PSYCH 100 Exam 2
Formal Operational Stage (Piaget)
(11 years and beyond) children at this stage become capable of abstract thought and hypothetical thinking (What if ... ?)
Concrete Operational Stage (Piaget)
(7 - 11 years) children at this stage can perform concrete logical thinking
Sensorimotor Stage (Piaget)
(birth to 2 years) infants develop a sense of the world through their senses and motor activity
Homosexuality is NOT caused by
- A smothering mother or absent father - Same-sex sexual child play (quite common) - Lack of proper role models/learning
Sensory Memory
- Contains raw sensations, prior to perception - Very large capacity - Material here only briefly
Alfred Kinsey (1950s)
- Pioneering work on human sexuality (survey research) - People were engaging in behaviors that most thought were "taboo" - Women are sexual too - Helped men and women to better understand each other
Anorexia Nervosa (AN)
- Underweight by 10-15% (of lowest BMI) - Usually achieved by a severe restriction in diet and excessive exercise - Distorted body perception - Usually begins in adolescence - Almost always female - The deadliest mental illness on the planet
Initiative versus Guilt (Erikson)
3-6 years → Children learn to initiate activities and interact with other children or they learn to feel guilty at their attempts at independence or from unexpected consequences
Ego Integrity Versus Despair (Erikson)
65 and older Older people reflect on whether their life has been meaningful and worthwhile and feel either satisfaction/integrity or regret/despair. *Assessing your life and either feel satisfaction or dispair
Retrieval-cue
A _____ is any external or internal stimulus that triggers the activation of information stored in long-term memory.
Passionate love
A complete absorption in another that includes tender sexual feelings and the agony and ecstasy of intense emotion; lasts about two years
Semantic encoding
Although Jordan cannot recall the exact words of a poem he heard recently, he clearly remembers the poem's meaning. This BEST illustrates the importance of:
Effortful
Although one might wish that studying occurred automatically, unfortunately, successful studying requires the attention and conscious work known as _____ processing.
Sensation; Perception
Anna is reading her psychology textbook. The activation of receptors in her retina is called _____. Her interpretation of the stimuli as particular words is called _____.
Stimulus
Any event or situation that evokes a response
Nature versus Nuture debate:
Are human beings a product of their biology or their environment/upbringing?
less; more
As compared with long-term memory, short-term memory is ________ permanent and ________ limited in storage capacity.
Cornea, pupil, lens
As you watch a dog play in the park, light reflected from the dog's fur first passes through three structures of your eye. In what order does the light pass through these structures?
D.) closure.
Figures tend to be perceived as whole, complete objects, even if spaces or gaps exist in the representation, thus demonstrating the principle of: A.) connectedness. B.) similarity. C.) continuity. D.) closure.
Menarche
First menstrual period (12 years, 6 months)
Set Point
Genetically influenced weight range that you will stay at when not trying to gain or lose weight; varies about 10% in either direction
Short-term
George Miller's research on _____ memory capacity indicated that we can only store about seven +/- 2 bits of information in _____ memory.
Primary sexual characteristics
Girls: ovulation and menstruation Boys: production of sperm cells (14 years)
Gherlin
Hunger-arousing hormone emitted by an empty stomach
Procedural
I know how to play a guitar =
A.) red-green, blue-yellow, black-white
In the opponent-process theory, the three pairs of processes are: A.) red-green, blue-yellow, black-white. B.) red-blue, green-yellow, black-white. C.) red-yellow, blue-green, black-white. D.) dependent upon the individual's experience.
Generativity
Marcia is 48. She has the intense desire to create a mentoring program at her company. According to Erik Erikson, she is likely experiencing:
Linear perspective (monocular cue)
Parallel lines converge, or angle toward one another, as they recede into the distance (railroad tracks)
Conditioned stimulus
Pavlov noticed that dogs began salivating at the mere sight of the person who regularly brought food to them. For the dogs, the sight of this person was a(n)
Conditioned Response (CR)
Response that is similar or identical to the unconditioned response that is elicited by a conditioned stimulus (a learned response) Ex. Ring a bell but do not present food, dog still salivates
Negative Punishment
Taking away/subtracting a good stimulus
basal metabolic rate (BMR)
The body's resting rate of energy output is known as its
50
The difference threshold is the minimum difference that a person can detect between any two stimuli _____ percent of the time.
Retinal Disparity
The distance between our right and left eyes functions to provide us with a cue for depth perception known as
Variable Interval Schedule
The dog is given food on the average of every 5 minutes
Zygote
The fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo.
Trichromatic theory of color vision
The first level of color processing: There are three different kinds of cones in the eye and that each respond to light in either red, blue, or green wavelengths; therefore all sensations of color result from stimulating a combination of these 3 cones
Zygote; Fetus; Embryo
The first two weeks of prenatal development is the period of the _____. The period of the _____ lasts from 9 weeks after conception until birth. The time between those two prenatal periods is considered the period of the ____.
