PSYCH-151 FINAL
Drop in glucose initiates hunger
-Most abundant sugar in the blood -source of energy -excess glucose is converted into fat and stored for later use
Which of the following results in a child with an "intersex" appearance of the genitals?
Exposure of a female fetus to higher than average levels of testosterone
If you wanted to predict someone's happiness, which personality trait would you measure?
Extraversion
What are the main ways in which motivation affects job performance?
Extrinsic motivation mainly increases quantity, and intrinsic motivation mainly increases quality.
What is one possible explanation for Spearman's g factor in intelligence?
Factors such as health and nutrition promote development in all brain areas.
Which of the following best describes the woman in the text with damage to her amygdala in both brain hemispheres?
Fails to process information about possible danger
Change blindness
Failure to detect changes in parts of a scene We only hold a few details in our sensory store Especially likely if your working memory is occupied
Which of the following do researchers generally regard as desirable?
Falsifiable theories
Split-brain patients are unable to do which of the following?
Feel something with the left hand and then describe it in words.
The treatment described in the video is designed to treat post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Which of the following symptoms are described by the veteran being interviewed in the video?
Feelings of guilt over surviving the trauma, Repetitive reliving of the traumatic experience, Regret over not being able to do more during the traumatic experience.
When, if ever, would gambling cause release of dopamine similar to the way addictive drugs do?
It does, after someone becomes a compulsive gambler.
In what way does DSM help psychologists do research?
It helps ensure that researchers identify each disorder in the same way.
If a man is in love with a woman, how does extra oxytocin affect him?
It increases his love toward the woman he already loved.
Suppose you interview every tenth person who enters a shopping mall one day. What kind of sample is this?
It is a convenience sample.
What would be an improvement on the advice "try to avoid seeming prejudiced"?
It is better to try to have a positive experience and to enjoy cultural differences.
Tests of emotional intelligence ask questions about how someone would feel in various situations. Which of the following is a significant difficulty with such tests?
It is hard to be sure what is the correct answer.
Which of these statements would a humanistic psychologist reject?
It is helpful to reduce behavior to the sum of its component parts.
Is it possible to be born with both a penis and a clitoris? If not, why not?
It is impossible, because both penis and clitoris develop from the same fetal structure.
Suppose someone becomes nervous as soon as he sits down in a dentist's chair. Is this experience "trait anxiety" or "state anxiety"?
It is state anxiety because the situation evokes it. Trait anxiety is a tendency to become nervous in many situations.
Which of the following is a common criticism of DSM?
It labels some nearly normal conditions as mental illnesses.
According to the drive theory of motivation, what does a motivation do?
It makes behavior more vigorous until it satisfies some need.
"I want my employees to enjoy their work and to feel pride in their achievements." Does that statement reflect a belief in the human-relations approach or the scientific-management approach?
It reflects the human-relations approach.
Accident victims often respond, "It could have been worse." How might this reaction relate to a belief in a just world?
It seems unjust for an innocent person to sustain an injury. Minimizing the damage makes the injustice seem less.
Suppose a well-dressed, attractive, articulate speaker presents a long list of rather weak arguments for why a college should require all seniors to take a comprehensive examination. Will this speech be more effective if the speaker is talking about your college or some other college? Why?
It will be more effective if it concerns some other college. When a decision is unimportant to you, you follow the peripheral route to persuasion, which attends to your emotions at the moment instead of careful examination of the evidence.
Imagine a test that determines your IQ score by this formula: Length of head divided by width of head X 100. What, if anything, can we predict about this test?
It will have high reliability and low validity.
Why should we not insist on verbal reports to infer or measure emotions?
It would be impossible to teach a child (or anyone else) the words for emotions unless we had already inferred the emotions from the individual's behavior.
The drug AMPT blocks dopamine production. Which of these would be its effect?
It would decrease the effects of cocaine, amphetamine, and Ritalin.
What would happen if a heroin addict dissolved methadone in water and injected it, instead of swallowing it as a pill?
It would produce a "high" similar to that of heroin.
The view that emotions are our perceptions of autonomic changes and body movements is known as the
James-Lange theory.
What jobs are especially vulnerable to job burnout?
Job burnout is especially common in the helping professions, such as nursing or therapy.
Panic disorder and other anxiety disorders are more common than average for people with which of these physical conditions?
Joint laxity
How does Jung's idea of the collective unconscious differ from Freud's idea of the unconscious?
Jung's collective unconscious is the same for all people and is present at birth. Freud believed the unconscious developed from repressed experiences.
According to Carl Rogers, people feel distress when they perceive a large discrepancy between their self-concept (their real self) and their ideal self. Which other personality theorist also made this same point?
Karen Horney
If you want to keep a New Year's resolution, which of the following is good advice?
Keep track of whether you are achieving your goal.
Which of these is the evidence that supports the view that humans have six basic emotions?
People can recognize six facial expressions of emotion.
On a submarine with constant artificial light and no sunlight, what happens to a sleep-wake cycle?
People continue to alternate between wakeful and sleepy on a 24-hour basis
Why do cognitive psychologists seldom rely on asking people to describe their thought processes?
People don't always know their own thought processes.
What evidence indicates important nongenetic influences on eating and weight gain?
People eat more when in social groups than when eating alone. People's expectations about foods, based on such things as the name of the food, influence intake. People eat more when portion sizes are larger.
Which of the following generally increases how much food people eat?
People eat more when offered a larger portion size.
Why do people sometimes form a false stereotype?
People form generalizations quickly.
Fundamental attribution error
People frequently attribute people's behavior to internal causes, even when they see evidence of external influences.
Why do many psychologists doubt the concept of basic emotions?
People frequently show parts of several emotions instead of all the aspects of one emotion. That is, the various aspects supposedly associated with one emotion do not correlate well with one another.
Why has psychotherapy moved toward more diagnoses, more research, and briefer treatments?
Pressure from health insurance companies
If you are nervous about a job interview, how could you "inoculate" yourself against the stress?
Pretend you are having the interview, with a friend as the interviewer.
What might prevent you from showing the Stroop effect?
Print the words in a language you don't understand.
What do patients experience in the virtual reality environment?
They see, hear, and smell scenes from the war.
What happens when people adopt postures and breathing patterns characteristic of a particular emotion? How do these results relate to the James-Lange theory?
They show an enhanced tendency to feel that emotion. This result is consistent with the James-Lange theory.
Which of the following is true, on average, for young people who will later become heavy drinkers?
They show less than average body sway after drinking a moderate amount.
People remembered and reported the time when they decided to flex the wrist. Researchers compared that report to the time when activity began increasing in the premotor cortex. What was the theoretical importance of the results?
They suggest that conscious thought does not control our actions.
Why do some professors avoid looking at students' names when they grade essay exams?
They want to avoid being biased by their first impressions of the students.
A manager following Theory X, or scientific management, makes what assumption about workers?
They will show little initiative or creativity?
Which of the following is an example of the peripheral route to persuasion?
This brand of cereal is endorsed by three movie stars.
What evidence suggests that young children are learning rules of grammar?
Young children's mistakes imply that they are using certain rules.
According to the James-Lange theory, which of the following is true?
Your feeling of fear is your perception of what your body is doing.
Which of the following would cause you to make an internal attribution for your friend's happiness?
Your friend is happy most of the time.
Suppose you have one hour to study an assignment. What will happen if you repeatedly interrupt your reading to try to answer questions about it, compared to someone who spent the whole time reading?
Your long-term retention will be better than that of the other person.
g factor
a construct referencing an individual's overall intelligence as opposed to specific abilities
Denial is
a defense mechanism that involves refusal to believe information.
A like or dislike that influences our behavior is called:
an attitude.
punishment
an event that decreases the probability that a response will be repeated
The term "cognitive dissonance" refers to
an inconsistency between one's attitudes and behavior.
