PSYCH 111 MIDTERM
Differences between rods and cones
- Humans have about 100 million rods, but only about 6 million cones CONES: specialized visual receptors that play a key role in daylight vision and color vision. Cones provide better visual acuity - sharpness and precision. - The fovea is a tiny spot in the center of the retina that contains only cones; visual acuity is greatest at this spot RODS: specialized visual receptors that play a key role in night vision and peripheral vision. Rods are 100 times more sensitive than cones to dim light.
Socratic teaching method
- lessons in the form of dialogue (from "dio" and "logos") or a discussion-based study between two or more people - questioning, discussion, challenging assumptions, encouraging inquiry, active participation
Neal A. Maxwell's Seven Basic Truths
1. That man is created in the image of God 2. That environment and heredity by themselves do not account for all human differences 3. That free agency is an exceedingly important element in the growth and development of individuals; indeed, as President Marion G. Romney has said, "the preservation of this free agency is more important than the preservation of life itself." 4. That life's design is such that God, speaking of us, has said with reference to this mortal estate, "Let us prove them herewith" (Abr. 3:25), a truth that is rich with implications. 5. That life's Divine design also involves "an opposition in all things." (See 2 Nephi 2:11-16) 6. That this is a world of law, the breaking or keeping of which brings misery or blessings, respectively. 7. That "almost all men" misuse authority and power. (D&C 121:39)
Three main goals of the scientific enterprise
1. measurement and description: science's commitment to observation requires that researchers figure out a way to measure the phenomenon under study. 2. understanding and prediction: scientists believe that they understand events when they can explain the reasons for their occurance. 3. application and control: most scientists hope that the information they gather will be of some practical value in helping to solve everyday problems.
Autonomic v somatic nervous systems - differences; central nervous system components
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM: - Made up of nerves that connect to the heart, blood vessels, smooth muscles, and glands. - Controls automatic, involuntary, visceral functions that people don't normally think about - Can be subdivided into two branches: sympathetic division and the parasympathetic division SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM: - Made up of nerves that connect to voluntary skeletal muscles and to sensory receptors - These functions require two kinds of nerve fibers: AFFERENT NERVE FIBERS: axons that carry information inward to the central nervous system from the periphery of the body EFFERENT NERVE FIBERS: axons that carry information outward from the central nervous system to the periphery of the body THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM: - Portion of the nervous system that lies within the skull and spinal column - Consists of the brain and the spinal cord - Cerebrospinal fluid nourishes the brain and provides a protective cushion for it
Types of mnemonic devices
Acrostics: phrases in which the first letter of each word functions as a cue to help you recall information (SEED: swell, enlarge, enlighten, delicious) Acronym: a word formed out of the first letters of a serious of words Link method: forming a mental image of items to be remembered in a way that links them together Method of Loci (aka Memory Palace): taking an imaginary walk along a familiar path where images of items are associated with certain locations
Core elements to observational learning
Attention: The learner must pay attention to the model and the behavior being demonstrated. This involves focusing on relevant aspects of the model's behavior, such as their actions, expressions, and outcomes. Retention: The learner must retain or remember the observed behavior. This involves encoding the information into memory and being able to recall it when needed. Reproduction: The learner must be able to reproduce or imitate the observed behavior. This involves the physical and cognitive ability to perform the behavior, as well as the motivation to do so. Motivation: The learner must be motivated to imitate the observed behavior. Motivation can be influenced by factors such as the perceived relevance or usefulness of the behavior, the rewards or consequences associated with it, and the social context in which the behavior occurs. Reinforcement: The learner's likelihood of imitating the observed behavior may be influenced by the consequences that follow the behavior. Positive reinforcement, such as praise or rewards, can increase the likelihood of imitation, while negative consequences can decrease it. Identification: The learner may be more likely to imitate the behavior of models with whom they identify or perceive as similar to themselves. This can include models who are perceived as competent, trustworthy, or similar in age, gender, or status.