Egocentrism (Preoperational Stage)
The preoperational child is completely self-centered in his/her thinking - cannot think of things from another person's perspective
Animism
The preoperational child's belief that inanimate objects are alive (the moon is alive and following them, the stuffed animal is alive) - imagination is very active in this stage
Rod
The receptor of the eye that functions best in dim light is the:
Fixed Interval Schedule
The reinforcer is given after a fixed amount of time
Variable Interval Schedule
The reinforcer is given after a variable amount of time
Anxious-Ambivalent (Attachment Theory)
Agitated, worried about abandonment
Tip-of-the-tongue
"I know it! It's um . . . um . . . it starts with G," begins a trivia game contestant excitedly. The contestant is falling prey to the _____ phenomenon.
Procedural
"Muscle memory" Memories of common physical procedures/muscle memory, mostly accessed implicitly (without thinking), highly robust to amnesia *Accessed implicitly, do NOT have to think about these
Anger (Elisabeth Kugler-Ross)
"Why me?"
Trust versus Mistrust (Erikson)
(0-1 years old) → Infants learn to trust that their needs will be met or they learn to distrust the world around them (independence)
Mirror-Image Therapy (treatment for "phantom limb" pain)
Allows the eyes to see the missing limb as "working", stops mismatch between neurons and eyes
Closure (Gestalt Principle)
Incomplete figures tend to be seen as complete because our brain fills in the missing information
Semantic memory
Memory of general knowledge, facts, word meanings
Puberty
Physical changes lead to increased interest in sex and sexual desire
Fat
_____ is an ideal form of stored energy.
Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt (Erikson)
(1-3 years old) → Children learn to exercise their will, to control themselves, and to develop a sense of autonomy or they learn to feel shame and to doubt themselves Example: potty training
Preoperational Stage (Piaget)
(2 - 7 years) the child cannot perform logical mental functions (or operations), but does think symbolically (using words and sentences)
Object permanence (Sensorimotor Stage)
(6 - 9 months old) the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are out of view
Bulimia Nervosa (BN)
- Maintain a normal body weight - Binging (thousands of Calories in one sitting) and purging of food - Purging consists of self-induced vomiting, laxatives, and/or excessive exercise - History of weight problems/issues in the past - Feeling out of control when binging - Extreme guilt and self-shaming
Prenatal development Germinal Stage: (2 weeks)
- Pregnancy test most likely negative - Conception, cell division, and uterine implantation - Blastocyst (cells dividing): Hours after conception - Implantation of blastocyst: 6 days after conception
Long Term Memory (LTM)
- Theoretically unlimited storage - Detail level varies - Information may be permanent, but can be distorted
Hippocampus
- Used for explicit memory (recalling events, words, smells or sights) - Transferred while we sleep
Short Term Memory (STM)
- Very limited capacity (7 +/- 2 chunks of information) - Very limited time (approx. 30 seconds) - Can keep information here longer with rehearsal - Can store more information here with chunking
Biological links are inconclusive
-Prenatal hormone exposure -Differences in hypothalamus (drive center) -Sexual orientation is moderately heritable (men)
Sexual Response Cycle (Masters and Johnson)
1. Excitement (beginning sexual activity) 2. Plateau (remaining at high level of excitement) 3. Orgasm 4. Resolution (body calms down)
Identity versus Role Confusion (Erikson)
12-20 years → Adolescents learn to see themselves as unique with their own sense of ideas and value or they feel confused as to their purpose and role in life * Identity crisis - figuring out who you are
Intimacy Versus Isolation (Erikson)
20-30 years → Young adults learn to form close bonds and interpersonal relationships or they learn to feel isolated and alone and avoid close contact with other
Generativity Versus Stagnation (Erikson)
30 - 65 years → Adults work for the common good, are productive members of society, raise children, etc. Or they become self-centered and inactive * Give back by working/raising children that will also become good citizens
Industry versus Inferiority (Erikson)
6 - 12 years → Children begin to develop competency (industry) and skills in various areas or they learn to feel inferior and insecure about their achievements
Iconic Memory
A brief visual "photo" of what you are seeing (lasts only a fraction of a second)
The pink flower
A father takes his baby out for a walk. The baby reaches over to touch a pink flower and is stung by a bumblebee sitting on the petals. The next day, the baby's mother brings home some pink flowers. She removes a flower from the arrangement and takes it over for her baby to smell. The baby cries loudly as soon as she sees it. According to the principles of classical conditioning, what is the conditioned stimulus in this example?
Classical Conditioning
A form of learning in which a previously neutral stimulus (CS) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) to elicit a conditioned response (CR) that is identical to or very similar to the unconditioned response (UCR)
Leptin
A hormone that decreases appetite
D.) a more serious accident than if the officer had used other wording (for example, hit each other).
A police officer stops you to ask about an automobile accident you may have witnessed the previous day. Since you were in the area at the time of the accident, the officer asks how fast the cars were going when they smashed into each other. Given the research findings of Loftus and Palmer, how might the officer's wording affect your recollection of the incident? You would be more likely to remember: A.) a less serious accident than if the officer had used other wording (for example, hit each other). B.) no details of the accident because the officer was intimidating to you. C.) the details of the accident as the officer's wording would not affect your memory. D.) a more serious accident than if the officer had used other wording (for example, hit each other).
