Psyc 356 Chapter 7

decline, sensitivity

1. Availability of substitutes: whether increases in the price of one item cause a ____ in consumption depends on the availability (and price) of other goods that can be used in place of the original item. The availability of substitutes increases the _______ of the original item to higher prices. Newspaper subscriptions in the U.S. have been steadily declining since news has become readily available on 24-hour cable channels and the internet

less

2. Price Range: Generally, an increase in price has ____ of an effect at low prices than at high prices. For example, a 10% increase the price from 50c to 55c is not likely to discourage consumption. But if the candy costs $6.00 might well discourage purchases

differential probability principle

Premack principle focuses on the difference in the likelihood of the instrumental and reinforcer responses. Therefore, it is also called _______ ______ ______. Eating will reinforce bar pressing b/c eating is typically more likely than bar pressing.

denies, preferred

Premack's theory _____ that there is anything special about a reinforcer. One of the early studies was conducted w/ young children. Premack first gave the children two response alternatives (eating candy and playing a pinball machine) and measured which response was more probable for each child. Some of the children preferred eating candy over playing pinball, while others preferred the pinball machine. In the second phase, the children were tested w/ one of two procedures. In one procedure, eating was specified as the reinforcing response, and playing pinball was the instrumental response. The children had to play the pinball machine in order to get access to candy. Consistent w/ Premack's theory, only those children who _________ eating to playing pinball showed a reinforcement effect under these circumstances.

increase, reinforcement

Presentation of the CS would _______ responding b/c responses elicited by the CS would be added to the responses the animal was performing to receive instrumental _________. Pigeon sees item pecks key = hears tone pecks key more

less

3. Income Level: The higher your income, the ____ deterred you will be by increases in price. Also true for reinforcers obtained on schedules of reinforcement. In studies of instrumental conditioning, the # of responses or amount of time available for responding corresponds to income. Income level also influences the choice of substitutes

devaluation

= rats pushing lever left or right. Evidence for RO

instrumental, decrease

A classically conditioned stimulus may influence __________ behavior through the overt responses it elicits. Consider a hypothetical situation in which the classically conditioned stimulus elicits sign tracking that moves the animal to the left side of the experimental chamber but the instrumental response is pressing a lever on the right side. In this case, presentation of the CS will _______ the instrumental response simply b/c the sign tracking behavior (going to the left) will interfere with being on the right to press the bar

increase, restricted, minimize

A reinforcement effect is identified by an _______ in the occurrence of an instrumental response above the level of that behavior in the absence of the response-reinforcer contingency. To move towards the behavioral bliss point, the student has to increase her studying so as to gain more opportunity to watch TV. Access to the reinforcer is _______; to gain more opportunity to engage in the reinforcer response, the individual has to perform more of the instrumental response. Thus, increased performance of the instrumental response results from behavioral-regulatory mechanisms that function to _______ deviations from the behavioral bliss point

aversive, less

After an aversion to the selected reinforcer had been conditioned, the vertical rod was returned, and the rats received a test, during which they were free to push the rod either to the left or to the right, but neither food nor sucrose was provided. The important finding was that the rats were less likely to make the response whose reinforcer had been made _______ by pairings w/ lithium chloride. For example, if sucrose was used to reinforce responses to the left and an aversion was then conditioned to sucrose, the rates were ____ likely to push the rod to the left than to the right

devalued, incentive

An initial phase of instrumental conditioning is followed by a phase in which the reinforcer is _______ by pairing it w/ illness or by making the subject full so that it no longer feels like eating. The subject has to experience the new value of the reinforcer. That is, the subject has to taste how bad the food became after it was paired w/ illness or how unpalatable the food is once the subject is no longer hungry. This is called ________ learning. Only if the subject has had a chance to learn what the new incentive value of the reinforcer is will its instrumental behavior be reduced

