the word and its referent and then the parents giving either positive or negative reinforcement or feedback.

Aron et al's 2005 goodness of fit study experimental setup

Looked at sensory processing sensitivity (sensitivity to subtle stimuli, overstimulated, prone to checking in novel situations). People who are v sensitive may be more susceptible to the effects of their environments. Their hypothesis was that sensitivity will interact with negative experiences to predict shyness and negative affectivity and that the association between negative experiences and shyness and negative affectivity will be stronger for people who are sensitive. This study was done with university students. The dependent variables were shyness and negative affectivity. The independent variables were sensitivity and adverse parenting experiences.

still face paradigm study

Mom was playing with 1 YO old baby. She coordinated her emotions and intentions with looking and pointing and smiling. Interaction was normal. When the mother is told not to respond to her baby (to keep a straight face), the baby uses all of its abilities to try to get mom's attention. The baby smiles, points, puts hands in front of mother, screeches, cries. As a result, the mom interacts with baby again.

Newport and Colleagues investigation of critical period of language with ASL

Native learners were exposed to ASL from birth. Early learners were exposed between ages 4 - 6. Late learners were exposed after age 12. When tested, all subjects had at least 30 years of experience and the difference in years of being exposed to ASL was controlled for. Nevertheless, native learners were best at syntax and morphology, then early learners, then late learners.

At what age do infants follow others' gaze?

Newborns follow gazes of others at above chance levels. By 8 months, infants reliably follow the gazes of others.

Are bilingual infants confused, overwhelmed or delayed?

No

Can adults discriminate between phonemes in many different languages?

No

Did language mixing scale correlate with vocabulary size in Spanish-English bilinguals?

No

Does one parent usually speak each language in a bilingual household?

No because the adults need to communicate with each other.

So, are bilingual environments confusing to babies?

No because they have perceptual availabilities from birth to help them tell languages apart

Is rough-and-tumble play really an opportunity to practice fighting skills?

No evidence to support this

What's the cut-off of language exposure needed to be considered bilingual?

No one agrees

Do infants of all ages display separation distress signals in the same way?

No, as they age, their display of separation distress changes. For example, crawling babies will begin to seek out their caregivers and talking infants will ask for them.

Is attachment just one behaviour?

No, attachment is a complex set of behaviours.

Do all hearing parents of deaf children immediately find ASL teachers for their child and why or why not?

No, because some parents want their children to learn to lip-read or say words.

Does bilingualism delay language acquisition?

No, but if you're a bilingual baby, you have to learn twice as much, so they might know fewer words in English than a baby who only knows English, but if you counted their total number of words in either language, they know the same number or more than controls.

Do only humans communicate?

No, many animals communicate.

According to the statistical learning model of language development, are language-specific structures required?

No, since infants engage in statistical learning in domains other than language (musical tones, visual patterns, etc.) and the Marcus et al 1999 study was replicated with top tamarins.

Are all individuals of the same age equal in terms of EF?

No, there are marked differences across individuals in EF.

Do children before 6 months have specific bonds to caregivers?

No, they may recognize and prefer parents, but another person could substitute.

Do as many low-SES babies show secure attachment as middle-SES babies?

No, unfortunately not

Is children's temperament directly associated with attachment?

No. For example, children who experience more distress than others aren't ore likely to experience insecure attachment.

So, is there a critical period for first language acquisition?

Not having early exposure to language hurts language outcomes, but it is not clear yet what the upper boundary of the critical period is.

What does it mean to have an organized and engaging classroom?

Not too much time spent in transitions between activities since this can lead to less time learning. Positive relationships with teachers and classmates also facilitates learning.

What type of words are easier for children to learn and why?