Anxiety
an increase in the startle reflex, usually accompanied by a sense of dread (negative anticipation) (operational definition) an increase in the startle reflex
According to Schachter and Singer's theory of emotions, each emotion reflects
an interpretation of autonomic arousal based on what we know of the situation.
consciousness
an organism's awareness of its mental processes and/or environment
drive-reduction theory
animals strive to reduce their drives as much as possible
reinforcement
any event that increases the probability that a particular response will occur
learning
any relatively permanent change in behavior that can be attributed to experience
psychoactive drugs
any substance that can alter a person's state of consciousness
assimilation
application of an established schema to new objects or problems, according to Piaget
blind spot
area in the retina where the optic nerve exits that contains no photoreceptor cells
unshared environment
aspects of environment that differ from one individual to another, even within a family
The social psychology term "attribution" refers to the process of
assigning causes to behavior.
When Frank was a toddler, he learned that his little brown furry pet was called a dog. He then started calling all little brown furry animals dogs. This is an example of ------------.
assimilation
During the moment after perceiving on stimulus, it is difficult to accurately perceive a second stimulus. This is called the
attentional blink
bisexuality
attraction to both sexes
The process of assigning causes to someone's behavior (including one's own) is known as
attribution.
A credit card company offers you a card with a low introductory rate. After a few months, the interest rate on your balance doubles.
bait-and-switch technique;
What does "psychometric" mean?
based on measurements of individual differences
phoneme
basic speech sounds of a language
One shortcoming of traditional theories of personality is that they assume that
behavior is consistent across all situations
Which focuses more on changing what people do than what they think?
behavior therapy
Which is least concerned with people's emotions?
behavior therapy
stereotype
belief or expectation about a group of people
egocentrism
belief that everyone thinks as you do
Word-superiority effect
better at recognizing individual letters when they are a part of a word than when they are standing alone or with a nonsense cluster
Masking, flash suppression, and ----------------- are among the methods to present a stimulus while preventing conscious perception of it.
binocular rivalry
Id
biological drives that demand immediate gratification
puberty
biologically defined period of sexual maturation during which a person becomes capable of reproduction
sensorimotor stage
birth to age 2
Retrieval Cues
bits of associated information that help you to regain complex memories for later use. Many factors associated with learning can act as retrieval cues
Stereotype Threat Results
black students did as well as whites on the GRE verbal when led to believe that the test itself, and not the student, was being tested
sympathetic nervous system
chains of neuron clusters just to the left and right of the spinal cord that arouse the body for vigorous action
negative symptoms
characteristics notable by their absence
positive symptoms
characteristics notable by their presence
endorphins
chemicals the body produces that have painkilling and pleasurable effects
osttraumatic stress disorder(PTSD)
enduring psychological distress after experience of a major traumatic event
Procter, now age 45, remembers his high-school prom night right down to the most minute detail. He remembers where the event was held, the color of the dress his date wore, the songs he danced to and what he did afterwards with his friends. Proctor's recollection of these specific kinds of events is an example of --------- --------.
episodic memory
Self-reports
fast and easy but have questionable accuracy
When Spearman described the "g" factor in intelligence, what did the "g" stand for?
general
Semantic memory
general knowledge not tied to when the information was learned
People suffering from narcolepsy:
get sleepy in the middle of the day.
The main fuel of the body, especially the brain, is ---. The hormone that increases its flow into the cells is --------.
glucose ... insulin
An important source of energy for all parts of the body, and the main source of energy for the brain, is
glucose.
variable interval schedule
green
On average, people born in more recent decades are _______ than those born in earlier decades, and life satisfaction ______ as people grow older.
happier ... increases
teratogen
harmful substance that can cause birth defects
Which hormone controls the rate at which nutrients (such as glucose) leave the blood and enter the cells of the body?
insulin
Superego
internalized values and rules we receive from our parents and society
Duchenne smile
involves eye and mouth muscles most people cannot voluntarily produce a Duchenne smile full expression including the muscles around the eyes
Sanford-Binet test
is a modified version of Binet's test; added items suitable to adults Mean is 100 IQ = mental age x 100 chronological age This doesn't work for adults & was adjusted The mean is still 100, regardless of age
The ability to perceive, imagine, and understand emotions and use that information in decision making
is called emotional intelligence.
repression
keeping distressing thoughts and feelings buried in the unconscious; blocking an unpleasant memory from reaching consciousness.
Circadian rhythms are those that:
last about a day.
Freud referred to the hidden content of dreams, which he said were represented only symbolically, as the __________ content.
latent
operant conditioning
learning based on the positive or negative consequences of responding
psychotherapist
licensed professional who uses psychological principles and techniques to treat mental health disorders
In contrast to the peripheral route to persuasion, the "central" route depends more on:
logic and evidence.
job burnout
long-lasting sense of mental and physical exhaustion and discouragement
personality disorders
long-standing, inflexible ways of behaving that create a variety of problems
amnesia
loss of memory
In Dr. Weber's research, he found that ________ ________ displayed different patterns of activity in brain regions related to ________ while watching the PSAs.
low-risk and high-risk individuals; persuasion
When someone is conscious of a stimulus, the stimulus activates neurons more strongly, their activity reverberates through other brain areas, that activity rebounds to ------- the original response, and the process inhibits responses to competing stimuli.
magnify
allostasis
maintaining levels of biological conditions that vary according to an individual's needs and circumstances
A person who goes through several months experiencing little interest, little pleasure and little reason for productive activity is most likely suffering from
major depression.
In Freud's theory, the ego is the part of personality that
makes rational decisions.
personality disorder
maladaptive, inflexible way of dealing with the environment and other people
conformity
matching behavior and appearance to perceived social norms
The reliability of most IQ tests is .90 or higher. This means that the tests
measure something (whatever) in a repeatable manner.
Polygraph
measures SNS arousal identifies large number of guilty people also misses a substantial minority identifies some innocent people (37% in one study) as guilty - too unreliable for use in U.S. court Consistent with understanding that SNS arousal is not emotion-specific or "lie-detector test," device that records sympathetic nervous system arousal, as measured by blood pressure, heart rate, breathing rate, and electrical conduction of the skin Arousal of the sympathetic nervous system
The savings method of testing memory
measures whether a person relearns faster than he or she learned the first time.
antidepressant drugs
medication that combats depression by affecting the levels or activity of neurotransmitters
antipsychotic drugs
medication that may alleviate hallucinations and delusional thinking associated with mental disorders
Procedural memory
memory of how to do things that require motor or performance skills
intelligence quotient (IQ)
mental age divided by chronological age times 100; tended to measure probable performance (~in school)
meditation
mental exercise for producing relaxation or heightened awareness
representativeness heuristic
mental shortcut of judging if something belongs in a given class based on similarity to other members
memory
mental system for receiving, encoding, storing, organizing, altering, and retrieving information
Ekman
method based on observation of facial expressions
bait-and-switch technique
method of eliciting compliance whereby a person first offers an extremely favorable deal, gets the other person to commit to the deal, and then makes additional demands
that's-not-all technique
method of eliciting compliance whereby someone makes an offer and then improves the offer before you have a chance to reply
foot-in-the-door technique
method of eliciting compliance whereby someone starts with a modest request, which you accept, and follows with a larger request
standardized test
method of examination that is administered according to rules that specify how to interpret the results
systematic desensitization
method of reducing fear by gradually exposing people to the object of their fear
conditioned stimulus
metronome
absolute sensory threshold
minimum amount of physical energy that can be detected 50 percent of the time
accommodation
modification of an established schema to fit a new object or problem
bipolar disorder
mood disorder characterized by alternating periods of mania and depression
The word "studying" has two -------- and three syllables. "Study" and "ing" provide distinct meanings in the composition of this active verb.
morphemes
glucose
most abundant sugar in the blood, an important source of energy for the body and almost the only source the brain uses
extrinsic motivation
motivation that comes from outside of the person; motivation based on the rewards an act might bring or the punishments it might avoid
Hypnosis CANNOT:
ncrease strength or give new powers Enhance memory people under hypnosis are highly suggestible and memories "recovered" may be inaccurate and influenced by the hypnotist (It appears that people won't do things under hypnosis that they aren't really willing to do)
taste buds
nerve cells sensitive to flavors
The tendency to experience unpleasant emotions relatively easily is called
neuroticism
Big Five personality traits or five-factor model
neuroticism, extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness to new experience
Brain death
no brain activity or response to stimuli; condition in which the brain shows a steady but low level of activity and no response to any stimulus
Descriptions of the frequencies at which particular scores in an IQ test occur are called
norms.