expectancies, CS+

Animals also acquire specific reward _________ instead of just categorical positive or negative emotions during instrumental and classical conditioning. For example, solid food pellets and a sugar solution were used as USs in a Pavlovian instrumental transfer test w/ rats. During the transfer phase, the ___ for food pellets facilitated instrumental responding reinforced w/ pellets much more than instrumental behavior reinforced w/ the sugar solution

availability, range, income

As it turns out, economic concepts have helped to identify three major factors that influence how schedule constraints shape the reallocation of behavior: 1. ________ of substitutes 2. Price _____ 3. ______ level

molar, functional

Behavioral regulation considers the motivation of instrumental behavior from a more _____ perspective. Thus, behavioral regulation theory views instrumental behavior from a more _________ perspective

preferred, homeostatic

Behavioral regulation theories assume that analogous mechanisms exist with respect to behavior. Within the framework of behavioral regulation, organisms are presumed to have a ______ or optimal distribution of activities that they work to maintain in the face of challenges or disruptions. Focus on the extent to which an instrumental response-reinforcer contingency disrupts behavioral stability and forces the individual away from its preferred or optimal distribution activities. You don't want to eat too much or too little, or exercise too much or too little. If the preferred or optimal balance of activities is upset, behavior is assumed to change so as to correct the deviation from the ________ level

behavioral bliss point

Behavioral regulation theory assumes that if organisms are free to distribute their responses among the available alternatives, they will do so in a way that is most comfortable, or in some sense optimal, for them. This response distribution defines the

allocation, compromise,

Behavioral regulation theory assumes that returning to the behavioral set point remains a goal of response ________. When this goal cannot be reached, the redistribution of responses between the instrumental and contingent behaviors becomes a matter of ________. The rate of one response is brought as close as possible to its preferred level w/o moving the other response too far away from its preferred level

special, causes, stamp, distinction

Contributions of Behavioral regulation: 1. Behavioral regulation and the Premack principle moved us away from thinking about reinforcers as _____ kinds of stimuli or as special kinds of responses. We are now encouraged to look for the _____ of reinforcement. 2. Instrumental conditioning procedures are no longer considered to "_____ in" or to strengthen instrumental behavior. Rather instrumental conditioning is seen as creating a new distribution, or allocation, of responses 3. There is no fundamental _______ between instrumental and reinforcer responses. Reinforcer responses are not assumed to be more likely than instrumental responses

economics, constraints

Contributions of behavioral regulation: 4. Behavioral regulation and behavioral ________ embrace the assumption that organisms respond so as to maximize benefits. The idea of optimization or maximization is not original w/ behavioral regulation 5. Behavioral regulation and behavioral economics have provided new and precise ways of describing ________ that various instrumental conditioning procedures impose on an organism's behavioral repertoire

demand curve

Curve A illustrates a situation in which the consumption of a commodity is very easily influenced by its price. This is the case w/ candy. If the price of candy increases substantially, the amount purchased quickly drops. Other commodities are less responsive to price changes. The purchase of gasoline, for example, is not as easily discouraged by increases in price. People continue to purchase gas for their cars even if the price increases, showing a small decline only at the highest prices

45, automatic

Estimates are that habits constitute about __% of human behavior. Habits "arise when people repeatedly use a particular behavioral means in particular contexts to pursue their goals. However, once acquired, habits are performed without mediation of a goal". Rather, the habitual response is an __________ reaction to the stimulus context in which the goal was previously obtained

Premack, critical

For example, filing cards and tracing letters were both low probability responses for Edgar, but racing was the less likely of the two responses. This result is contrary to the _______ principle and shows that response deprivation is more basic to reinforcement effects than differential response probability. The response-deprivation hypothesis points out that this defining feature of instrumental conditioning is _______ for producing a reinforcement effect

increase, reinforce

For example, the child may repeatedly handle only certain plastic toys. Delayed echolalia and preservative behavior both served to _______ task performance above what was observed w/ food reinforcement. These results indicate that high probability responses can serve to _______ lower probability responses, even if the reinforcer responses are not characteristic of normal behavior