Pavlov's experiment and key elements of classical conditioning - the meat powder, the tone, the salivating; US, UR, CS, CR
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: Stimulus that stimulates a biological response Pavlov's Demonstration: Terminology and Procedures Unconditioned stimulus: A stimulus evoking an unconditioned response without previous conditioning. (dog food) Unconditioned response: An unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus occurring without previous conditioning. (saliva) Conditioned stimulus: A previously neutral stimulus that, through conditioning, now evokes a conditioned response (metronome) Conditioned response: A learned reaction toa conditioned stimulus occurring because of previous conditioning (saliva) Trial: Any presentation of a stimulus or pair of stimuli (look up chart of process of classical conditioning)
Control group v experimental group
CONTROL GROUP: consists of similar subjects who do not receive the special treatment given to the experimental group. EXPERIMENTAL GROUP: consists of the subjects who receive some special treatment in regard to the independent variable.
The endocrine system and key components
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM: consists of glands that secrete chemicals into the bloodstream that help control bodily functioning HORMONES: chemical substances released by the endocrine glands Much of the endocrine system is controlled by the nervous system through the hypothalamus PITUITARY GLAND: releases a great variety of hormones that fan out within the body, stimulating actions in the other endocrine glands OXYTOCIN: hormone that is released by the pituitary gland and regulates reproductive behaviors
Three key processes
Encoding: Encoding is the process of transforming sensory information into a form that can be stored in memory. This process involves converting information from sensory input (such as visual, auditory, tactile, or olfactory stimuli) into a neural code that the brain can process and store. Encoding can occur through various methods, including rehearsal, elaboration, visualization, and organization. The effectiveness of encoding can impact the quality and durability of memory. Storage: Storage is the process of maintaining encoded information over time. Once information is encoded, it needs to be stored in memory for later retrieval. Memory storage involves the retention of information in the brain over short-term and long-term durations. Short-term memory, also known as working memory, temporarily holds information for immediate processing and manipulation. Long-term memory stores information for more extended periods, potentially indefinitely. Memory storage is influenced by factors such as rehearsal, organization, emotional significance, and neural mechanisms involved in consolidation. Retrieval: Retrieval is the process of accessing and bringing stored information into conscious awareness when needed. Retrieval involves locating and recalling stored information from memory and bringing it back into consciousness. This process can be triggered by various cues or prompts, such as environmental stimuli, contextual cues, or internal associations. Retrieval can occur through recognition (identifying previously encountered information) or recall (retrieving information from memory without external cues). Factors such as retrieval cues, context, interference, and the strength of memory traces can influence the success of retrieval.
Fast pathway v slow pathway pain routes
FAST PATHWAY - registers localized pain and relays it to the cortex in a fraction of a second. This is the system that hits you with sharp pain when you first cut your finger. SLOW PATHWAY - routed through the limbic system, that lags a second or two behind the fast system. This pathway (which also carries information about temperature) conveys the less localized, longer-lasting aching or burning pain that comes after the initial injury.
Three main areas of the brain and specific parts of the forebrain and their functions
HINDBRAIN: Includes the cerebellum and two structures found in the lower part of the brainstem: the medulla and the pons Medulla controls largely unconscious but essential functions, such as breathing, maintaining muscle tone, and regulating circulation Pons includes a bridge of fibers that connects the brainstem with the cerebellum Cerebellum is involved in the coordination of movement and is critical to the sense of equilibrium or physical balance MIDBRAIN: The segment of the brainstem that lies between the hindbrain and the forebrain Vision and hearing Dopamine system Running through the hindbrain and the midbrain is the reticular formation Reticular formation contributes to the modulation of muscles reflexes, breathing, and pain perception FOREBRAIN: Largest and most complex region of the brain, encompassing a variety of structures, including the thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system, and cerebrum Cerebrum: the seat of complex thought THALAMUS/A RELAY STATION: structure in the forebrain through which all sensory information (except smell) must pass to get to the cerebral cortex HYPOTHALAMUS/A REGULATOR OF BIOLOGICAL NEEDS: found near the base of the forebrain that is involved in the regulation of basic biological needs LIMBIC SYSTEM/THE SEAT OF EMOTION: connected network of structures located roughly along the border between the cerebral cortex and deeper subcortical areas THE CEREBRUM/THE SEAT OF COMPLEX THOUGHT: Largest and most complex part of the human brain Includes the areas of learning, remembering, thinking, and consciousness CEREBRAL CORTEX: convoluted outer layer of the cerebrum CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES: right and left halves of the cerebrum CORPUS CALLOSUM: major structure that connects the two cerebral hemispheres Occipital lobe: cortical area where most visual signals are sent and visual processing is