Nouns are easier to learn than verbs. The typical referent of a verb is less concrete (harder to imagine). Verbs may be harder to learn cause less imageable.

reduplicated babbling

Occurs around 6 - 7 months, producing vowel consonant syllables in repetition ("bababa")

Larson et al's 2002 study of negative affect in adolescence results

On average, the dominant affective state was positive across all ages. That being said, there was a decreasing affect from grade 5 to 10 (from an average of 1.3 - 0.8). At time 1, 73.9% of episodes were positive affect, while only 70.7% of episodes were positive affect at time 2. At time 1, 12.7% of episodes were negative affect, while 19/6% of episodes were negative affect at time 2. 63% of participants reported less average positive affect at time 2, showing that many participants decreased a little in affect.

Montague & Walker-Andrews' 2001 peek-a-boo study results

On trial 4, infants looked longer at fearful and angry expressions than at happy and sad expressions. For infants who saw only happy faces, there was no difference in looking time across trials, but for infants who saw a different face at trial 4, looking time patterns varied as a function of emotion. When seeing anger, were increasingly vigilant. Data suggests that 4 MO discriminate facial expressions and recognize facial expressions.

Belsky & Pasco Faron's 2008 study of attachment results

Outcomes best to worst: 1. Infants were securely attached and had sensitive maternal care. 2. Infants had sensitive maternal care, but were not securely attached. 3. Infants had secure attachment, but not sensitive maternal care. 4. Infants had neither secure attachment, nor sensitive maternal care.

How to determine reactivity and regulatory traits (Rothbart)

Parents answer questions about children's behaviour via the child behaviour questionnaire. Example questions might include, "seems to be at ease with almost any person" or "takes a long time in approaching new situations"

Potegal and Davidson's 2003 study of tantrums in toddlers setup and results

Parents of children aged 18 months - 5 years reported on their child's tantrums. They found that children having tantrums hit and clung to parents. They also cried, yelled, and whined. They were able to differentiate that angry toddlers yelled, hit, and kicked. In contrast, sad toddlers whined, cried, and sought comfort.

In medicine, how might random assignment work? (example)

Participants assigned to either active drug or placebo.

In social psychology, how might random assignment work? (example)

Participants were either assigned to a negative mood induction or to no mood induction.

follow-up study to Aron et al's 2005 study of sensitivity experimental setup

Participants were randomly assigned to do a very easy test or a very hard test. They reported negative affect before and after the manipulation.

Wisconsin card sorting task

People are shown 4 cards and then given a card and told to match it, but they are not told whether to match base on colour, number, or shape. They are only told if they are right or wrong after they have matched. For a while, the same rule will continue, but then the rule will suddenly change without experimenter telling you until they tell you that you're wrong. The task is testing how easily you are able to adapt to the new demand.

goodness of fit

Personality / temperament is not inherently good or bad - depends on the fit to the context in which the person is operating. Good fit between temperaments and environments result in positive outcomes and poor fits result in negative outcomes.

Berko-Gleason's 1958 study on children's understanding of plural

Preschoold children and grade 1 children were asked to make words plural. 76% of preschoolers and 97% of 1st graders were able to correctly modify the end of fictional words to correctly make them plural.

Hoffner & Badzinski's 1989 study that looked at situational vs. vocal and facial emotional cues experimental setup

Preschoolers, 1st graders, 3rd graders, 4th graders, and 5th graders took part. They were shown 4 types of drawings: situation only, facial expression only, congruent facial expression and situation, or incongruent facial expression and situation (like character smiling after dropping ice cream cone on the ground). The children looked at photos and were asked whether the character would be happy or sad and to rate how much.

Domitrovich et al's 2017 study looking at PATHS experimental setup

Randomized Head Start classrooms to either receive PATHS immediately or to receive PATHS after one year. There were 10 intervention classrooms and 10 control classrooms. The teachers in intervention classrooms were trained on PATHS and administered it for one year. After, emotional knowledge, social skills, executive functioning, and social problem solving were assessed.

language production between 0 - 2 months

Reflexive vocalizations (crying, sneezing, and burping)

How are cries coded in toddlers?

Relatively loud and effortful, typically with an up and down melody. Breath may be interrupted, as in sobbing. Similar to an infant's cry.

insecure disorganized attachment response to strange situation

Represents the greatest insecurity. Babies exhibit confusion at reunion with parents. They show contradictory behaviours, like looking away while a parent is holding them. They have a dazed facial expression. They may display odd, frozen postures.