Premack principle

Given two responses of different likelihood, H and L, the opportunity to perform the higher probability response (H) after the lower probability response (L) will result in reinforcement of response L

evoke, response

Hull and Spence proposed that the instrumental response increases during the course of instrumental conditioning for two reasons. First, the presence of S comes to _____ the instrumental response directly through Thorndike's S-R association. Second, the instrumental ________ also comes to be made in response to an S-O association that creates the expectancy of reward

increase, not critical

If a Pavlovian S-O association motivates instrumental behavior, then the rate of the lever pressing should _______ when the tone CS is presented. Called the Pavlovian Instrumental Transfer Test b/c it determines how an independently established Pavlovian CS transfers to influence or motivate instrumental responding. The order is ___ ______

include, SR

If devaluation of one of the reinforcers had altered the properties of S, that should have changed the two responses equally. That did not happen. Instead, devaluation of a reinforcer selectively depressed the particular response that had been trained w/ that reinforcer. This finding indicates that each response was associated separately w/ its own reinforcer. S-R associations do not _______ the reinforcer. Therefore, devaluation of the reinforcer cannot alter behavior mediated by an _-_ association

increased, encouraging

In a study, children 10-12 years old increased their purchases of healthy foods as the price of unhealthy alternatives was ______. The selection of healthy food also increased in a study of food choices in a restaurant when the healthy alternatives were reduced in price. Interestingly, a decrease in price was more effective in encouraging the selection of healthy foods than messages ________ patrons to eat healthy

reinforcer, R,

In an instrumental conditioning situation, the ______ (O) cannot be predicted form S alone. Rather O occurs if the individual makes response (R) in the presence of S. Instrumental conditioning involves a conditional relation in which S is followed by O only if _ occurs. This conditionality in the relation of S to O is ignored in two-process theories. -S is followed by O only if R occurs

pinball

In another test, the roles of the two responses were reversed. Eating was the instrumental response, and playing pinball was the reinforcing response. The children had to eat candy to get access to the pinball machine. In this situation, only those children who preferred playing _______ to eating showed a reinforcement effect

income, price

In instrumental conditioning situations, the restrictions are provided by the # of responses an organism is able to make (it's "_____") and the # of responses required to obtain each reinforcer (the "_____" of the reinforcer).

variety, not increase

Instrumental contingencies do not occur in a behavioral vacuum. They occur in the context of a ______ of responses and reinforcers the participant has available. Furthermore, that broader behavioral context can significantly influence how the person adjusts to a schedule constraint. For example, if the student enjoys listening to her iPod as much as watching TV, restrictions on access to the TV ___ ___ increase studying behavior. Rather, the student may switch to listening to her iPod or hang out with friends in place of watching TV w/o increasing her studying behavior

not respond, restrictions

Laboratory rats reinforced w/ food are typically not given food before the experimental session and receive a small pellet of food for each lever press response. These limitations on access to food (and eating) are very important. If we were to give the rat a full meal for one lever press, chances are it would ___ _____ more than once or twice a day. Generally, ________ on the opportunity to engage in the reinforcing response increase its effectiveness as a reinforcer

consummatory response theory

Many reinforcers, like food and water, elicit species-typical consummatory responses (eating, drinking and the like) are themselves the critical feature of reinforcers. Saccharin, an artificial sweetener, can serve as an effective reinforcer, even though it has no nutritive value and hence cannot satisfy a biological need. The reinforcing properties of artificial sweeteners now provide the foundations of a flourishing diet food industry. Was a radical innovation b/c it moved the search for reinforcers from special kinds of stimuli to special types of responses. The theory assumed that consummatory responses (chewing and swallowing) are fundamentally different from various potential instrumental responses, such as running, jumping, or pressing a lever