Hilgard and hypnosis
HYPNOSIS is a systematic procedure that typically produces a heightened state of suggestibility. It may also lead to passive relaxation, narrowed attention, and enhanced fantasy. According to Ernest Hilgard, hypnosis creates a dissociation in consciousness. Dissociation is a splitting off of mental processes into two separate, simultaneous streams of awareness. In other words, Hilgard theorizes that hypnosis splits consciousness into two streams: one stream is in communication with the hypnotist and the external world, while the other is a difficult-to-detect "hidden observer." Hilgard believes that many hypnotic effects are a product of this divided consciousness. For instance, he suggests that a hypnotized subject might appear unresponsive to pain because the pain isn't registered in the portion of consciousness that communicates with other people. One appealing aspect of Hilgard's theory is that divided consciousness is a common, normal experience. For example, people will often drive a car a great distance, responding to traffic signals and other cars, with no recollection of having consciously done those specific actions. In such cases, consciousness is clearly divided between driving and the person's thoughts about other matters. Interestingly, this common experience has long been known as highway hypnosis. In summary, Hilgard presents hypnosis as a plausible variation in consciousness that has continuity with everyday experience.
Independent v dependent and extraneous variables
INDEPEDENT VARIABLE: a condition or event than an experimenter varies in order to see its impact on another variable. (X) This is the variable that the experimenter controls or manipulates. Has an effect on the dependent variable. DEPENDENT VARIABLE: variable that is thought to be affected by manipulation of the independent variable. Usually a measurement of some aspect of the subjects' behavior. EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES: any variables other than the independent variable that seem likely to influence the dependent variable in a specific study
Recall the "Is Psychology a Science?" discussion and the models we examined.
IS PSYCHOLOGY A SCIENCE? Yes. Study of the mind. - Psychology was defined by the application of scientific methods - Psychologists conduct valuable research - Psychology doesn't have as many sureties as other sciences do / psychology is different and we can be different - Wisdom, knowledge, information, data (memorize !!!!!) - data and information: abundant. Knowledge and wisdom would be our dividing line. (after data and information). look at the pyramid chart - We are shaped by our environment, we are shaped by our insides (freud and skinner) sociology vs biology - Scientific method: observation, question, hypothesis, experiment, conclusion, result - How do we implement the scientific method? Deep detail. Dive deep into people's personal experiences.
Sense of smell and sensory adaptation
Like the other senses, the sense of smell shows sensory adaptation. The perceived strength of an odor usually fades to less than half its original strength within about 4 minutes (Cain, 1988). Let's say you walk into your kitchen and find that the garbage has started to smell. If you stay in the kitchen without removing the garbage, the stench will soon start to fade.
The primary uses of narcotics, sedatives, and stimulants
NARCOTICS/OPIATES: drugs derived from opium that are capable of relieving pain SEDATIVES: sleep-inducing drugs that tend to decrease central nervous system activation and behavioral activity STIMULANTS: drugs that tend to increase central nervous system activation and behavioral activity. Stronger ones like cocaine and amphetamines
Nontasters v supertasters and the four basic tastes
NONTASTERS—as determined by their insensitivity to PTC (phenythiocarbamide), or its close relative, PROP (propylthiouracil)—tend to have about one-fourth as many taste buds per square centimeter as do people at the other end of the spectrum known as SUPERTASTERS. In the United States, roughly 25% of people are nontasters, another 25% are supertasters, and the remaining 50% fall between these extremes and are characterized as medium tasters (Di Lorenzo & Youngentob, 2003). Supertasters and nontasters respond similarly to many foods, but supertasters are more sensitive to certain sweet and bitter substances. FOUR BASIC TASTES: sweet, sour, bitter, salty
Positive and Negative correlations
POSITIVE CORRELATIONS: indicates that two variables co-vary (change together) in the same direction NEGATIVE CORRELATIONS: Negative correlation indicates that two variables co-vary the opposite direction.