Still deeper processing
note the associations between the items or parts of the material
Addictive drugs stimulate the dopamine receptors in the
nucleus accumbens
The excessive accumulation of body fat is called
obesity.
gender identity
one's personal, private sense of maleness or femaleness
Lazarus's view on stress emphasizes
our interpretation of the stressful event.
The fundamental attribution error is the tendency to
overemphasize internal attributions for other people's behavior.
set point
particular weight a body seeks to maintain; level of some variable that the body works to keep constant
partial reinforcement
pattern in which only a portion of all responses are rewarded
posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
pattern of adverse and disruptive reactions following a traumatic event
gender role
pattern of behaviors regarded as "male" or "female" within a culture
fetal alcohol syndrome
pattern of physical and mental defects found in babies born to women who drank excessively during pregnancy
One unusual feature of implicit memory is that
people can display this kind of memory without consciously realizing that they are using their memory.
The "word superiority effect" is observation that on the average,
people recognize a letter within a familiar word more easily than a letter itself.
If a test has high reliability,
people who do well on the test one day are likely to do well again another day.
intersexes
people with anatomy that appears intermediate between male and female
top-down process
perception guided by prior knowledge or expectations
vestibular sense
perception of balance, gravity, and acceleration
hallucinations
perception that does not correspond to anything in the real world
mania
period of abnormally excessive energy and elation
jet lag
period of discomfort and inefficiency while your internal clock is out of phase with your new surroundings
narcolepsy
rare disorder in which a person falls asleep during alert, daytime activities
A boss takes credit for an employee's idea because "If I get the credit, our department will look good and all employees will benefit."
rationalization
Someone who secretly enjoys pornography campaigns to outlaw pornography.
reaction formation
contempt
reaction to a violation of community standards
disgust
reaction to something that would make you feel contaminated if it got into your mouth
spontaneous recovery
reappearance of a learned response after its apparent extinction
Reinterpreting a situation to make it seem less threatening describes the coping style called
reappraisal.
object permanence
recognizing that physical things continue to exist even when they are no longer visible
Episodic memory
recollection of personal experiences
retrieval
recovery of stored information
Someone who has difficulty dealing with others resorts to pouting and crying.
regression
shaping
reinforcement of increasingly close approximations of a desired response
variable ratio schedule
reinforcers
Being a "Morning Person" or an "Evening Person" is
related to age
We use -------- --------- when we have evidence from observational studies
relational language
A psychologist who gives a group of people the same test several times is probably trying to measure the __________ of the test.
reliability
The reliability of a psychological test is practically the same thing as its
repeatability
Superficial processing
repeating the material you're trying to memorize
An obsession is a
repetitive, unwelcome thought
Psychologists use the term memory to refer to
the process of retaining information as well as to the information retained.
Psychology use the term memory to refer to
the process of retrieving information from the brain
free association
the psychoanalytic technique of encouraging a patient to say whatever comes to mind without censoring
Ego
the rational, negotiating, and decision-making part of personality
Catharsis refers to
the release of pent-up emotions.
Deinstitutionalization means
the removal of patients from mental hospitals.
psychosexual stages
the schema Freud uses to classify periods of development
group therapy
the simultaneous psychological treatment of several unrelated clients together
optic nerve
the structure that conveys visual information away from the retina to the brain
retina
the surface at the back of the eye onto which the lens focuses light rays
The defense mechanism of sublimation is
the transformation of sexual or aggressive energies into culturally acceptable, or even admirable, behavior.
extinction (classical conditioning)
the weakening of a learned response when a conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented by itself
extinction (operant conditioning)
the weakening of a learned response when it is no longer followed by reinforcement
An evolutionary theory of sleep, supported by the sleeping habits of different animals, would propose that sleep evolved to complement
their natural ways of life, including eating, migrating, and staying out of danger.
exchange (or equity) theories
theories maintaining that social relationships are transactions in which partners exchange goods and services
frustration-aggression hypothesis
theory in which the main cause of anger and aggression is an obstacle that stands in the way of doing something or obtaining something
activation-synthesis theory of dreams
theory that dreams occur because the cortex takes the haphazard activity that occurs during REM sleep plus whatever stimuli strike the sense organs and does its best to make sense of this activity
People tend to maintain a nearly constant body weight over the course of months, unless something unusual happens. That constant weight is referred to as
set point.
schizophrenia
severe disorder characterized by disturbances in thought, perceptions, emotions, and behavior
Amnesia
severe loss or deterioration of memory
Rape
sexual activity without the consent of the partner
According to Sigmund Freud, libido referred to:
sexual energy.
acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)
sexually transmitted disease that attacks the body's immune system
You set out to condition a rat to press on a bar. You reward the rat with a pellet of food every time it gets near the bar mounted on the wall of its cage. Next you give a pellet to the rat when it touches the bar, thus completing your goal. Teaching the rat to press the bar for food by giving it a reward every time it gets close is an example of --------.
shaping
eardrum
sheet of connective tissue that vibrates in response to sound waves and transmits them inward
The "central executive" aspect of working memory is responsible for
shifting attention.
heuristic
shortcut or rule of thumb for finding a solution to a problem
Basic emotions criteria
should emerge early in life without requiring a great deal of experience should be found across cultures should have a unique biological basis and distinct facial expression
Conscientiousness is the tendency to
show self-discipline and strive for achievement.
Reaction formation
showing thoughts or feelings extremely opposite of one's true ones
Conscious experience of a stimulus is a construction that can occur slightly after the stimulus itself, rather than ---------- with it.
simultaneously
pluralistic ignorance
situation in which people say nothing, and each person falsely assumes that others have a better-informed opinion
Research promotes ----------that people can report their decision times accurately. Voluntary decisions are gradual, not sudden.
skepticism
People with which of the following disorders have trouble breathing while they are asleep?
sleep apnea
morphemes
smallest meaningful units in a language, such as syllables or words
cochlea
snail-shaped organ in the inner ear that contains sensory receptors for hearing
The process by which we gather and remember information about others and make inferences based on that information is termed
social perception and cognition.
Somebody who studies the everyday behaviors of more or less normal people and their relationships with other such people would be a
social psychologist.
According to your text, one of the major contributing factors in anorexia (especially in women) is
societal pressure to be thin.
Vegetative state
some responsiveness (changes in vitals), no purposeful action; condition marked by limited responsiveness to stimuli, such as increased heart rate in response to pain
transformational leader
someone who articulates a vision of the future, intellectually stimulates subordinates, and motivates them to advance the organization
Seabiscuit's trainer got him to start fast by hearing the ring of a bell in preparation for his famous race against War Admiral. First, however, he paired the bell tone to the cracking of a whip near Seabiscuit's haunches. Seabiscuit's bolting in response to the cracked whip is the --------------- ---------.
unconditioned response
Seabiscuit's trainer got him to start fast by hearing the ring of a bell in preparation for his famous race against War Admiral. First, however, he paired the bell tone to the cracking of a whip near Seabiscuit's haunches. The cracking whip near the horse's haunches is the -------- ------.
unconditioned stimulus
transactional leader
someone who tries to make an organization more efficient at doing what it is already doing by providing rewards (mainly pay) for effective work
sexual orientation
someone's tendency to respond sexually to male or female partners or both or neither
primary reinforcer
something that has inherent reward because it satisfies biological needs
stressor
specific condition or event that challenges or threatens a person
reliability
stability of test scores over time
trait
stable personality characteristic
companionate love
stage in a relationship marked by sharing, care, and protection
passionate love
stage in a relationship when sexual desire, romance, and friendship increase in parallel
fetus
stage of development that begins the third month after conception and lasts until birth
norm (testing)
standard used to compare an individual's performance on a test with that of others
The process of establishing rules for administering a test and for interpreting its scores is known as
standardization.