Premack, higher

Mitchell and Stoffelmayr studied two hospitalized patients w/ chronic schizophrenia who refused all tangible reinforcers that were offered to them (candy, cigarettes, fruit, biscuits). The _______ principle suggests that the opportunity to sit should be a good reinforcer for these patients. To test this idea, the investigators gave the subjects a chance to sit down only if they worked a bit on the coil-stripping task. If they made the required coil-stripping responses, they were permitted to sit for about 90 seconds, and then the next trial started. As long as the instrumental contingency was in effect, the two patients worked at a much _______ rate than when they were simply told to participate in the coil-stripping project

direct, expected

Neither the S-R nor the S-O association involves a _____ link between the response (R) and the reinforcer or outcome (O). If you asked someone why he or she was performing an instrumental response, the reply would be that he or she ________ the response (R) to result in the reinforcer (O). For example, you comb your hair b/c you expect that doing so will improve your appearance; you go to see a movie b/c you expect that watching the movie will be entertaining

connection, outcome, SO

One way to look for reward expectancy is to consider how Pavlovian processes may be involved in instrumental learning. Specification of an instrumental response ensures that the participant will always experience certain distinctive stimuli (S) in __________ with making the response. These stimuli may involve the place where the response is to be performed, the texture of the object the participant is to manipulate, or distinctive olfactory or visual cues. Whatever the stimuli may be, reinforcement of the instrumental response will inevitably result in paring these stimuli (S) with the reinforcer or response ________. Such pairings provide the potential for classical conditioning and the establishment of an association between S and O. Expectancy of reward = __ association classical conditioning

reuptake, mu, GABA

Psychostimulants influence the neurotransmitter dopamine by blocking its _______ (cocaine) or promoting its release (amphetamine). Opiates, such as morphine and heroin, have their effect by emulating endogenous opioids (endorphins) that engage the __ opioid receptor. Another common addictive substance, nicotine, engages acetylcholine receptors while sedatives (alcohol, valium) act, in part, through their impact on ____ergic neurons. Drugs of abuse appear to promote addiction by influencing neurons within particular brain regions, such as the nucleus accumbens

alone, present, S

R-O associations cannot act _____ to produce instrumental behavior. An additional factor is required to activate the R-O association. One possibility is that the R-O association is activated by the stimuli (S) that are ______ when the response is reinforced. According to this view, S does not activate R directly, but rather it activates the R-O association. Stated informally, the subject comes to think of the R-O association when it encounters S, and that motivates it to make the instrumental response. RO is activated by _

two process, classical

R-O associations do not exist in ___-_______ models. S is assumed to become associated directly w/ O on the assumption that the pairing of S w/ O is sufficient for the occurrence of ________ conditioning

devaluation, variable interval

Reinforcer _________ has been used to determine if an instrumental response is mediated by an association between the response and its reinforcer outcome. First reinforced rats for pushing a vertical rod either to the right or the left. Responding in either direction was reinforced on a _______-_______ one-minute schedule of reinforcement

S-O association

Reinforcer-specific expectancy learning is a challenging alternative to the two-process theory. However, this alternative is also based on the assumption that instrumental conditioning involves the learning of an _-_ __________

S-O, emotional

Rescorla and Solomon assumed the _-_ association activates an _______ state which motivates the instrumental behavior. The _______ state is assumed to be either positive or negative, depending on whether the reinforcer is an appetitive or an aversive stimulus. Appetitive reinforcers (food and water) are assumed to lead to a common positive emotional state and various aversive stimuli are assumed to lead to a common negative emotion

free-operant

Responses that occur during a ____-_______ baseline period do not always have the same value as responses that occur as a part of an arranged instrumental contingency. Doing something when there are no externally-imposed requirements (jogging for your own pleasure) appears to be different from doing the same thing when it is required by an instrumental contingency (jogging in a physical education class)

restricted

Several investigators found that even a low probability response can serve as a reinforcer, provided that participants are ________ from making this response.