Primary colors and color blindness
PRIMARY COLORS: red, green, and blue. Set of colors that cannot be created by mixing other colors together. They can create a wide range of colors through mixing. COLOR BLINDNESS: encompasses a variety of deficiencies in the ability to distinguish among colors
Positive v negative reinforcements v punishment: core differences
Positive Reinforcement: Positive reinforcement involves adding a desirable stimulus or consequence to increase the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. This type of reinforcement strengthens behavior by providing a rewarding or pleasurable outcome immediately following the desired behavior. Example: Giving a child a piece of candy for completing their homework. The candy serves as a positive reinforcer because it is added to increase the likelihood of the child completing their homework again in the future. Negative Reinforcement: Negative reinforcement involves the removal or avoidance of an aversive stimulus or consequence to increase the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. This type of reinforcement strengthens behavior by removing or avoiding something unpleasant or uncomfortable after the desired behavior occurs. Example: Taking pain medication to relieve a headache. If taking the medication results in the relief of the headache, the behavior of taking the medication is reinforced negatively because it removes the aversive stimulus (the headache). Punishment: Punishment involves adding an aversive stimulus or consequence or removing a desired stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. This type of consequence weakens behavior by applying something unpleasant or removing something positive after the undesired behavior occurs. Positive punishment: Adding an aversive stimulus after an undesired behavior to decrease the likelihood of that behavior occurring again. Example: Scolding a child for misbehaving. Negative punishment: Removing a desired stimulus or consequence after an undesired behavior to decrease the likelihood of that behavior occurring again. Example: Taking away a child's toy as a consequence for not following the rules.
The serial-position effect
Primacy Effect: The primacy effect occurs when individuals demonstrate better recall for items presented at the beginning of a list. This phenomenon is thought to reflect the superior encoding and transfer of early list items into long-term memory. Because there is more time and attention available for processing the initial items, they are more likely to be stored in long-term memory and thus more readily retrieved during recall tasks. Recency Effect: The recency effect occurs when individuals demonstrate better recall for items presented at the end of a list. This phenomenon is thought to reflect the retention of items in short-term memory (also known as working memory) due to their recent presentation. Because these items are still active in memory at the time of recall, they can be easily retrieved and reported.
Operant conditioning primary and secondary reinforcers
Primary Reinforcers: Primary reinforcers are stimuli that are inherently reinforcing because they satisfy basic biological needs or drives. These reinforcers are typically necessary for survival and do not require learning to be reinforcing. Examples of primary reinforcers include food, water, shelter, warmth, and sexual satisfaction. These stimuli have intrinsic value because they directly fulfill physiological or survival needs. Secondary Reinforcers: Secondary reinforcers, also known as conditioned reinforcers, are stimuli that acquire their reinforcing properties through association with primary reinforcers or other reinforcers through a process of conditioning. Unlike primary reinforcers, secondary reinforcers do not inherently satisfy biological needs but instead gain their reinforcing power through learned associations. Examples of secondary reinforcers include money, praise, tokens, grades, and social approval. These stimuli become reinforcing because they are paired with primary reinforcers or because they have been associated with other reinforcing stimuli through conditioning.
Psychology's intellectual parents; original meaning
Psychology's intellectual parents" refers to the foundational thinkers and schools of thought that significantly influenced the development of psychology as a discipline. The term emphasizes the intellectual lineage or heritage of psychology, tracing its origins and the major figures and ideas that shaped its early formation. In its original meaning, "psychology's intellectual parents" typically includes the following influential thinkers and movements: - philosophy - physiology - structuralism and functionalism - psychoanalysis
The r value and the d value
R VALUE: The "r value" refers to the Pearson correlation coefficient, which measures the strength and direction of the linear relationship between two continuous variables. It ranges from -1 to 1, where: 1 indicates a perfect positive linear relationship, -1 indicates a perfect negative linear relationship, 0 indicates no linear relationship. D VALUE: - The "d value" typically refers to Cohen's d, which is a standardized measure of effect size that quantifies the difference between two means in terms of standard deviation units. - Cohen's d is commonly used in comparing means between two groups in experimental research or to quantify the magnitude of an effect in other contexts. - It's interpreted as the number of standard deviations that separate the means of the two groups.