Can trained researchers reliably code infants' expressions and if so, by what age?

Researchers can reliably code emotions once babies are 2 MO, though fear can't be coded until about 7 MO

3rd variable problem

Researchers cannot be confident that an unmeasured variable is not the actual cause of differences in the variables of interest

Harlow's monkeys experiments with total isolation experimental setup

Rhesus monkeys were raised from a few hours after birth until 3, 6, or 12 months in total isolation. They had no contact with mom, peers, or humans. Their basic physical needs were all met, however.

So, after looking at all the models, how do children learn words?

Saffron et al's 1996 study showed that infants can identify patterns in a speech stream.

Genie and language acquisition

She was deprived of language until she was 13. At this point, she was able to learn many new words, but had difficulty mastering syntax. It's important to keep in mind, though, that she was deprived of many other things as well, like social contact, visual cues, and motor development.

Language mixing scale as self-reported by 181 bilingual parents

Shows Gaussian curve. But with more mixing is correlated a lower vocabulary.

Study testing if newborns could discriminate languages (English and Tagalog) experimental setup

Since fetal hearing is v developed in the 3rd trimester, babies were chosen that had either heard mom speaking only English or both English and Tagalog. Upon birth, these newborns were trained to suck on a pacifier when they heard a human sentence. First, newborns underwent habituation, where they heard sentences from one language (English or Tagalog). Then, they underwent test, where either mono or bilingual newborns heard sentences from the opposite language. (There was also a control group that heard new sentences from the old language.)

Why is random assignment done?

So people in groups don't differ in any way except the way we want them to.

Conclusions from Kuhl et al's 2003 study

Social interaction is necessary to be able to discriminate Mandarin phonemes.

differential susceptibility hypothesis

Some children are more susceptible to the effects of their environments, both good and bad.

diathesis-stress model

Some children are more vulnerable to the effects of a negative environment.

Orchids vs Dandelions

Some kids are like dandelions. They show low susceptibility and no developmental vulnerability in negative environments but also no developmental enhancement in positive environments. In contrast, orchids show high susceptibility. They are vulnerable to negative environments, but are also susceptible to more enhancement in positive environments.

relative vs. absolute exposure to language

Some parents are just chattier than others. This has been shown using the LENA device. Even if the percentage of speech in one language vs. the other is the same, some parents may just be quieter than others.

Saffran et al. 1996 study 1 on statistics of sound experimental setup

Some sounds are more likely to go together in a word than are others. This study tested 24 8MO infants from an American-English background. They were exposed to 2 minutes of a continuous speech stream. They heard three-syllable nonsense words, repeated in random order. The only cues to word boundaries were the transitional probabilities, which were higher within nonsense words than on between word boundaries. After familiarization (repetition of nonsense words), infants were presented with repetitions of three-syllable nonsense words, two of which were included in the familiarization material. Two of these contained the same syllables, but not in the same order, so these words are completely novel. Infants were then tested using the head-turn preference test.

positive and negative affect scale

Someone rates how often you've felt certain emotions today on scale from 1 to 5

Saffran et al. 1996 study 2 on statistics of sound experimental setup

Study 1 tested novel words that were syllables in an order that infants had never heard. But study 2 looked at syllables in an order that crossed the boundary between words. The infants had 2 minutes of familiarization to nonsense words. They were then tested on some of the same words and some new words that contained syllables that had previously spanned word boundaries.

Dimensional change card sort task

Task used with preschool age children to test set shifting. They are told to match cards either by shape or by colour. They are told when the rules change and how quickly they adjust is measured.

In economics, how might random assignment work? (example)

Teachers assigned to either receive financial incentive for attendance or no financial incentive for attendance.

difference between temperament and personality

Temperament is measured in infants and younger children, while personality is measured in older children and adults. Personality includes a broader range of individual differences

By the end of 3rd grade, how did the Head Start group compare to controls in the Head Start impact study?