three-term contingency, SR

Skinner described instrumental conditioning in terms of a ______-____ _________ involving S,R, and O. Law of effect = __ instrumental learning

minimum deviation

Staddon, for example, proposed a _______-_______ model of behavioral regulation to solve the dilemma of schedule constraints. Introduction of a response-reinforcer contingency causes organisms to redistribute their behavior between the instrumental and contingent responses in a way that minimizes the total deviation of the two responses from the bliss point. For situations in which the free baseline behavioral bliss point cannot be achieved, the ________-________ model provides one view of how organisms settle for the next best thing

responses, more

The Premack principle encouraged thinking about reinforcers as ________ rather than as stimuli, and it greatly expanded the range of activities investigators started to use as reinforcers. W/ the Premack principle, any behavior could serve as a reinforcer provided that it was ____ likely than the instrumental response

Pavlovian Instrumental, 3

The ________-________ Transfer Test involves three separate phases. In one phase, subjects receive standard instrumental conditioning (lever pressing is reinforced w/ food). In the next phase, they receive a pure Pavlovian conditioning procedure (the response lever is removed from the experimental chamber and a tone is paired w/ food). The critical transfer phase occurs in Phase _, where the subjects are again permitted to perform the instrumental lever-press response, but now the Pavlovian CS is presented periodically

molecular, instrumental

The associative approach takes a ________ perspective. It focuses on individual responses and their specific stimulus antecedents and outcomes. Examines ___________ learning in isolated behavioral preparations, not unlike studying something in a test tube or a Petri dish. The associative approach also provides a convenient framework for studying the neural mechanism of instrumental conditioning

bliss, stable, more

The behavioral _____ point is assumed to be ______ across time and can be identified by the relative frequency of occurrence of all the responses of an organism in an unconstrained situation. Consider how a high school student may distribute her activities between studying and watching TV. If no restrictions are placed on the student's behavior, she will probably spend a lot ____ time watching TV than studying. This is the behavioral bliss point in this situation. At the bliss point, the student watches TV for 60 minutes for every 15 minutes of studying

elasticity of demand, highly, less

The degree to which price influences consumption is called _______ __ _____. Demand for candy is _____ elastic. The more candy costs, the less you will buy. In contrast, demand for gasoline is much ____ elastic. People continue to purchase gas even if the price increases a great deal

Associative, Pavlovian, molecular

The motivation of instrumental behavior has been considered from two radically different perspectives. The first originated with Thorndike and involves analysis of the ________ structure of instrumental conditioning. As this label implies, this approach relies heavily on the concept of associations and hence is compatible with theoretical tradition of _________ conditioning. In fact, much of the research relevant to the associative structure of instrumental conditioning was stimulated by efforts to identify the role of Pavlovian mechanisms in instrumental learning. Associative = _________

vary

The particular distribution of activities that constitutes the bliss point will ____ from one situation to another. For example, if the running wheel is made very difficult to turn or the participant is severely deprived of water, the relative likelihood of running and drinking will change

inclined, high

The power of the Premack principle is that potentially any high probability activity can be an effective reinforcer for a response that the subject is not _____ to perform. In laboratory rats, for example, drinking a drop of sucrose is a ____ probability response, and as one might predict, sucrose is effect in reinforcing lever-press responding

increases, two process

The presentation of a Pavlovian CS for food _______ the rate of instrumental responding for food. The opposite outcome (a suppression of responding) is predicted if the Pavlovian CS elicits a negative emotion. According to ___-______ theory, conditioned suppression occurs because the CS+ for shock elicits an emotional state (fear) that is contrary to the positive emotion or expectancy (hope) that is established in instrumental conditioning w/ food

stamp in, reinforcer

The role of the reinforcer is to "_____ __" the S-R association. Thorndike thought that once established, this S-R was solely responsible for the occurrence of the instrumental behavior. Thus, the basic impetus, or motivation, for the instrumental behavior was the activation of the S-R association by exposing the subject to contextual stimuli (S) in the presence of which the response was previously reinforced. The Law of Effect assumes that the only role of the _________ is to strengthen the S-R association