Negatively reinforced
A response that leads to the removal of an unpleasant stimulus is one being:
Fixed Ratio Schedule
A seamstress gets a paycheck each time she makes six dresses
Difference
A snack manufacturer finds that it must increase the salt content of its chips by 8 percent in order for a sample of consumers to notice that the chips are saltier than they were before. This example BEST illustrates the concept of a(n) _____ threshold.
A.) No, she is not wasting her time. Her baby can hear her and will likely recognize her voice immediately after birth.
A woman who is 7 months pregnant has been reciting poems and singing to her fetus. Is she wasting her time? A.) No, she is not wasting her time. Her baby can hear her and will likely recognize her voice immediately after birth. B.) No, she is not wasting her time. Her baby can hear her, but it is unlikely her baby will recognize her voice immediately after birth. C.) Yes, she is wasting her time. Babies cannot hear inside the uterus at all. D.) Yes, she is wasting her time. Until the eighth month of pregnancy, babies cannot hear inside the uterus.
Conservation (Concrete Operational Stage)
Ability to recognize that volume remains unchanged even when put in different sized and shaped containers
D.) Integrity
Abner, a 70-year-old retired teacher, feels that his life has not been of any real value or significance. According to Erikson, Abner has failed to achieve a sense of A.) Basic trust B.) Intimacy C.) Autonomy D.) Integrity
Anorexia Nervosa (AN)
About four months ago, 16-year-old Amanda went on a drastic diet that caused her to drop from her normal weight of 120 pounds to less than 90 pounds. Although her weight is dangerously low, she continues to undereat because she thinks she looks fat. Amanda suffers from
Physiological
According to Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs, the need to satisfy hunger and thirst is an example of a(n) _____ need.
Generativity vs. Stagnation
According to Erikson's stages of psychosocial development, what does a 57 year old struggle with the most?
Sensorimotor
According to Jean Piaget, during the _____ stage of cognitive development, object permanence and stranger anxiety are the developmental phenomena that occur.
Sensorimotor
According to Piaget, we come to know the world primarily by looking, touching, mouthing, and grasping during the ________ stage.
Continuity
According to the Gestalt psychologists, we perceive smooth, flowing patterns, rather than disjointed or broken ones. This is called the principle of:
D.) Puberty
Adolescence is marked by the onset of: A.) An identity crises B.) Parent-child conflict C.) The concrete operational stage D.) Puberty
Anterograde amnesia
After suffering a brain injury in a motorcycle accident, Arotza cannot form new memories. He can, however, remember events before the accident. Arotza's memory difficulty most clearly illustrates
Acceptance (Elisabeth Kugler-Ross Stages of Death and Dying)
After the depression lifts, the person finally realizes and accepts impending death and being inevitable, person generally feels at peace with the situation
Opponent-process theory
Afterimages are BEST explained by:
Rooting and Suckling Reflex (Neonatal Period)
Allows baby to nurse/eat
Zygote
Although not yet aware of her pregnancy, Mrs. Enriquez has conceived a single cell from the union of an egg cell and a sperm cell. This single cell is called a:
Embryo
Amanda is pregnant. Her baby's intestinal system is beginning to develop. The baby is in the _____ stage of prenatal development.
Phantom Limbs/Phantom Pain
Amputees often feel the amputated limb as if it is still there and sometimes feel pain in the missing limb
Sexual Orientation
An enduring sexual attraction toward members of a particular gender
Secure
An infant with _____ attachment is disturbed at his mother's departure in the strange situation but is easily soothed on her return.
rigid pattern; unlearned
An instinct is a complex behavior that has a _____ throughout a species and is _____
Unconditioned Response (UCR)
An unlearned reaction to the unconditioned stimulus (an instinctual or inborn reaction) Ex. Salivation
A.) perceptual constancy
As we move, viewed objects cast changing shapes on our retinas, although we do not perceive the objects as changing. This is part of the phenomenon of: A.) perceptual constancy. B.) relative motion. C.) linear perspective. D.) continuity.
Harry Harlow
Attachment/Deprivation study
Retinal Disparity
Because each retina is a few inches apart, they have slightly different images and this helps with depth perception
Imaginary Audience (Formal Operational Stage)
Belief that everyone is watching everything they do and that others are thinking of them
Adolescent Egocentrism (Formal Operational Stage)
Believing that they are the focus of everyone's attention (self-consciousness stems from this)
Preoperational
Betty is 5 years and she likes to pretend play with her friends. She is also very egocentric and does not demonstrate logical reasoning. According to Piaget, Betty is in the _____ stage.
Homeostasis
Body's need to maintain balance (temperature, fluids, etc.)