drive
state of bodily tension, such as hunger or thirst, that arises from an unmet need; state of unrest or irritation that energizes behavior until the irritation is eliminated
The tendency to remember something better if your body is in the same condition during recall as it was during original learning is known as
state-dependent memory.
homeostasis
steady state of body equilibrium; maintenance of an optimum level of biological conditions within an organism
Coma
steady, low-level of activity, no responsiveness; condition in which the brain shows a steady but low level of activity and no response to any stimulus
algorithm
step-by-step rules for solving a problem Good for well-defined problems•Mechanical, repetitive, step-by-step procedures for arriving at solutions
Telling or reminding people, "your group usually doesn't do well on this kind of test" tends to impair most people's performance. This phenomenon is known as
stereotype threat.
incentive
stimuli that pull us toward an action
What are heuristics?
strategies for simplifying a problem or for guiding an investigation Strategies for simplifying a problem and generating a satisfactory guess•Work much of the time
mnemonic device
strategy for enhancing memory
negative reinforcement
strengthening a behavior by removing something unpleasant from the environment of the organism
psychological dependence
strong craving not based on avoidance of withdrawal symptoms
delusion
strongly held thought or belief that is at odds with reality
basilar membrane
structure in the cochlear duct containing hair cells that convert sound waves into action potentials
Positive psychology
studies the features that enrich life, such as happiness, hope, creativity, courage, spirituality, and responsibility (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000).
trait approach to personality
study and measure of consistent personality characteristics
health psychology
study of how cognitive and behavioral principles can be used to prevent illness and promote physical well-being
social psychology
study of how indivduals think and behave in social situations
humanistic psychology
study of people as inherently good and motivated to learn and improve
gestalt psychology
study of thinking, learning, and perception in whole units, not by analysis into parts
Someone with an impulse to shout obscenities writes novels.
sublimation
Stimulants
substance that activates the central nervous system
Hallucinogens
substance that stimulates perceptions at odds with reality
Opiates
substances that produce sleep-inducing and pain-relieving effects
Which area of the brain is important for maintaining our circadian rhythm?
suprachiasmatic nucleaus
Electrical conduction of the skin provides an indication of the level of activity of the
sympathetic nervous system.
Stressful events cause physiological changes characterized by activation of the
sympathetic nervous system.
Activation of these ------- causes increased attention, accompanied by pleasurable feelings
synapses
In which way would a cognitive psychologist be most likely to try to help a slow-learning child?
teach better study skills or problem solving strategies
As opposed to a trait, a state is more
temporary.
retroactive interference
tendency for new memories to interfere with the retrieval of old memories; learning new material makes it hard to recall old material
proactive interference
tendency for old memories to interfere with retrieval of newer ones; retaining old material makes it hard to recall new material
season-of-birth effect
tendency for people born in the winter or early spring to be slightly more likely than average to develop schizophrenia
inoculation effect
tendency for people to be less persuaded by an argument because of first hearing a weaker argument
group polarization
tendency for people who lean in the same direction on a particular issue to become more extreme in that position after discussing it with one another
Barnum effect
tendency to accept vague descriptions of one's own personality
fundamental attribution error
tendency to attribute behavior to internal causes without regard to situational influences
openness to experience
tendency to enjoy new intellectual experiences and new ideas
neuroticism
tendency to experience unpleasant emotions frequently
diffusion of responsibility
tendency to feel less responsibility to act when other people are equally able to act
stimulus generalization
tendency to respond to stimuli similar to a conditioned stimulus
extraversion
tendency to seek stimulation and to enjoy the company of other people
NEO PI-R (NEO personality inventory-revised)
test that measures neuroticism, extraversion, openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness
Declarative (implicit)
that part of long-term memory containing specific factual information
Indirect effects
When stress leads to other unhealthy behaviors that can damage health
In Freud's theory, the term superego means something similar to
conscience
Content validity
When the test's items accurately represent the information that the test is designed to measure
If you could get all your brain's neurons active at the same time, what would happen?
You would go into convulsions.
Depressants
a substance that decreases activity in the body and nervous system
emotional stability
a tendency to minimize unpleasant emotions
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
a test of normal personality, loosely based on Carl Jung's theories
What is a prototype?
a typical example of a category
A micro expression refers to?
a very brief, involuntary expression of emotion.
Which of these statements is an example of hindsight bias?
"It was obvious from the start that we were going to win this game."
Repression
"Motivated forgetting" of unacceptable thoughts and feelings
Which of these is an example of an algorithm?
"To convert inches to centimeters, multiply by 2.54."
Which instruction might cause you to experience something similar to obsessive-compulsive disorder?
"Try not to think about a bear."
Why is "unwanted sex" a poor definition of rape?
"Unwanted" means different things to different people.
Raven's Progressive Matrices
"culture-reduced" tests to assess cognitive ability without need for language knowledge or any culture specific information; Abstract reasoning
Functional fixedness
"mental block against using an object in a new way that is required to solve a problem."
scientific-management approach
(also known as Theory X) view that most employees are lazy, indifferent, and uncreative, and that the job should be made simple and foolproof
human-relations approach
(also known as Theory Y) idea that employees like variety in their job, a sense of accomplishment, and a sense of responsibility
Nativist perspective
(e.g., Chomsky) - humans born with a built-in, brain based mechanism for learning language•language acquisition device or a "language instinct"
Treatments for alcoholism
- AA Peer self-help support group - Antabuse (dissulfiram) Works by classically conditioning an aversive response to alcohol Moderately effective - Controlled drinking Reducing consumption of alcohol to moderate levels Abstinence is not workable for all controversial Harm reduction is a similar approach applied to drug abuse controversial
Therapies for Schizophrenia
- Antipsychotic or neuroleptic drugs help to relieve the symptoms (especially positive) - Tardive dyskinesia Neurological syndrome from long-term or overuse of antipsychotics, includes tremors and involuntary movements - Atypical antipsychotic medications Lower risk of tardive dyskinesia suppress immune functioning in many patients - Family therapy for schizophrenia Risk of relapse is reduced by reducing negative familial reactions
Drug therapies for phobias and anxieties
- Benzodiazepines - suppress symptoms temporarily - Anti-depressants shown to be effective
Sexual Motivation
-Kinsey: 1st major survey of human sexual behavior -Large convenience sample -Demonstrated wide variation in human sexual habits and attitudes -What is normal? depends on what is meant by "normal:" -"A nymphomaniac is someone who wants more sex than you do." — Alfred Kinsey
Treatments for depression
- Cognitive therapy helps the individual develop more positive beliefs - Antidepressant medications tricyclics, SSRIs, MAOIs, and atypical antidepressants - Electroconvulsive shock therapy (ECT) A brief electrical shock is administered to the patient's head, inducing a convulsion similar to epileptic seizure Shown to be effective for treatment-resistant depression *Tricyclics and MAOIs are rarely used for depression any more*
Exposure and Response Prevention for OCD
- Exposure to the situation that typically leads to compulsive behavior - The individual is prevented from engaging in the behavior
Systematic desensitization
- For Panic Disorder and phobias - Gradual exposure under controlled conditions
The insanity defense
- Insanity is a legal term not a psychological or medical term - Most famous definition of insanity is based on the M'Naghten rule, from 19th Century British law to be judged insane at the time of a crime, a person must be so disordered that they cannot understand what they are doing - Fewer than 1% of accused felons plead insanity - Commitment to mental institution, and can only gain release when they can assure judges of their mental health - criteria for release of NGRI defendants are more stringent than those for people who are civilly committed
Stigma and Stereotypes
- Stereotypes about people with mental health concerns safety, violence, weakness, unable to work, etc Truth: - people with mental illnesses are capable of having satisfying relationships, - functioning effectively in a variety of careers, - and they are NOT more likely to be violent than those without mental illness
When a person's mental state represents a serious danger to self, others, or causes the individual to be unable to care for him or herself (Removing someone's rights)
- There are many potential problems in this process: - Not all seriously mentally ill patients realize that they are ill - People have been committed to mental hospitals just to be put "out of the way" - It is extremely difficult to determine which patients should be committed *Evaluation by multiple trained professionals plus a court action must be obtained in order to commit a person with a mental illness. Even after commitment, the patient retains the right to refuse specific treatments*.
obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
- anxiety disorder involving repetitive thoughts and urges to perform certain rituals - Persistent, uncontrollable intrusions of unwanted thoughts (obsessions) and/or urges to engage in senseless rituals (compulsions) - Common obsessions: fear of contamination, harming others, suicide, or sexual acts
Phobic disorder
- persistent and irrational fear of a specific object of situation that presents no realistic danger - Resistant to extinction because we avoid things we're fearful of - the avoidance is negatively reinforced -- so we lack the opportunity to learn that it is not dangerous - 11% prevalence Common phobias include: - Open spaces, Public speaking, Heights, Social phobia, Being alone
generalized anxiety disorder
- psychological disorder characterized by nearly constant, exaggerated worries - a chronic, high level of worry that is not tied to any specific threat - 5% prevalence
panic disorder
- recurrent unexpected panic attacks of overwhelming anxiety (w/ hyperventilation) - Prevalence: 1-3%
psychotherapy
- use of psychological principles and techniques to treat mental health disorders - treatment of psychological disorders by methods involving an ongoing relationship between a trained therapist and a client
Freud's structure of personality
-"warring factions" struggling for control of personality and behavior -struggles can cause psychological distress -a metaphor
Contemporary Surveys
-1960's Masters' and Johnson's pioneering work -4 physiological stages of sexual response -Similar for males and females
Working memory's 3 components:
-A phonological loop that stores and rehearses information, similar to the 7 +/- 2 range (short-term memory.) -A visuospatial sketchpad that stores and manipulates visual and spatial information. -A central executive governing shifts of attention. Good working memory handles shifts between multiple aspects of complex tasks.
Working memory
-A system for processing or working with current information -A much more active understanding of what is sometimes referred to as just short-term memory or short-term storage
Hierarchy of Needs
-Abraham Maslow -Biological needs must be satisfied before the higher level ones can be addressed -organization from the most insistent needs to the ones that receive attention only when all others are under control
Anorexia Nervosa
-Alternation between self-starvation and binging Often normal weight -Dieting may cause the feeling of starvation that triggers binging behavior -Often low self-esteem, great body dissatisfaction, histories of family dysfunction
Sexual orientation
-Attraction to male partners, female partners, both, or neither -Categories - we usually think of sexuality as being "either" heterosexual "or" gay, but Kinsey started asking people to describe their sexuality on a Continuum (e.g., Kinsey Scale)
The Culture of Thinness"
-Eating disorders more prevalent in women in body conscious fields: dancing, gymnastics, etc. -Viewing fashion mags leads to greater body dissatisfaction -General cultural features? -Barbie's real life dimensions (unattainable) 6'9" tall, 41" bust, 20" waist
Food Industry and Marketing
-High fructose corn syrup -Fructose doesn't induce satiety as effectively as sugar -Portion size and mindless eating (Wansink)
Capacities of STM
-Immediate: 7 +/- 2 bits of info -Improves with chunking
Genetic influences
-In identical twins, if one develops the disorder, there is a 50% chance that the other will also DISC-1 gene - one of 14 genes that is inconsistently linked with schizophrenia across populations -Much evidence indicates that it is possible to inherit a predisposition toward schizophrenia. A current hypothesis is that schizophrenia can result from changes in any of a large number of genes.
A mechanical, repetitive procedure for solving a problem or testing every hypothesis is called
an algorithm
Sexual diificulties
-Most people experience sexual difficulties at some time. These are two of the most common. -What do you think are the most common behavioral reasons for these difficulties? -Women may have sexual arousal without orgasm-inadequate stimulation -Men may have difficulty achieving or maintaining an erection -Performance anxiety
Highlights from random & representative samples
-Most popular sexual activities are vaginal sex, oral sex, and watching one's partner undress -Men report stronger preferences for masturbation and casual sex than women -Young adults report greatest # partners/yr
Biological
-Most studies on samples of gay males -Twin studies suggest that genetic factors contribute to sexual orientation -Hormone levels in adults do not influence sexual preference. Prenatal hormone levels might
Obesity
-Obesity is usually the result of consuming more calories than are expended -There is NO reliable connection between emotional disturbances and obesity -Emotional disturbance can cause temporary fluctuations in food intake and weight
Cultural differences
-People in Asian cultures are less likely than those in Western cultures to attribute behavior to consistent personality traits and more likely to attribute it to the situation. -Although some cultures tend to be more collectivist or conforming than others, it is an overgeneralization to regard all Asian cultures as collectivist or to assume that all members of a society are equally collectivist.
drive theories
-Predicts that once all needs have been met, the organism would become inactive -But People seek variety and activity in life, not a condition of non-stimulation -The role of external stimulation is ignored Interest in food depends not only on hunger but also what's available to consume
Effective goals:
-Realistic -Specific -Difficult & Attainable
Eating disorders
-Refusal to eat an adequate amount of food and to maintain healthy weight -Intense fear of gaining weight -Distorted perception of body
Social
-Sexual orientation of parents has no effect -Gender of parents has no effect
The learning approach
-Some psychologists skeptical about personality -People adopt a variety of behavioral styles depending on social context -Relates specific behaviors to specific experiences -Suggests there is consistency in our behavior because there is consistency in our environments
Incentive theories
-Stimuli that pull us toward certain actions -Most behaviors are motivated by a combination of drives and incentives You eat because you are hungry and because you are standing near a restaurant that offers appealing food
Capacities of LTM
-Unknown -The capacity of long-term memory cannot easily be measured -Unlike a computer, there's no physical limit of size
personality
-a person's unique, relatively stable patterns of thinking, emotions, and behavior -Personality consists of the stable, consistent ways in which each person's behavior differs from that of others, especially in social situations.
Libido
-an innate psychosexual energy -the preferred channel for gratifying this desire changes over the lifespan
Carl Jung (1875-1961)
-emphasis on continuity of human experience and need for spiritual meaning in life -collective unconscious -the cumulative experiences of all of our ancestors -contains archetypes -figures and themes that emerge repeatedly in history and across cultures
groupthink
-flawed decision making in which a collection of individuals favors conformity over critical analysis; tendency for people to suppress their doubts about a group's decision for fear of making a bad impression or disrupting group harmony -groupthink occurs when members of a cohesive group fail to express their opposition to a decision for fear of making a bad impression or harming the cohesive spirit of the group.
defense mechanism
-in Freud's personality theory, a protective behavior that reduces anxiety -Freud and his followers argued that people defend themselves against anxiety by such mechanisms as denial, repression, projection, and reaction formation.
Neo-Freudians: Alfred Adler
-individual psychology -understanding the whole person -humans naturally seek personal excellence and fulfillment and strive for superiority -Inferiority complex an exaggerated feeling of inadequacy from failure -Psychologically healthy people have social interest, a sense of belonging and identification with other people -Psychopathology involves the setting of inadequate goals, a faulty style of life, and lack of social interest
projective techniques
-personality tests that use ambiguous or unstructured stimuli -procedures designed to encourage people to project their personality characteristics onto ambiguous stimuli
big five personality traits
-theory that only a handful of characteristics account for most individual differences in personality -Collected all the traits in the English Dictionary -An atheoretical approach (no explanation posed about *why* people have these traits) -Goal was to find out what are the most basic units of personality -Factor analysis (correlational procedure discussed in intelligence) found 5 traits that everyone has to some extent: Openness- enjoy new experiences and new ideas Conscientiousness- ow self-discipline, to be reliable, and to strive for competence and achievement Extraversion- seek stimulation and enjoy the company of other people Agreeableness- compassionate rather than antagonistic towards others Neuroticism- tendency to experience unpleasant emotions very easily Criticisms of the Big Five include: -It was based on a study of the English language, not on observations of human behavior - There are too few traits included -There are too many traits included (seriously, different people critique it for both) -It has limited applicability cross-culturally
Which of the following would a little girl in the preoperational stage have trouble understanding?