The Head Start group was only better than the control group on one reading assessment.

Aron et al's 2005 study results

The association between shyness and adverse parental environment was greater for people who were highly sensitive. The association between negative affectivity and adverse parental environment was also greater for people who were highly sensitive.

avoidant attachment

The baby doesn't appropriately rely on the caregiver (explores too much).

resistant attachment

The baby shows diminished exploration because of preoccupation with the caregiver.

disorganized attachment

The baby's behaviour is confusing and contradictory. It seems to both want their mom and be afraid of her.

contingent responding

The moment-to- moment responses of a parent to a child and vice-versa. For example, when a mother smiles and rocks her baby, the baby will smile back more, causing more smiling and rocking from the mother, in a cycle of positive reinforcement.

How did children with better inhibitory control in Moffit et al's 2011 study compare to their siblings?

The one with better inhibitory control had better outcomes at age 32.

How do adolescents fare in terms of EF compared to adults?

Their inhibitory control and working memory reach adult-like levels of performance during adolescence. Depending on the task, performance may be adult-like as early as age 12 years. Adolescents are as good as adults at adapting to new rules, but they show greater switch costs (slow down more than adults would).

How might attachment be measured in children that are no longer infants?

There are other methods that have been developed for older children and for adults. Home observations work for children aged 1-5 years. Self-report measures also work on older children / adults, reporting directly on experiences of trust, communication, and understanding with each parent.

According to Head Start impact study, who benefits from preschool?

There are stronger associations between Head Start participation and positive academic outcomes for children from very low income families and English language learners who attended Head Start as opposed to children who did not

dual-mechanism model that explains overregularization

There can be the memory retrieval of an irregular form that blocks the application of a rule.

What was found in Watts et al's 2018 study on delay of gratification in terms of association with behavioural outcomes?

There were no associations between delay of gratification at age 54 months and behavioural outcomes.

How does the LENA compare to day in the life interview for language exposure?

There's a close relationship between the two, so they seem to both be valid.

regulated preschool

They have to operate in accordance with standards set out by the government.

results of Kisilevsky et al's 2003 study with fetuses and auditory stimuli

They played full-term fetuses recordings of their mother reading a poem or a stranger reading a poem and found changes in heartbeat that indicated that they could tell the difference.

retrieval failure in dual-mechanism model

To retrieve successfully, you need repeated encounters with the form. Successful retrieval increases as the number of encounters increases.

How can transitional probabilities help define word boundaries?

Transitional probabilities are higher within words and lower spanning word boundaries. (Some syllable pairs are only heard when a word that ends in one sound occurs before a word starting with the second sound.)

What do twin studies show about the heritability of attachment?

Twin studies looking both at monozygotic and dizygotic twins show that security of attachment is due primarily to the environment.

How are whines coded in toddlers?

Typically contains some verbal content with an up and down melody. May also include relatively shrill, monotonous nonverbal vocalization.

How are yells coded in toddlers?

Typically short in duration, command-like and usually containing some verbal content. Loud, but not as shrill as a scream.

How is fussing coded in toddlers?

Typically short, flat, or falling melody, relatively quiet and low pitched.

How are screams coded in toddlers?

Typically shrill, loud, and with no verbal content. Usually short and flat melody.

But do the attachment styles in infancy really cause later outcomes?

Unclear, since many studies did not carefully rule out alternative explanations. For example, securely attached infants may spend more time with mom and hear more words and as such, they have better language development.

Is there a greater proportion of insecure attachment styles among lower-income families?

Unfortunately, yes

Oster et al's 1992 study looking at adult perception of infants' faces experimental setup

Untrained adults were shown still photos of infants making one of 8 prototypical facial expressions. For each photo, adults were given the 8 emotion labels and asked to rate how strongly each emotion was shown in the face.

How do we know what words children can understand before they can speak?