Unique nature of REM sleep and the sleep cycle
REM SLEEP - Rapid eye movements, which is a "deep" stage of sleep that it is relatively hard to awaken a person from it - Dreaming is more frequent, vivid, memorable, emotional, dramatic, and rich in characters during REM sleep - REM SLEEP: deep stage of sleep marked by rapid eye movements, high-frequency brain waves, and dreaming. - NON REM SLEEP: consists of sleep stages 1-3, which are marked by an absence of rapid eye movements, modest amounts of dreaming, and varied EEG activity. Although it may only take a few minutes, the onset of sleep is gradual, with no obvious transition point between wakefulness and sleep. In laboratory studies, subjects are considered to have fallen asleep when their predominant EEG activity shifts from alpha waves to theta waves. The length of time it takes people to fall asleep varies considerably, but the average in a study of more than 35,000 people from ten countries was 25 minutes (Soldatos et al., 2005). Stage 1 is a brief transitional stage of light sleep that usually lasts only 10-12 minutes. As you descend through stages 2 and 3 of the sleep cycle, your respiration rate, heart rate, muscle tension, and body temperature continue to decline. Stage 2 consists of light sleep and typically lasts about 10-25 minutes. Gradually, your brain waves become higher in amplitude and slower in frequency as you move into stage 3 (see Figure 5.3). This stage brings a deep form of sleep that is often referred to as slow-wave sleep because low-frequency delta waves become prominent in EEG recordings. Typically, you reach slow-wave sleep in less than an hour and stay there for roughly 20-40 minutes. Then the sleep cycle reverses itself, and you gradually move upward through the lighter stages of sleep. That's when things start to get interesting. Then you move on to REM sleep. People repeat the slee
Ebbinghaus' research on forgetting
Rapid Forgetting: Ebbinghaus observed that a significant amount of forgetting occurs shortly after learning, with much of the information being lost within the first hour or day after initial encoding. Exponential Decay: Ebbinghaus found that forgetting follows an exponential decay pattern, with the most substantial loss of information occurring early on and diminishing rates of forgetting over time. Retention over Time: Despite the rapid initial forgetting, Ebbinghaus demonstrated that some information is retained in memory over the long term, suggesting that forgetting is not complete but rather follows a pattern of gradual decline. Factors Affecting Forgetting: Ebbinghaus also explored factors that influence forgetting, such as the difficulty of the material, the method of learning, and the presence of interference from other information. He found that more meaningful or rehearsed information tends to be retained better over time.
Sampling bias
SAMPLE: collection of subjects selected for observation in an empirical study. POPULATION: much larger collection of animals or people (from which the sample is drawn) that researchers want to generalize about SAMPLING BIAS: exists when a sample is not representative of the population from which it was drawn. PLACEBO: a substance that resembles a drug but has no actual pharmacological effect. PLACEBO EFFECT: occurs when participants expectations lead them to experience some change even though they receive empty, fake, or ineffectual treatment. EXPERIMENTER BIAS: occurs when a researcher's expectations or preferences about the outcome of a study influence the results obtained. DOUBLE-BLIND PROCEDURE: a research strategy in which neither subjects nor experimenters know which subjects are in the experimental or control groups REPLICATION: the repetition of a study to see whether the earlier results are duplicated META-ANALYSIS: combines the statistical results of many studies of the same question, yielding an estimate of the size and consistency of a variable's effects.