Echoic Memory
Brief auditory memory of what you are hearing (lasts 3-4 seconds)
Reversibility (Concrete Operational Stage)
Can reverse operations (Example: 7 + 2 = 9 can be reversed to 9 - 2 = 7)
Sensory Ability (Neonatal Period)
Can sense sound, smell, taste and touch, but vision is limited (near-sighted - can only see 12 inches from face); do NOT see color very well
Unconditioned response
Carla had leukemia as a child and had to undergo numerous bouts of chemotherapy. The chemotherapy always made her nauseous. As she underwent a year of treatment, the waiting room started to make her nauseous. The nausea from the chemotherapy is the:
Positive punishment
Cassie did not do her chores today because she was distracted all afternoon by her friends. As a result, her parents gave her extra chores. The extra chores in this example are
Bobo doll experiment
Children model the behavior of adults; Children modeled what they saw (beat up the doll, were nice to the doll, or were neutral to the doll)
A.) Individual units are combined into a single larger unit of meaning
Chunking refers to the process whereby: A.) Individual units are combined into a single larger unit of meaning B.) Information is organized hierarchically C.) Incidental information is encoded. D.) A larger unit is broken down into smaller individual units of meaning
Associative
Classical conditioning is a type of ______ learning.
Association (UCS-CS)
Classical conditioning is learning through _____.
A.) The odds of homosexuality increase with each older brother
Clifford has several older brothers. According to the fraternal birth-order effect: A.) The odds of homosexuality increase with each older brother B.) The odds of homosexuality decrease with each older brother C.) The odds of homosexuality do not differ among brothers D.) The odds of homosexuality only increase in left-handed males
Secondary
Conditioned reinforcers are also called _____ reinforcers.
Amygdala
Connects emotions to memories - Flashbulb memories are highly rich, highly detailed memories of a significant moment in your life - We can easily remember the emotions associated with flashbulb memories, but the actual details of the event are prone to error
Prenatal Development Fetal Stage: (the rest of the pregnancy)
Continued growth and development of all major organs Fetus: 5-6 months pregnancy Ears developed: listening to inside mom's body
Monocular Cues
Cues in the environment that suggest depth and can be seen by only one eye
A.) classically conditioned associations
Damage to the cerebellum would be most likely to interfere with a person's ability to develop A.) classically conditioned associations. B.) flashbulb memories. C.) episodic memories. D.) semantic memories.
Sensation
Detection and encoding of stimulus energies by sensory receptors and the nervous system; information coming into your brain
Puberty
Developmental point where individual becomes physically capable of sexual reproduction
Sensory adaptation
Diminished sensitivity as a result of repeated stimulation
Avoidant
Distrusting, avoid closeness
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
Dr. Meyer is known for his difficult pop quizzes. Immediately before he springs a pop quiz on his students, he typically goes to the classroom door and closes it. Students soon learn to anticipate a pop quiz whenever Dr. Meyer closes the classroom door. Closing the door has become a(n) _____.
Formal Operational
During adolescence, MOST individuals achieve Jean Piaget's _____ stage of cognitive development.
Hypothalamus
Eating behavior originates in the:
3 to 4 seconds
Echoic memories fade after approximately:
Effortful processing
Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort; improve how you study
D.) One's first kiss
Episodic memory is exemplified by one's memory of: A.) how to ride a bicycle B.) the name of Montana's state capital C.) the formula for the area of a triangle D.) one's first kiss
Trust; Mistrust
Erik Erikson proposed that at each stage of life we face a psychosocial task that needs resolution. The first task that infants wrestle with is ____ versus ____.
Intimacy; Isolation
Erik Erikson proposed that at the ______ versus _____ stage of life, people struggle to form close relationships and to gain the capacity for adult romantic love.
Amygdala
Estelle remembers a night she was mugged and brutally beaten. This memory probably involves not only her hippocampus, but also her ____ because of the emotional nature of the event.
Fixed Interval Schedule
Every five minutes, a piece of food is given to a dog doing tricks
The Attachment/Deprivation study (Harry Harlow)
Evidenced that "contact" comfort is necessary for attachment; importance of an early attachment relationship
Absolute threshold
Ex: can see a candle flame 30 miles away can taste a teaspoon of sugar in a gallon of water
Weber's Law
Ex: holding 100 lbs. must add 2 lbs. to feel difference; holding 10 lbs. must add 2 oz. to detect difference Ex: listening to music with headphones and volume is low; any increase in volume feels like a great change
Echoic memory
Experiencing a momentary sensory memory of the ending of a song that just played on the radio would be an example of
Sensation; perception
Experiencing sudden pain is to _____ as recognizing that one is suffering a heart attack is to _____.
Convergence (binocular cue)
Eyes angle inward as an object gets closer to us
Developmental Psychology
Focuses on human development across the lifespan
Variable-ratio
For professional baseball players, swinging at a pitched ball is reinforced with a home run on a _____ schedule.
Maslow
For two weeks, Orlando has been on a hunger strike in order to protest his country's involvement in what he perceives as an immoral war. Orlando's willingness to starve himself in order to make a political statement conflicts with the theory of motivation advanced by:
no more; no more
Gay men are ________ likely to have been smothered by maternal love than heterosexual men. Boys growing up in a father-absent home are ________ likely to be gay than boys growing up with their father present in the home.