Use a head-turn preference procedure. A baby sits on their caregiver's lap. There is a green light in the middle to get them to pay attention. On the side, a light shines and a sound is played. The angle that the baby turns his or her head is measured. If the angle changes, the baby is hearing a different sound.

secure attachment style response to strange situation

Use parents as a secure base. Explore when with the mother. May or may not cry when separated, but cry because the parent is absent and prefer mom to a stranger. They seek contact when the parent returns, reducing crying.

Is it better if each parent speaks a different language to the child?

We don't know, but probably not. What matters is exposure, not who speaks the language.

Does sheer quantity of language exposure matter?

We know it does from studies with monolinguals

age-related changes

What is an ability like at a given age?

Baldwin's 1991 and 1993 studies on using social information to learn words

When 18 MO hear a novel label for a word, they spontaneously check and follow the speaker's gaze and they link the label with what the speaker is looking at, not what they themselves are looking at

Lewis et al's 1992 study of complex emotions in toddlers results

When children succeeded, they didn't feel shame. When children failed, they didn't feel pride. When children succeeded, they felt more pride when the task was difficult. When children failed, they felt more shame when the task was easy. At age 3, pride and shame are expressed under the same conditions as adults.

Oster et al's 1992 study looking at adult perception of infants' faces results

When looking at a happy baby, adults recognize that there is no negative affect present. When shown a photo of an interested or surprised infant, they rate more negative affect. Untrained adults see more distress than they should. They are unable to differentiate between various negative emotions (fear, anger, sadness, disgust, etc.) but just see distress

Hoffner & Badzinski's 1989 study that looked at situational vs. vocal and facial emotional cues results

When only given situational info, kids of all ages use that to rate how happy or sad the character would be. When given facial expressions, however, the situational info isn't used at all by 3-5 YO. In 6-7 YO, kids who saw an incongruent image where situation didn't match facial expression, their rating of how the character felt took into account whether or not the situation was happy or sad, as well as the facial expression. This effect became more pronounced as children aged, showing more integration of situational factors as affecting the character's sadness or happiness.

Camras et al's 1993 study of adults' perceptions of infants' faces results

When shown discomfort and anger, the highest rated emotion by adults was distress. When shown sadness, the emotion ratings of adults were less intense.

Harlow's monkeys experiments with total isolation results

When taken out of isolation, all monkeys went into shock. Monkeys raised in isolation for 3 months showed typical social behaviour if they were then given the chance to interact with peers. Monkeys raised in isolation for 6 or 12 months experienced permanent social deficits.

What was found in Watts et al's 2018 study on delay of gratification in terms of association with academic achievement at age 15?

When you account for family and home variables, there are only weak associations between delay of gratification at age 54 months and academic achievement at age 15 years.

threshold of responsiveness (NYLS)

When you are taking an exam, does it bother you if the person behind you starts tapping a pencil or breathes loudly?

most famous set shifting task

Wisconsin card sorting task

quality of mood (NYLS)

Would your friends and family describe you as a happy camper or as an Eeyore?

Did Byers-Heinlein, Morin-Lessard & Lew-Williams' 2017 study give evidence for language control?

Yes

Does the language mixing scale correlate with some types of parental language mixing in the lab?

Yes

Is attention required for executive functioning?

Yes

Is it easier to code switch when the language switches between sentences?

Yes

Is there a processing cost for code switching in adults when changing languages?

Yes

Are children sensitive to the trustworthiness of someone teaching them a word's meaning?

Yes!

Can young infants discriminate between phonemes in many different languages?

Yes!

Does infant-directed speech help with language learning?

Yes!

Can attachment develop without dependency?

Yes! Even children who interact very little with a particular caregiver may still form an intense bond with that person. Children are also active agents in the forming of bonds with caregivers.

Do infants prefer infant-directed speech and why?

Yes! It reflects positive emotions. It is more variable and thus more interesting.

Do children make up locomotor play and what does this mean?

Yes! Studies with preschoolers and elementary school children varied the amount of time children spent in their seats doing school work. On long action deprivation days, children played more vigorously.