behavioral regulation, consequences

The second strategy for analyzing motivational processes in instrumental learning is ____________ _______. This approach was developed within the Skinnerian tradition and involves considering instrumental conditioning within the broader context of the numerous activities that organisms are constantly doing. The approach is concerned w/ how an instrumental conditioning procedure limits an organism's free flow of activities and the behavioral __________ of such constraints

law of effect, reinforced

Thorndike considered the S-R association to be the key to instrumental learning and central to his ___ __ _______. According to this, instrumental conditioning involves the establishment of an S-R association between the instrumental response (R) and the contextual stimuli (S) that are present when the response is __________

SR, habitual, relevant

Thorndike's _-_ association may explain the habitual nature of drug addiction. In this model, procuring and taking a drug of abuse is viewed as instrumental behavior that is initially reinforced by the positive aspects of the drug experience. However, with repetitive use, taking the drug becomes ________ in the sense that it becomes an automatic reaction to contextual cues that elicit drug seeking behavior, without regard to its consequences. Compulsive eating, gambling, or infidelity can be thought of in the same way. According to the S-R mechanism, those consequences are not ________

response deprivation hypothesis and disequilibrium model

Timberlake and Allison abandoned the differential probability principle altogether and argued that restriction of the reinforcer activity was the critical factor for instrumental reinforcement. This proposal is called the

Premack, highly, reinforcement

_______ pointed out that responses involved with commonly used reinforcers involve activates that animals are highly likely to perform. In a food reinforcement experiment participants are typically food deprived and therefore are ______ likely to engage in eating behavior. By contrast, instrumental responses are typically low-probability activities. An experimentally naïve rat, for example, is much less likely to press a response lever than it is to eat. Premack proposed that this difference in response probabilities is critical for __________

behavioral regulation, contingency,

________ ________ theory states that organisms will defend against challenges to the behavioral bliss point, just as physiological regulation involves defense against challenges to a physiological set point. However, the interesting thing is that the free-baseline behavioral bliss point usually cannot be reestablished after an instrumental ________ has been introduced. Once the instrumental _______ is imposed, there is no way the student can watch TV for 60 minutes and only study for 15 minutes. If she insists on watching TV for 60 minutes, she will have to tolerate adding 45 min to her studying time. On the other hand, if the student insists on spending only the 15 minutes on her studies (as at the bliss point), she will have to make do with 45 minutes less than the optimal 60 minutes of TV watching

Thorndike, stimulus, instrumental

_________ was the first to recognize that instrumental conditioning involves more than just a response and a reinforcer. The instrumental response occurs in the context of specific environmental stimuli. Hence, there are three events to consider in a n analysis of instrumental learning: the ________ context (S), the __________ response (R), and the response outcome (O), or reinforcer

increased, expectancies

a CS+ for sugar increased instrumental behavior reinforced w/ sugar more than instrumental behavior reinforced w/ food pellets. Expectancies for specific rewards rather than a general positive emotional state determined the results in the transfer test. Clearly indicate that under some circumstances, individuals acquire reinforcer-specific __________ rather than the more general emotions during instrumental and classical conditioning

behavioral regulation

focuses on how instrumental conditioning procedures put limitations on an organism's activities and cause redistributions of those activities

delayed echolalia, perseverative behavior

studies have been conducted w/ children w/ autism who engaged in unusual repetitive or stereotyped behaviors. One such behavior, called _______ _______, involves repeating words. Another form stereotyped behavior, _________ ________, involves persistent manipulation of an object

two-process theory

theory assumes that there are two distinct types of learning: Pavlovian and instrumental conditioning. Assumes that these two learning processes are related in a special way. In particular, during the course of instrumental conditioning, the stimuli (S) in the presence of which the instrumental response is reinforced, become associated w/ the response outcome (O) through Pavlovian conditioning, and this results in an S-O association