Secondary Sex Characteristics
Girls: fat accumulates in breasts (budding), breasts gradually enlarge over several years, fat accumulates in hips (broadening of hips), growth of pubic hair Boys: Testes and penis growth, shoulders broaden, voice deepens, growth of pubic hair and facial hair
Object permanence
Gray makes himself "invisible" by putting his hands over his eyes, assuming that if he can't see his brother then his brother can't see him either. Gray most like has not developed ______.
Insulin
Hormone that lowers glucose and stores energy as fat
Semantic
I know what a guitar is =
Episodic
I remember my first guitar lesson =
Operant conditioning
If children get attention for doing cartwheels, they will repeat the trick if they find this attention to be enjoyable. This BEST illustrates:
C.) Regonition
If one has NOT studied well for a test, in which format is one likely to get a higher score? A.) Recall B.) Related information C.) Recognition
Continuation (Gestalt Principle)
Images are seen in ways that produce smooth continuation *Image going off page, we almost mentally go off page with image
Retina
Images fall here, sensory receptor cells are here (rods + cones). Everything on _____ is flipped upside down (lens flips it)
A.) fear of the white rat
In Watson and Rayner's experiment with Little Albert, the _____ was the conditioned response A.) fear of the white rat B.) salivating to a tone C.) fear of a loud noise D.) playful behavior with the rat
Neutral stimulus (NS)
In classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning
Unconditioned
In classical conditioning, the _____ response is the unlearned, naturally occurring reaction to the unconditioned stimulus, such as salivation when food is in the mouth.
Unconditioned
In classical conditioning, the _____ stimulus naturally and automatically triggers a response.
D.) all answers apply
In order to remember the content of what you've read in this textbook, you will need to _____ this information. A.) encode B.) retrieve C.) store D.) all answers apply
Insecure
In the strange situation, an infant with _____ attachment will remain distressed when its mother returns after a brief absence.
Retrograde
Inability to recall old memories; less common form ("Soap Opera Amnesia") *Cannot recall anything up to the injury
Misinformation effect
Incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event
Personal Fable
Intense investment in their own thoughts believing that no one else has ever experienced what they are going through
Drive
Internal state that arises in response to a need
Variable-ratio
Jack finds it extremely difficult to pull himself away from the blackjack table. He keeps thinking he will break even as the next hand will be his winning one. This is an example of the effects of a _____ schedule of reinforcement.
Episodic; semantic
Jillian was in a car accident and sustained a serious head trauma. Since the surgery, she has forgotten her name, career, and other vital information about herself. Yet, she is still able to talk, know what words mean, and have general knowledge about the world, such as what day it is or who currently is the president of the U.S. This behavior suggests that Jillian's _____ is impaired, but her _____ is still functioning.
Flashbulb
John remembers very clearly the day his best friend died in a bicycle accident at the hands of a drunk driver. This BEST illustrates _____ memory.
Fixed-ratio
Jonah works in a packaging plant. For every 100 packages he completes, he is given an additional 10-percent increase in his hourly pay. This is a _____ reinforcement schedule.
C.) hippocampus
Lara is trying to remember events from her life as an 18-month-old. However, as hard as she might try, she has no conscious memory of anything that occurred before her third birthday. This is likely due to the fact that her _____, which is involved in storing explicit memories, was not fully developed at that age. A.) medulla B.) reticular formation C.) hippocampus D.) thalamus
Negative punishment (taking something away - his freedom)
Larry is grounded each time he hits his little brother. After a few times of being grounded, Larry's misbehavior toward his little brother decreases. Grounding Larry is an example of
Operant Conditioning
Learning in which the consequences of behavior lead to changes in the probability of the behavior's occurrence
Iris
Light does not pass through the:
Classical
Lightning is associated with thunder and regularly precedes it. Thus, when we see lightning we often anticipate that we will hear thunder soon afterward. This is an example of _____ conditioning.
Implicit
Luke experiences some damage to his cerebellum. Based on information provided in the textbook, Luke's _____ memory may be impaired.
explicit; implicit
Mabel has Alzheimer's disease and her _____ memories of people and events are lost, but she is able to display an ability to form new _____ memories by being shown words repeatedly.
Prenatal Development Embryonic Stage: (2-8 weeks post conception)
Major organs are formed; beginning of limbs, spinal cord: 14 days post conception 5 weeks post conception: heart beats 8 weeks post conception: all major organs formed
Conceptual Networks
Memories are stored and retrieved by connecting them to other memories; Your brain instantaneously sifts through memory files called _____.
Procedural
Memories for well-learned automatic skills such as how to tie your shoes are called ________ memories.
Episodic memory
Memory of things that we have personally experienced (personal episodes)
Observation
Modeling is learning through _____.
Attachment/Deprivation study (Harry Harlow)
Monkeys were reared by wire "mothers." One mother was covered with a soft cloth, the other was not. Monkeys clung to the soft cloth mother and rejected the wire mother, even when the wire mother provided all the food.
4 years
Most people's earliest memories do not predate _____ of age.