Can children's temperament change the associations between parenting and attachment?

Yes, For example, children who experience more distress than others may be particularly vulnerable to low-quality parenting.

Are newborns dependent on caregivers for emotion regulation?

Yes, for soothing and comforting

So, overall, is Head Start associated with academic / cognitive benefits?

Yes, in the short term, but it is unclear in the long term.

Can insecure attachment ever be a reasonable response?

Yes, it could be a reasonable response to a problematic environment. For example, infants who are resistantly attached engage in clingy and demanding behaviours, which may be a way of increasing the investment of a parent who is not very responsive.

Does inhibitory control require attention? What type?

Yes, it requires selective attention, when one selectively attends to some information, filtering out extraneous information.

According to Byers-Heinlein's 2013 study in Vancouver, do bilingual parents report language mixing?

Yes, most report at least some language mixing (fairly Gaussian distribution).

Are children who are securely attached more successful in other personal relationships?

Yes, particularly friendship

Is gesturing linked to later language production?

Yes, the more a child gestures early, the more words they produce later.

Are words social conventions?

Yes, the relationship between a word and its meaning is arbitrary and is agreed upon by a social group.

Do adults have physical responses to cuteness?

Yes, when an infant is cute, adults get more neurological responses in reward areas of the brain.

How can secure attachment serve as a foundation?

You can develop social skills and positive cognitive representations of relationships in a securely attached relationship.

How dos finding a hidden object require EF?

You have to keep the location in mind and then use that information to coordinate behaviour.

Friend & Becker Bryant's study on vocal vs. semantic emotional cues results

Younger kids tended to use content when content and paralanguage conflicted, whereas older kids tended to depend on paralanguage to ascertain the adult's emotions.

experience sampling

a method in which people report repeatedly on their current experiences after being contacted at random intervals

communication

a signal given by one organism that is perceived by and influences the behaviour of another organism

facial action coding system

a widely used method for measuring all observable muscular movements that are possible in the human face to reliably code adults' expressions

effortful control (Rothbart)

ability to sustain attention and inhibit behaviour, ability to persist in tasks, sensitivity to perceptual experiences

At what age do babies start to use iconic gestures?

about 1 year

What forms of EF improve in preschool children?

all 3 aspects improve

language

an intricate system of sounds or gestured symbols that people use to communicate with each other

Toddler scream and yell are acoustically similar to what adult emotion?

anger (high pitch)

How much does preschool cost families in Quebec?

approximately $140 / month (or $7 / day)

How many words need to be learned each day from birth do reach normal vocabulary by age 6?

approximately 5 new words / day

Around what age do infants show their first social smiles?

around 3 months

Why might people feel disgust? (functional approach)

avoid contamination or illness

canonical babbling

babbling with real syllables

insecure attachment

balance between exploration and attachment is impaired

Why can't we say that a bilingual baby is just one who's fluent in 2 languages?

because they're not speaking yet, so what matters is what languages they're hearing

What is the receptive vocabulary of a 10 MO baby like?

between 11 - 154 words

At what age do gestures start in babies?

between 8 - 12 months

At what age do babies begin to respond appropriately to points?

between 9 - 12 months (look at object person is pointing to, may look back and forth between object and person)

How long does it take children to go from not talking at all to speaking in complex sentences?

birth - 3 years

preattachment

birth - 6 weeks. Crying, but not directed to any one person

Did boys or girls engage in more pretend play with objects in preschool?

boys

joint attention / gaze following

call attention to something by looking at it, looking back at caregiver, and looking at it again

secure attachment

can explore the world and know that the caregiver will be there for you

iconic gestures

capture features of the referent (ex. flap arms like a bird)

unregulated preschool

care that takes place in a private home and doesn't conform to government standards

What's one main reason children go to preschool?

child care because in most families in Canada, both parents or one parent in a single-parent family work

uninhibited children (Kagan)

children who show minimal avoidance and vigilance in such situations; more likely to express positive emotions