. Her only sister has a sister.
Oral stage
0 to 18 months period of development in which psychosexual pleasure focuses on the mouth, according to Freud
Your boss yells at you. You come home and yell at your spouse. Your spouse yells at your child. Your child goes out to the yard and yells at the dog.
Displacement
Anal stage
18 to 36 months Freud's second stage of period of psycho-sexual development where pleasure focuses on the anus, according to Freud development; here, psychosexual pleasure focuses on the anus
Binet and Simon
1st modern IQ test
circadian rhythm
24-hour biological cycle found in humans and many other species; rhythm of activity and inactivity lasting approximately one day
phallic stage
3 to 6 years period of development in which psychosexual interest focuses on the penis or clitoris, according to Freud
About --- of adults reported an average of ≤6 hours of sleep per day (CDC)
30%
31% of high school students reported getting at least ---------- of sleep on an average school night (CDC)
8 hours
If you are supervising employees who say they can finish a challenging job in six weeks, what kind of bonus should you promise them?
A bonus they can earn by finishing within six weeks but also a not-quite-so-good bonus for finishing within eight weeks
What did Freud mean by the term Oedipus complex?
A boy's sexual interest in his mother and hostility toward his father
What evidence suggests that we construct a conscious perception of a stimulus afterward instead of simultaneously with it?
A brief masked stimulus is not perceived consciously, but a slightly longer one is perceived as lasting the entire duration. Also, the perception of a first stimulus can be altered by a stimulus that follows it.
What led to significant weight gain among the Pimas?
A change in diet
Most young adults today use social networks more than their parents, who use them more than their grandparents. Which of these is the probable reason?
A cohort effect
On average, the personality of young people today differs from what their parents or grandparents showed at the same age. What does this trend demonstrate?
A cohort effect
Exposure therapy
A common therapy for phobia is exposure therapy, also known as systematic desensitization. The patient relaxes while being gradually exposed to the object of the phobia.
Hypnosis
A condition of increased suggestibility that occurs in the context of a special hypnotist-subject relationship Not the same as sleep - still responsive to outside stimuli Inducing hypnosis Special powers not required No one can hypnotize an uncooperative person Believing that one is hypnotized is a big step towards actually achieving the state
Which of the following correctly states how a particular type of psychologist would study behavioral differences between boys and girls?
A cross-cultural psychologist would compare boys and girls in several countries.
Posthypnotic suggestion
A cue to do or experience something specific after hypnosis has concluded Treatments for addiction or habits using repeated applications of posthypnotic suggestion have shown modest success
Cultural influences
A culture provides examples not only of how to behave normally but also of how to behave abnormally.
Symptoms of schizophrenia
A diagnosis of schizophrenia applies if someone has deteriorated in everyday functioning and shows other symptoms from this list: hallucinations, delusions, disorganized speech and thought, movement disorder, and loss of normal emotional responses and social behaviors.
In one survey, 40-year-olds recalled more lifetime sex partners than did 50-year-olds. What is the most likely explanation?
A difference between cohorts
Hypothesis
A drug that increases arousal (adrenaline) will enhance whatever emotion a situation arouses, and type of emotion will depend on the situation (and cognitive appraisal)
Use of prototypes
A familiar example of a typical category member•Rose = typical flower We decide if an object belongs in a category by assessing how well it resembles the prototypical members of the category
If a human fetus is exposed to high levels of both testosterone and estradiol throughout prenatal development, how does the sexual anatomy appear?
A fetus exposed to high levels of both testosterone and estradiol develops a male appearance. High levels of testosterone lead to male anatomy; low levels lead to female anatomy. The level of estradiol is not decisive for external anatomy.
If a human fetus is exposed to very low levels of both testosterone and estradiol throughout prenatal development, how does the sexual anatomy appear?
A fetus exposed to very low levels of both testosterone and estradiol throughout prenatal development develops a female appearance.
Distortions of perception
A few report (haptic) hallucinations Sometimes, brain areas involved in sensory processing were activated Hypnotized people who claim that they are not registering stimuli still show activity in the brain areas that process them
An experimenter reads many series of letters, such as TGWNR, and you try to recall each one later, without rehearsing during the delay. About how long would each memory probably last?
A few seconds but less than 20
Stage 2 NREM (spindles
A gradual transition begins into synchronized slow wave states
Persistence of avoidance behaviors
A learned shock-avoidance response can persist long after the possibility of shock has been removed. As with shock-avoidance responses, phobias persist because people do not discover that their avoidance behaviors are unnecessary.
What are some criticisms of Maslow's hierarchy?
A lower level of need does not always take priority over one at a higher level. Maslow's hierarchy ignores parenting and overemphasizes self-actualization. Also, goals vary among cultures.
Suppose many researchers have conducted similar studies, but most used only a small number of participants. To estimate the true size of the results, which procedure would be best?
A meta-analysis.
Meditation
A method of inducing a calm, relaxed state through the use of special techniques•Has some similarities to the relaxed, passive state of hypnosis, but it requires no hypnotist or suggestions
Which of these would you probably find by an "attentive" process?
A misspelled word on a page in a book
What evidence do we have that babies can hear, even in the first 3 days after birth?
A newborn sucks harder if sucking turns on the sound of the mother's voice.
Phobia
A phobia is a fear so extreme that it interferes with normal living. Phobias are learned through observation as well as through experience.
If many gauges have indicators pointing to the right, but one is pointing down, you notice the odd one at once, regardless of how many other gauges are present. What directs your attention?
A pre-attentive process
Which of the following is a projective technique?
A psychologist gives a child a set of puppets with instructions to act out a story about a family.
Homeostasis
A regulatory process Maintenance of an optimum level of biological conditions within an organism Example: temperature, hydration, nutrition, and weight are maintained at a state of equilibrium -But -Ignores the power of new stimuli to arouse behavior -Humans adjust current behavior or consumption in anticipation of future needs. Example: eating a large meal in anticipation of skipping the next one
Regression
A return to an earlier stage of development
noculation
A small amount of disease bearing material doesn't cause sickness, but it produces an immune reaction Exposing yourself to small amounts or less serious versions of the event prior to encountering the real/full thing
What did early comparative psychologists discover about animal intelligence?
A species that seems intelligent on one task might do poorly on another.
Suppose someone follows a variety of sexual and other impulses that most people inhibit. According to Freud, this person has:
A strong id and a weak superego
Differences in mean scores between groups is not necessarily indicative of bias
A test is biased if it systematically underestimates the performance of the members of a certain group; English-language IQ tests are biased against non-English speakers
What is happening when you shift your attention to something without moving your eyes?
A top-down process
Adler
Alfred Adler proposed that people's primary motivation is a striving for superiority. Each person adopts his or her own method of striving, and to understand people, we need to understand their goals and beliefs.
How does the concept of allostasis differ from homeostasis?
Allostasis pertains to how we make changes for new circumstances.
What drug would decrease the effects of Ritalin?
AMPT, which blocks production of dopamine
Associated w/ starting early in life and concentrated practice
About 10 years of concentrated practice
Effectiveness of treatment
About one-third of patients recover from depression spontaneously within a few months. Of patients receiving psychotherapy, antidepressant drugs, or both, a little over half recover. Antidepressants are not significantly more helpful than placebos for people with mild to moderate depression.
How much annual salary would it take to make the average American happy?
About twice as much as the current salary, whatever that is
Which of these sayings does the "mere exposure" effect in social psychology contradict?
Absence makes the heart grow fonder.