Common sleep disorders and key characteristics
Sleep deprivation impairs attention, motor coordination, decision making, and memory, increases the likelihood of accidents INSOMNIA: refers to chronic problems in getting adequate sleep that result in daytime fatigue and impaired functioning INSOMNIA occurs in three basic patterns: Difficult in falling asleep initially Difficulty in remaining asleep Persistent early-morning awakening Insomnia is associated with reduced productivity, increased absenteeism at work, an elevated risk for accidents, anxiety, and depression, serious health problems More common in women than men Most common approach in the medical treatment of insomnia is the prescription of two classes of drugs: benzodiazepine sedatives and nonbenzodiazepine sedatives and they help! Possible to overdose on sleeping pills! Scary OTHER SLEEP PROBLEMS: NARCOLEPSY: a disease marked by sudden and irresistible onsets of sleep during normal waking periods SLEEP APNEA: involves frequent, reflexive gasping for air that awakens a person and disrupts sleep SOMNAMBULISM: sleepwalking. Occurs when a person arises and wanders about while remaining asleep REM SLEEP BEHAVIOR DISORDER: marked by potentially troublesome dream enactments during REM periods
Stimulus generalization v stimulus discrimination in classical conditioning
Stimulus Generalization: This occurs when an organism responds to a new stimulus in a manner similar to the response produced by an existing conditioned stimulus. In other words, the organism generalizes the learned response to other stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned stimulus. For example, if a dog has been conditioned to salivate in response to the sound of a bell (conditioned stimulus), it may also salivate to similar sounds, such as a doorbell or a phone ringing. Stimulus Discrimination: This occurs when an organism learns to respond differently to various stimuli that are similar but not identical. In stimulus discrimination, the organism learns to distinguish between the conditioned stimulus and other similar stimuli, thereby responding only to the specific conditioned stimulus that is paired with the unconditioned stimulus. Using the same example, if a dog has been trained to salivate in response to the sound of a bell (conditioned stimulus), but not to other similar sounds, it demonstrates stimulus discrimination.
The all-or-none law and neural impulses
The "all-or-none law" is a principle in physiology, particularly in the context of neural physiology, that describes the behavior of individual nerve fibers or neurons. According to the all-or-none law: - Neural Impulses: When a neuron receives a stimulus of sufficient intensity, it will fire an action potential (neural impulse) that is of the same magnitude and speed, regardless of the intensity of the stimulus. - Threshold: The neuron has a certain threshold that must be reached for it to fire an action potential. If the stimulus strength exceeds this threshold, the neuron will fire an action potential; if it does not, the neuron will not fire. - Constant Magnitude: Once the threshold is surpassed, the action potential is of a constant magnitude and does not vary with the strength of the stimulus. This means that a stronger stimulus will not produce a stronger action potential; it will either trigger the action potential or not, depending on whether it exceeds the threshold.
The eardrum and its three tiny bones
The three tiny bones, also known as ossicles, are located in the middle ear and are connected to the eardrum. These bones work together to amplify and transmit sound vibrations to the inner ear. The three ossicles are: Malleus (hammer): The malleus is the outermost bone and is attached to the inner surface of the eardrum. It receives vibrations from the eardrum and transmits them to the next bone in the chain. Incus (anvil): The incus is the middle bone and is connected to the malleus on one end and the stapes on the other end. It acts as an intermediary between the malleus and the stapes, transmitting vibrations from one to the other. Stapes (stirrup): The stapes is the innermost bone and is attached to the incus on one end and the oval window of the cochlea (inner ear) on the other end. It transmits vibrations from the incus to the fluid-filled cochlea, where they are converted into electrical signals that are interpreted by the brain as sound.
Day residue and its impact on dreaming
Though dreams seem to belong in a world of their own, what people dream about is affected by events in their waking lives (Schredl, 2017). For example, one study found that participants exposed to media content depicting violence or sexuality during the 90 minutes before their bedtime were more likely to report violent or sexual dreams that night (Van den Bulck et al., 2016). Freud noticed long ago that the contents of waking life tend to spill into dreams. He labeled this spillover the day residue.
Wundt as the Father of Psychology -where and how?
William Wundt - Established the first formal laboratory of psychological research: University of Leipzig in 1879. Historians christened 1879 as psychology's "date of birth" in recognition of this landmark event - Established the first journal devoted to publishing research on psychology - Is widely characterized as the founder of psychology. - Wundt believed in reductionism. He believed consciousness could be broken down (or reduced) to its basic elements without sacrificing any of the properties of the whole.
Figure 1.2 Major Female Influences - what were their main accomplishments
Women Pioneers in the History of Psychology: - Mary Whiton Calkins (founded one of the first dozen psychology laboratories) APA President - Margaret Floy Washburn (first woman to receive a PhD in psychology) Psych PhD - Leta Stetter Hollingworth (pioneering work on adolescent development, mental retardation, and gifted children. First person to use the term gifted). Gifted and Gender
The distinguishing differences/characteristics of Freud, Skinner, and Watson
memorize bro
Concept check 1.2 match quotes
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