1 method for external emotion regulation

co-regulation when another person helps you regulate your emotions

Why might people feel anger? (functional approach)

communicate desires or display power or dominance

Does verbal comprehension or production occur first?

comprehension

What type of action is the result of executive functioning?

conscious, goal-directed action

Why might people feel sadness? (functional approach)

conserve energy by disengaging or withdrawing

inhibitory control

control your thoughts, attention, and behaviour by overriding internal and external forces

language production between 2 - 3 months

cooing

voluntary disengagement in adolescents

denial or avoidance

By 3 months, what type of emotion regulation do children show?

early self-soothing (sucking) and repetitive motor movements

Chil-parent centre education (CPC) program

emphasizes basic language and math skills and teachers have bachelor's degrees and certification in early childhood eduction

involuntary disengagement in adolescents

escape or cognitive interference ("mind just goes blank")

language production between 4 - 6 months

experimenting with their voices (hoots, squeaks, etc.)

Marcus et al's 1999 study on statistical learning experimental setup

familiarized infants with patterns of syllables and then on test, novel sounds were played that either followed the rule or not

What form of EF is present in infancy?

finding a hidden object

John Bowlby coined what term?

first to call the bond between a parent and caregiver attachment

Did boys or girls engage in more construction play?

girls

Among what groups does rough-and-tumble play in childhood occur most frequently?

groups of boys who engage in high levels of activity and rough behaviour

perfectly balanced bilingual

hears each language 50/50

Where does pretend play begin?

in parent-child interactions, where parents expand on children's pretend themes

What is the first precursor to language in infants?

intentional communication without words (for example, pointing)

defining characteristic of social play

interaction between 2 people

emotional regulation

internal and external processes involved in initiating, maintaining, and modulating the occurrence, intensity, and expression of emotions

goal of Chicago school readiness project

intervention that targeted preschool children's self-control by teaching preschool teachers strategies to manage disruptive behaviours

natural language

language acquired without intentional effort

semantics

learning about expressing meaning (ex. word learning)

phonetics and phonology

learning about the sound system of a language

pragmatics

learning how language is used in a social context

syntax

learning the rules that determine how words go together in a sentence

MAX coding (Izard)

like FACS coding, but for infants; created by using the FACS coding and observing infant behaviours

transitional probability

likelihood of one sound given a previous sound

social referencing

look to others to see how to react

Why might people feel fear? (functional approach)

maintain integrity of self by avoiding danger, monitoring it, or escaping from it

working memory

mental sketch pad

How many languages are spoken in Canada?

more than 200

What is one of the biggest predictors of learning a new language?

motivation

What is strongly linked to rhythmic stereotypies?

motor development

Are children as upset at the end of a relationship with a caregiver as they are over the loss of a parent?

no

Are language disorders more common amongst bilingual children?

no

Did any of the babies in orphanage 2 investigated by Rene Spitz die before the age of 2?

no

Is bilingualism the only way to achieve cognitive advantages?

no

Is language mixing by bilingual children a sign of a problem?

no

Is insecure attachment the same thing as no attachment?

no because the child derives emotional support from an insecure attachment that they don't derive from people to whom they have no attachment at all

In all Canadian provinces, are there enough regulated spots available?

no, unfortunately not

What does it mean to exercise inhibitory control?

not just act out of habit or based on environmental input

The majority of children's fist words are what type of word?

nouns

How often do English-speaking preschoolers over regularize the past tense when given the opportunity?

only 4% of the time

What type of parenting has been reliably associated with more secure attachment?

parental sensitivity - warm, contingent responding

random assignment

participants have equal chance of being placed in any group

How might newborns have been able to distinguish between English and Tagalog?

paying attention to the rhythm

What is the most reliable way to make children laugh across cultures?

peek-a-boo

subjective experience of emotion

person's report of how they're feeling

play behaviours

play behaviours are creative and behaviourally flexible encounters with the world

What has been assumed to be the function of object play?

playing with objects increases problem-solving abilities, but data isn't consistent with this

When does object play peak?