Adler's view of a healthy personality
According to Adler, the healthiest style of life is one that emphasizes social interest—that is, concern for the welfare of others.
Addictive substances
Addictive substances stimulate dopamine synapses in the nucleus accumbens, a brain area that is associated with attention. After people develop a compulsive habit of gambling, video game playing, or other activities, those activities also elicit dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens.
How does humanistic psychology resemble the ideas of Alfred Adler?
Adler emphasized the importance of people's beliefs and the possibility of a better than normal personality. Humanistic psychology is based on Adler's approach.
According to Adler, what is people's main motivation?
Adler said people's main motivation was striving for superiority.
If you want to standardize a new IQ test, what is the FIRST thing you must do?
Administer the test to a large representative sample of the population
What is meant by "group polarization"?
After a discussion, a group that mostly favored one position at the start becomes more extreme in favoring that position.
Which of the following is an example of proactive interference?
After staying in eight motel rooms in the last month, you can't remember your room number in your current motel.
formal operational stage
Age 11 to Adulthood
The graphs at the end of the survey represent average data for typical,college-age students. How can we describe the sleep pattern of typical college students.
Alcohol consumption can increase the number of time you wake up at night and reduce the amount in critical stages of sleep
Substance Dependence (Addiction)
Alcoholism Later onset alcohol dependence develops gradually equally prevalent in men and women less severe in its health consequences Early onset alcohol dependence develops more quickly more prevalent in men and more severe Risk factors Genetics, especially with early onset Exposure to parental conflict, inadequate supervision, and abuse Culture (rates vary by nation and ethnic group) Treatment What counts as "success" or effective? Note that lapses or relapse are considered part of the substance use disorder; they are not a sign of "failure" Professional and peer treatment modalities improve the chances of recovery
Sadness
Almost always reported in reaction to loss Cultures vary in their attitudes and norms about crying Crying is usually accompanied by an increase in SNS activity and a feeling of relief or relaxation afterwards
Cycles of activity generally lasting about one day
Also occur in an environment free of time cues •Your degree of alertness depends on where you are in your circadian rhythm
Which of the following is NOT a symptom of schizophrenia?
Alternating between one personality and another
Minority influence
Although a minority may have little influence at first, it can, through persistent repetition of its message, eventually persuade the majority to adopt its position or consider other ideas.
Antidepressant drugs
Although antidepressants affect the synapses within an hour or so, their behavioral effects begin after two or three weeks of treatment. Perhaps they produce their benefits by enhancing cell growth in the hippocampus.
Why do many biologists and psychologists consider altruistic behavior a theoretical problem?
Altruism benefits someone else more than the person doing the act.
A condition occurring mostly in old age that is characterized by increasingly severe memory loss, as well as confusion, depression, and disordered thinking is known as
Alzheimer's disease.
In what way does conformity in the United States seem to differ from conformity in Asia?
Americans often conform to avoid embarrassing themselves. Asians sometimes conform to the wrong opinions of others to avoid embarrassing the others.
Why is an anecdote not considered strong evidence?
An anecdote is not replicable.
"He got lost because the road signs were confusing." This is an example of what?
An external attribution
It seems that it always rains when you wanted to go camping. However, you never kept any systematic records. The apparent relationship is probably an example of what?
An illusory correlation
Why do researchers use operational definitions of their terms?
An operational definition enables researchers to measure something.
How does a guilty-knowledge test differ from the usual polygraph test?
An ordinary polygraph test asks whether you did or did not do something, and an innocent person might be nervous, even when telling the truth. A guilty-knowledge test asks questions that should cause only someone with detailed knowledge about the crime to become nervous.
Freud attributed both excessive orderliness and excessive messiness to a fixation at which psychosexual stage?
Anal
In which of these ways do male homosexuals differ, on average, from male heterosexuals?
Anatomy of one part of the hypothalamus
Evolutionary theory:
Animals have evolved to sleep as much as is safe and doesn't interfere with their needs For example, migrating birds don't sleep
Antidepressants or psychotherapy?
Antidepressants are convenient and less expensive than psychotherapy, but psychotherapy's effects are more likely to produce long- lasting benefits.
Which idea is central to the biopsychosocial model of mental illness?
Any disorder results from a combination of influences.
What experience reflects the fact that part of the brain can be awake while another is asleep?
Any of the following: waking up but finding oneself unable to move, sleepwalking, or lucid dreaming.
Regular Exercise
Arouses SNS in short-term, but has inoculating effects in long-term
In what way did the obedience in Milgram's experiment resemble the foot-in-the-door procedure? How did it resemble Skinner's shaping procedure?
As with the foot-in-the-door procedure, Milgram started with a small request (give a small shock) and then built up. Skinner's shaping procedure also starts with an easy task and then builds to something more difficult.
Which of the following best describes the comparison between how Asian-Americans are perceived and what they actually experience?
Asian-Americans are perceived as well-adjusted and psychologically healthy, but they have higher rates of depression and anxiety than their majority counterparts.
If a child tries to change a photo on the wall with a remote control, what is she displaying?
Assimilation
Encoding specificity principle
Associations formed at the time of learning are the most effective retrieval cues.
vailability heuristic
Assuming that easily remembered examples of an event accurately indicate of how commonly that event occurs Example: •It is easier to think of examples of people dying from car crashes than from stomach cancer, so you assume that you are more likely to die in a car crash.•You are somewhat more likely to die from stomach cancer. The actual base rate of digestive cancer is the higher than that of car crashes
According to evolutionary theory, attractiveness is a sign of good health. Why would it be difficult for an unhealthy individual to produce "counterfeit" attractiveness?
Attractive features such as bright feathers in a bird or large muscles in a man require much energy. It would be difficult for an unhealthy individual to devote enough energy to produce such features.
Projection
Attributing one's own undesirable characteristics or motives to other people
Attribution
Attribution is the set of thought processes by which we assign internal or external causes to behavior. According to Harold Kelley, we are likely to attribute behavior to an internal cause if it is consistent over time, different from most other people's behavior, and directed toward a variety of other people or objects.
What are the advantages of atypical antipsychotic drugs?
Atypical antipsychotic drugs relieve the negative symptoms of schizophrenia better than the older drugs do, with less risk of tardive dyskinesia.
Autism
Autism, a condition that begins in early childhood, is characterized by impaired social contact, impaired language, and stereotyped movements. The causes apparently relate to genetics and prenatal environment.
Constructing Consciousness
Awareness lags behind perception of stimuli and reactions by a few microseconds, even though we feel as if we've been aware of them the whole time
Why is it difficult to determine the effectiveness of Alcoholics Anonymous through experimental research?
Because Alcoholics Anonymous is a voluntary organization, people cannot be randomly assigned to participate or not participate.
How would the fundamental attribution error affect people's attitudes toward actors and actresses who portrayed likable and contemptible characters?
Because of the fundamental attribution error, people tend to think that performers who portray likable characters are themselves likable, and those who play contemptible people probably resemble those characters.
What is a major difference between behavior therapists and psychoanalysts?
Behavior therapists try to change behavior without interpreting hidden meanings.
Children exposed to two languages
Bilingual•Equal exposure to two languages•Learn both languages equally well
Sex
Biological identity as male or female
Fear+Anxiety
Both are linked to amygdala
What are the similarities and differences between seasonal affective disorder and bipolar disorder?
Both conditions have repetitive cycles. However, people with bipolar disorder swing back and forth between depression and mania, whereas people with seasonal affective disorder alternate between depression and normal mood. Also, people with seasonal affective disorder show a regularity in timing that depends on time of year.
What is one way in which the behaviorists and Sigmund Freud were similar?
Both had high ambitions for discovering major principles of psychology.
component of Freud's personality theory containing primitive drives present at birth
Bottom of iceberg (Id)
Wernicke's area:
Brain damage leading to Wernicke's aphasia usually includes this area
How could researchers explain how schizophrenia can have a strong genetic basis, even though no single gene is strongly linked with schizophrenia?