Examples: language development and toilet training
Nature versus nurture; (we must be taught these things, but our biology must also be ready and able to acquire these new skills)
A.) Zygote, embryo, and fetus
Nine months after conception, a baby girl named Tracy is born. The stages of her prenatal development, from first to last, were:
Iconic
Nine-year-old Jade has just discovered something very interesting. She can look at a picture in a book and, when she closes her eyes, she can still see the picture very clearly for a few tenths of a second. Jade is experiencing _____ memory.
Masters and Johnson Study
Observed and measured physiological responses during all phases of sexual intercourse; asserted that female and male sexuality is equal
Variable Ratio
On the average of every sixth time, slot machines
Associative
Operant conditioning is a type of ______ learning.
Consequences
Operant conditioning is learning through _____.
Perception
Organizing and interpreting the information
Implicit memory
Our unconscious memory of learned skills is known as:
B.) binge eating and purging by self-induced vomiting
Patricia has been diagnosed with bulimia nervosa. Which of the following is a key characteristic of her eating disorder? A.) extreme weight loss B.) binge eating and purging by self-induced vomiting C.) loss of appetite, especially for high-calorie foods D.) being unaware of the fact that she has an eating disorder
Short-term memory
Phone companies created seven-digit phone numbers because this amount BEST suits the capacity of our:
Development
Predictable changes associated with increasing age
A.) pretend that one object is another.
Preoperational children know that objects exist even when they are not visible. They can also: A.) pretend that one object is another. B.) think abstractly. C.) conserve quantities. D.) take another individual's point of view.
Eyewitness testimony (Wells)
Presented people with a lineup of suspects related to a video they saw of terrorist bombing; all selected a suspect, although the actual suspect was not listed; all were very certain of their pick; generally we do not make good eyewitnesses!
Positive Punishment
Presenting/adding an aversive/bad stimulus
Motivation
Process that causes movement either toward a goal or away from an unpleasant situation
Cornea
Protective coating on the surface of the eye
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
Pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active
Linear perspective
Railroad tracks appear to converge in the distance. This provides a cue for depth perception known as
Basal Metabolism
Rate at which the body burns Calories, fixed number of fat cells
Secure (Attachment Theory)
Really jealous, do not fear abandonment
Cones
Receptor cells in the human eye that are most sensitive to fine detail are called
Rods
Receptor cells that code information about light and dark (located outside the center of the retina - 120 million cells each eye); only code black and white
Cones
Receptor cells that code information about light, dark, and color (located at the center of the retina - 6 million cells in each eye) * More specialized, give us color and clarity
D.) The capacity of long-term memory is essentially limitless.
Regarding long-term memory, which statement is accurate? A.) Long-term memory capacity is actually quite limited. B.) Storing new information in long-term memory necessarily involves displacing older information. C.) No memory can last a lifetime. D.) The capacity of long-term memory is essentially limitless.
Secondary Reinforcers
Reinforcers that are learned (ex. money, prizes, grades, applause) *Not born naturally like this
Negative Reinforcement
Remove something to increase behavior; an increase in behavior (reinforcement) that occurs as a result or avoidance of aversive (bad) event *taking something bad away = good thing
A fraction of a second
Research on the duration of iconic memory suggests that it is:
Unconditioned stimulus
Researchers conditioned a flatworm to contract when exposed to light by repeatedly pairing the light with electric shock. The electric shock is a(n):
Gestalt
Rules for organizing stimuli into coherent groups were first identified by _____ psychologists.
Depression (Elisabeth Kugler-Ross)
Sadness, guilt associated with impending death
The opponent process theory of color vision
Second leveling of color processing: In addition to three types of cones (one for red, blue, and green), there are "opponent-process mechanism" which respond to the red-green or the yellow-blue wavelengths.
Classical conditioning
Secondary reinforcers are learned through _________.
Sensory
Selecting just a few aspects of all the environmental information that is being very briefly registered is a process that initially occurs in _____ memory.
B.) detection and encoding of stimulus energies by sensory receptors and the nervous system.
Sensation is the A.) transformation of sound and light into meaningful words and images. B.) detection and encoding of stimulus energies by sensory receptors and the nervous system. C.) conscious awareness of a familiar stimulus. D.) organization and interpretation of environmental events.
detection; interpretation
Sensation is to ________ as perception is to ________.
D.) concentrate on more important things
Sensory adaptation helps people: A.) adjust to different light levels. B.) keep their nerve cells firing. C.) learn new things. D.) concentrate on more important things.
A.) A memory buffer that preserves information in it's original form for a brief time
Sensory memory is: A.) A memory buffer that preserves information in it's original form for a brief time B.) A limited-capacity store that maintains unrehearsed information for 20-30 seconds C.) A store with unlimited capacity that can hold information for long time periods D.) A memory store that contains information about actions and skills
Shape Constancy (Rules of Perceptual Constancy)
Shape does not change
Loftus study
Showed all participants footage of the same car wreck, "How fast were the cars going when they ____ each other?" Result - people guessed different speeds depending on the question. This is called the misinformation effect, and has been implicated in other areas of memory distortion. Shows how leading questions can distort memory.