preschool / early elementary school

For what type of animals might clinging be particularly important?

primates because babies have to grab on

Do bilingual children show cognitive advantages relative to monolinguals?

probably

voluntary engagement in adolescents

problem-solving, emotional expression, and cognitive reappraisal

delay of gratification

putting off getting something right now to get something better later

reactivity and regulatory traits (Rothbart)

reactivity: biological arousability (affect) regulatory traits: moderate reactivity

Sensory processing sensitivity is related to what temperament?

related to inhibition / threshold of responsiveness

Personality traits

relatively stable patterns of behaviour, motivation, emotion, and cognition

dependency

reliance on another person for basic physiological needs

What could be argued requires short-term memory and not working memory?

remembering numbers in a list

startle

response to sudden, intense stimulus that features a tensing of the back and neck muscles, as well as an eye blink

involuntary engagement in adolescents

ruminating (thinking about problem a lot, but never doing anything about it)

Toddler whine and cry are acoustically similar to what adult emotion?

sadness (low pitch)

differential emotions theory (Izard)

says that infants experience discrete emotions represented by different facial expressions

preschool

school that children attend before kindergarten

At 1.5 months, is it more upsetting for an infant to see a still face or for a parent to leave the room?

see a still face

executive functioning

set of neurocognitive skills that promote adaptive functioning

Between 3-6 months, what type of emotion regulation do children show?

shift attention from a negative stimulus to positive stimulus

holophrases

single words that represent an entire sentence

word segmentation errors

slips of the ear, where you incorrectly segment words

According to Byers-Heinlein's 2013 study in Vancouver looking at language mixing of bilingual parents, what correlated with more language mixing?

smaller vocabulary size

What behaviour is an expression of distress in toddlers and preschool-aged children?

tantrums

extraversion / surgency (Rothbart)

tendency towards high activity, expressions of positive emotion, pleasure, and excitement in social interactions

negative emotionality (Rothbart)

tendency towards sadness, fear, irritability, and frustration

What would behaviourists have predicted from Harlow's monkeys?

that infant monkeys would be attached to whichever mother fed them

direct teaching practices

the explicit act of naming in the presence of an object, or ostensive labeling

word segmentation problem

the fact that children must somehow decide where the breaks are between words in the speech stream

fast mapping

the process of rapidly learning a new word simply through incidental exposures rather than direct teaching

productive vocabulary

the words a child is able to say

word

unit of language that represents a concept or an idea

What percentage of babies in Canada grow up in bilingual homes?

unsure, but maybe about 20%

generativity of language

using a relatively small number of linguistic components and rules, creating an infinite number of expressions

individual differences

variability across individuals in performance

What is one way social information can be used to ascertain a word's meaning?

what someone is looking at is a very good clue to what a word means

inhibited children (Kagan)

withdraw and express vigilance and fear when confronted with novel, stressful situations; more likely to express negative emotions (ex. fear)

receptive vocabulary

words the child understands

Are adults better at learning vocabulary in a new language than babies?

yes

Are adults good at transferring knowledge between languages?

yes

Can children be differently attached to each parent?

yes

Do adolescents experience more intense negative affect?

yes

Do aspects of children's pretend play prospectively predict early language and writing skills (after accounting for verbal IQ)?

yes

Do babies exposed to sign language babble?

yes

Do children need experience with a caregiver to develop an attachment to them?

yes

Do human parents have a response to human babies' touch?

yes

Do patterns of insecure attachment vary across countries?

yes

Do preschoolers also engage in solitary pretend play?

yes

Does a child's behaviour influence the parent's behaviour?

yes

Does stress in the family affect attachment?

yes

In Canada, is preschool funded by the provincial government?

yes

Is pretend play linked to better understanding of others' beliefs, thoughts, and intentions

yes

Is social contact early in life critical for healthy development?

yes

Is parenting beyond infancy still important though?

yes, obvs

Is there evidence that more rough-and-tumble play in childhood is linked to an ability to decode happy play signals?

yes, some evidence