Similarity (Gestalt Principle)
Similar things are seen as being related
Size Constancy (Rules of Perceptual Constancy)
Size does not change
Punishment
Some teachers have reduced the disruptive classroom behavior of students by imposing a time-out following disruptive behavior. In this case, the time-out is a
Cones
Specialized light receptors responsible for our sensation of color and our ability to sense details
Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
Stimulus that can elicit an unlearned response (an instinctual stimulus); our bodies natural response Ex. Food
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
Stimulus that elicits a response as a result of being paired with an unconditioned stimulus Ex. Ring a bell every time give dog food
The Cerebellum and Basal Ganglia
Stores implicit memories (automatic), such as classically conditioned responses and motor movements (procedural memories)
Bargaining (Elisabeth Kugler-Ross)
Striking deals for more time
Denial (Elisabeth Kubler-Ross)
Strong resistance to the idea of death and dying; non-acceptance of loved-one's death
Glucose
Sugar that cells require for energy
Maturation
Systematic physical growth of the body; (biological) growth of people across time; explains why most children begin walking by 12 to 15 months
Rehearsal
Tarik has a chemistry test in two days. He has to memorize the elements on the periodic table, so he writes them on index cards. He keeps the cards with him at all times and periodically reads through them. Tarik is using _____ to encode information in short-term memory for longer-term storage.
Hippocampus
The "gateway" to memory, the "save" button, processes memories from STM into LTM
Weber's Law
The Difference Threshold between two things depends on the strength of the original stimulus (the stronger the original stimulus, the bigger the changes must be in order for them to be noticed, yet changes in weak stimuli are very noticeable)
Attachment
The Harlows' infant monkeys developed ___________ to their artificial cloth mothers.
Feeding
The MOST immediate and direct function of the rooting reflex is the facilitation of:
22 to 25 years of age
The brain becomes fully mature by:
Short-term memory
The capacity of _____ memory is generally agreed to be 7 +/- 2 pieces of information.
Iris
The colored part of the eye that regulates the amount of light that enters. Adjusts the size of the pupil
Ulric Neisser's Challenger study (Flashbulb Memories)
The day following the Challenger explosion, asked college students to describe in detail when/how they heard, how they felt, etc. Asked 2.5 years later to recall details, mean similarity score was 2.95. Yet all recalled vivid, certain memories; Feelings are usually the same, details we mess up!
Companionate love
The deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined; start to see flaws in the person; intimacy and commitment
Erikson
The developmental theorist who suggested that securely attached children develop an attitude of basic trust is:
Variable-ratio
The highest and most consistent rate of response is produced by a ____________ schedule.
Pupils
The iris is a doughnut-shaped ring of muscle that adjusts the size of the
B.) Encoding, storage, and retrieval
The key processes involved in memory are: A.) Rehearsal, organization, and interference B.) Encoding, storage, and retrieval C.) Listening, learning, and attention D.) Structure, sound, and meaning
Short-term memory
The memory system that is a limited-capacity store capable of maintaining unrehearsed information for approximately 20-30 seconds is:
Absolute Threshold
The minimum amount of stimulation a person needs to detect a stimulus 50 percent of the time is called the
A.) changeability of memory
The misinformation effect highlights the: A.) changeability of memory. B.) limitations of short-term memory. C.) speed of forgetting. D.) importance of encoding.
Motivation
The need or desire that energizes and directs behavior is the definition of
Optic Nerve
The nerve that carries visual neural messages to the brain (the area where the optic nerve attaches contains no rods or cones and therefore is a blind spot) * Brain fills in the gap; we do NOT actually perceive the blindspot
frontal lobes; hippocampus
The network that processes and stores explicit memories includes the _____ and _____.
Pupil
The opening of the iris
Hypothalamus
The part of the brain MOST notably different between gay and heterosexual men is the:
Visual constancy
The perception of objects remains unchanged, even when the sensation of the object is changing
Puberty
The period of sexual maturation is called _____.
Memory
The persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information
Positive Reinforcer
The positive consequence that is presented (not the person presenting it) Example: chocolate for the reward
Variable Ratio
The reinforcer is given after a varying number of responses
Continuous Reinforcement
The reinforcer is given every time
Fixed Ratio Schedule
The reinforcer is given only after a specified number of responses
Long Term Memory (LTM)
The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system; Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences
Rods and cones
The retina has two types of receptor cells:
Weber's Law
The size of the difference threshold is greater for heavier objects than for lighter ones. This BEST illustrates:
Difference Threshold
The smallest detectable difference between two stimuli
Absolute Threshold
The smallest magnitude of a stimulus that can be detected (the weakest detectable stimulus). The minimum amount of stimulation a person needs to detect a stimulus 50 percent of the time
Fovea
The spot where the cones are concentrated (images focused directly onto the _____ are the clearest because of the high concentration of cones; where most of your cones are * Best vision, clearest vision, best color vision
Lens
The transparent portion of the eye that focuses light into the retina
Phantom Limbs/Phantom Pain
Theory: "muscle memory" The neurons in charge of missing limb do not know that it is gone - but eyes see that the limb is gone - mismatch between eyes and neurons
Gate-Control Theory of Pain
There are neural gates (endorphins) that control the transmission of pain impulses. The gate can be open (slow pain messages are not blocked, therefore we experience pain) or closed (slow pain messages are blocked, and we do not experience the pain)
Proximity (Gestalt Principle)
Things that are close together are grouped together in the mind as if they belong together; *tend to see separate shapes
Primary Reinforcers
Things that are innately reinforcing (ex. food, warmth, sexual gratification) * Did not have to learn to like
Harry Harlow
This Psychologist raised monkeys with two artificial mothers- one a wire cylinder with an attached feeding bottle, and the other wrapped in terry cloth but without the feeding bottle. Who is this Psychologist?
Insecure
Tom rarely acts nervous in strange situations and pays little attention to whether his mother is present or absent. Tom would MOST likely be classified as having a(n) ______ attachment style.
Neonatal Period: the newborn (birth - 2wks)
Transition from womb to independent life Weak and dependent Rooting and Suckling Reflex Sensory ability Sleep more than 16 hours a day
Priming
Unconsciously activating certain memory associations through exposure to related information
Instinct
Unlearned characteristic patterns of responding
Binocular Cues
Uses both eyes
Anterograde
Usually damage to hippocampus; inability to learn new memories, more common form ("10 second Tom"); cannot take short-term and turn into long-term; cannot make new memories
Iconic memory
Visual sensory memory is referred to as:
Memory
Walking past a classroom's open door, Michael overhears an instructor say, "In the next unit, we will explore how information is acquired, stored, and retrieved for later use." Michael realizes that the next unit must be about:
Color Constancy (Rules of perceptual constancy)
We understand that colors do not change despite different conditions of light
Brightness Constancy (Rules of Perceptual Constancy)
We understand the brightness of an object does not change even when the object is dimly lit
Difference Thresholds
Weber's Law is relevant to an understanding of
B.) essay; recall
When Lisa earns a perfect score on a(n) _____ test in history, she passes a _____ test of memory A.) multiple-choice; recall B.) essay; recall C.) fill-in-the-blank; recognition D.) essay; recognition
Hunger
When blood glucose level drops, _____ increases.
Misinformation
When people are given subtle misleading information about a past event, they often misremember the true details surrounding the event. This is known as the _____ effect.
Set point
When the body falls below its _____, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight.
Punishment
When the consequence of a behavior leads to a decrease in the probability that the behavior will occur again (opposite of reinforcement); decrease behavior
Positive Reinforcement
When the consequence of a behavior leads to an increase in the probability that the behavior will occur again; give something to increase behavior
D.) retinal disparity.
When we stare at an object, each eye receives a slightly different image, providing a depth cue known as: A.) convergence. B.) linear perspective. C.) relative motion. D.) retinal disparity.
Short-term
When you have to make a long-distance call, dialing an unfamiliar area code plus a seven-digit number, you are likely to have trouble retaining the just-looked-up number. This best illustrates the limited capacity of ________ memory.
C.) Sexual orientation can be linked to prenatal hormone levels
Which of the following is TRUE in regards to the origins of sexual orientation? A.) Sexual orientation is linked to current hormone levels in the blood B.) Homosexuality involves fear of the opposite sex C.) Sexual orientation can be linked to prenatal hormone levels D.) Homosexuality is linked to familial relationship problems
Sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational
Which of the following is the correct order of Piaget's stages of cognitive development?
D.) cornea, pupil, lens, retina
Which of the following is the correct order of the structures through which light passes after entering the eye? A.) lens, pupil, cornea, retina B.) pupil, cornea, lens, retina C.) pupil, lens, cornea, retina D.) cornea, pupil, lens, retina
Sensory memory
Which of the following types of memory is of shortest duration?
D.) The death of Princess Diana
Which of the following would be most likely to produce a flashbulb memory? A.) A person's implicit knowledge of how to drive a car B.) What a person had for breakfast this morning C.) A person's knowledge of the definition of an obscure word D.) The death of Princess Diana
Resolution
Which phase of the sexual response cycle involves the body gradually returning to an unaroused state?
after; before
With respect to amnesia, antero- is to retro- as _____ is to ______.
Retina
Within the eye itself, the _____ is the final destination for light waves.
The misinformation effect
Yancy was sitting in the park one day and witnessed a robbery. When asked by the police to describe the young criminal, Yancy recalled erroneously that the criminal was a teenager rather than an adult. Yancy's experience BEST illustrates:
Closure (Gestalt Principle)
You are a building contractor surveying the progress on a home that is being built. From one angle, it appears that the home is completely framed. However, when you move to the right, you see the gaps. This illustrates the principle of:
Absolute threshold
You are studying in your dorm room, but your neighbor is blasting the television in the adjacent room. When you gently request that your neighbor turn the volume down until you cannot hear it, you are asking your neighbor to make the volume less than your _____.
Motivation
_____ arises from the interplay between nature (the bodily "push") and nurture (the "pulls" from human thought processes and culture).
Insulin
_____ is a hormone secreted by the pancreas to control blood glucose.
Ivan Pavlov
_____ was the scientist whose experiment with dogs led to the discovery of classical conditioning
Storage
______ specifically refers to the memory process in which information is retained over time.