Brain development depends on many genes, and a disruption of any of them (including a spontaneous deletion or duplication of part of a gene) can increase the risk of schizophrenia.
Shifting sleep schedules
Brain structures use light to reset the body clock Jet lag A period of weariness and discomfort that occurs while the body clock adjusts to a new time zone It's easier to adjust going east to west
To remember something long term, how should you study?
Break up your study into many short sessions.
Edgar suffers a stroke on the left side of his brain and as a result has a condition characterized by inarticulate speech and difficulties using and understanding grammatical devices. The condition is known ------ aphasia.
Broca's
Broca's area Left Frontal
Broca;s area: Brain damage leading to Broca's aphasia usually includes this area
Alzheimer's disease
Build-up of harmful proteins and deteriorating brain cells
Researchers have reported similarities between which conditions?
Bulimia nervosa and drug addiction
With training, more effective than polygraph
But can still fail
Tolerance is often a condition that follows repeated exposure to a drug. In this experiment, how did the researchers develop tolerance in rats?
By repeatedly injecting rats with heroin during the pretest sessions
Jung
Carl Jung believed that all people share a collective unconscious that represents the experience of our ancestors.
Which research method generally uses the fewest participants?
Case history
Why do we forget
Catastrophic loss of memory can only result from brain damage or disease "Normal" forgetting is a product of mechanisms that are in fact adaptive Remembering absolutely everything that happened would be overwhelming and debilitating!
------- and ------- language is often what links the IV and DV
Causal......relational
Sublimation
Channeling sexual or aggressive energies into acceptable and pro-social behaviors
Which of these flights would produce the most intense jet lag for most people?
Chicago to Paris
In which of the following situations would people be most likely to engage in social loafing?
Cleaning up the environment
What is one way that the myth of the model minority can have a negative impact even when Asian-Americans do seek mental health treatment?
Clinicians perceive that the symptoms and complaints of Asian-Americans as being less severe than they actually are.
Tricyclics and SSRIs block reuptake of neurotransmitters. Which other drugs, discussed in Chapter 3, block reuptake also?
Cocaine and methylphenidate (Ritalin, discussed in Chapter 3) also block reuptake of neurotransmitters. However, the antidepressant drugs produce slower and milder effects.
Cognitive dissonance
Cognitive dissonance is a state of unpleasant tension that arises when a behavior conflicts with an attitude. People try to reduce the inconsistency, often by changing their attitudes.
Numerous studies have found a relationship between sleep deprivation and a decrease in overall physical and mental performance. Which of the following policies is most likely related to this damaging relationship
Commercial vehicle operators have their daily amount of driving and waking hours monitored by by the Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Administration
Is a personality test more likely to be accurate in identifying common disorders or rare disorders?
Common disorders
Which comes first, the psychological experience of emotion or the physiological arousal?
Common sense: feel sad and therefore cry, feel happy and then laugh
Changes over age
Compared to younger people, older people tend to be higher in conscientiousness, agreeableness, and emotional stability. They are somewhat lower in extraversion. Openness to experience decreases with age in most countries.
Compulsive checking
Compulsive checkers constantly double-check themselves and invent elaborate rituals. Repeatedly checking something leads to decreased confidence in the memory of having checked it.
Categorization
Conceptual networks •Mental hierarchy of categories and subcategories•Spreading activation•Thinking of one concept will activate related concepts
Which of the following is most characteristic of people with Korsakoff's syndrome?
Confabulations
If you wanted to predict how long someone would live, which personality trait would you measure?
Conscientiousness
What is the best predictor of long-term success for a marriage?
Consistent displays of affection and respect correlate with long-term success.
Parasympathetic nervous system
Consists of neurons with axons extending out from the medulla and the lower spinal cord Axons connect to neuron clusters near the internal organs It's the long-term survival center, promoting rest by decreasing heart rate, digestion, and other functions that keep an organism healthy and alive neurons whose axons extend from the medulla and the lower part of the spinal cord to neuron clusters near the organs; it decreases the heart rate and promotes digestion and other nonemergency functions
An airline that cancelled your flight offers you an alternative flight that will reach your destination 14 hours later than your original flight. Then the agent discovers a better flight that will get you there only 8 hours later, and you feel delighted. What persuasion technique is this?
Contrast effect
Emotion-focused
Controlling emotional reactions to the situation
Problem-focused
Controlling the situation
Autonomic nervous system
Controls the functioning of the internal organs Alternate activity: shifting between keeps homeostasis Responses aren't directly controlled, but can be influence through thought and behavior tudying "how people with paralyzed arms learn to write" Ps asked to read a comic strip Cartoons funnier when pen in teeth than pen in mouth Consistent with James-Lange theory OR Inconsistent with James-Lange theory the section of the nervous system that controls the organs such as the heart and intestines.
It has been reported that people who spend more time reading tend to have a larger vocabulary. This conclusion is probably based on which kind of study?
Correlation
"-------------" or relational language notes and describes a relationship, without suggesting that one variable affects the other.
Correlational
Associated emotional arousal helps memory
Cortisol + Adrenaline stimulate amygdala enhanced storage
Which of these is NOT a typical activity for industrial-organizational psychologists?
Counseling employees who have psychological disorders
A psychologist compares the attitudes of students and their parents at approximately the same time. What type of research is this?
Cross-sectional
In John B. Watson's attempt to condition a phobia in a child, what was the unconditioned response?
Crying and other fear reactions
An experienced worker with highly practiced skills is demonstrating which of these?
Crystallized intelligence
Which of these is a NEGATIVE symptom of autism?
Impaired communication
The current edition of the book that lists approved diagnoses of psychological disorders is abbreviated
DSM-5.
Which of these might cause the loss of your circadian rhythm of wakefulness and sleepiness?
Damage to a small area in the brain
Blindsight
Damage to the visual cortex Respond to stimuli but also report not being consciousness of them
Which kind of memory was most impaired in patient H. M.?
Declarative memory, especially episodic memory
What is the usual consequence of resisting a temptation?
Decreased probability of resisting the next temptation
Negative symptoms (Schizophrenia)
Deficits in speech, behavior, and emotion
Which of the following is undesirable for psychological research and theories?
Demand characteristics
If someone's questionnaire results indicate "low self-esteem," what else might the results actually mean other than low self-esteem?
Depending on the questionnaire items, what appears to be low self-esteem might indicate high goals and therefore lack of satisfaction with one's current performance. It could also mean modesty (reluctance to brag).
What is the current status of the search for a genetic basis of depression?
Depression appears to have a genetic basis, but researchers have not located any gene with a significant effect.
Episodes
Depression occurs in episodes. Although the first episode is usually triggered by a stressful event, later episodes occur more easily.
Norms
Descriptions of score frequencies; Based on large and representative samples, similar to the target population
Which of these general points did we learn from studies of patient H.M.?
Different types of memory depend on different brain areas.
Anterograde Amnesia
Difficulty learning new information
Retrograde Amnesia
Difficulty retrieving old memories
Someone who notices possible symptoms of cancer reports anxieties about a leaky faucet. This is a possible example of which defense mechanism?
Displacement
Criticisms of DSM-5
Distinction between normal and abnormal can sometimes seem arbitrary -5 months of a problem is not a disorder, but 6 months is -Is it an adjustment to a life stressor, or is it mental illness?-To what extent is the situation (not the person) the problem?
Displacement
Diversion of an unacceptable thought or impulse from its true target to a less threatening one
According to the conceptual network approach, which of the following questions should most people answer most rapidly?
Do porcupines have quills?
What question should you ask to decide whether you have insomnia?
Do you feel sufficiently rested the next day?
Which of the following is an example of a question for "basic research"?
Does all memory use the same mechanism, or do we have several types of memory?
More dreams are threatening than pleasant. Freud proposed that dreams are the product of unconscious motivations. Modern theorists describe dreaming as a kind of thinking that occurs under conditions of low sensory input and no voluntary control of thinking.
Dream content.
The Neurocognitive theory
Dreaming is thinking that occurs during sleep What might contribute? Persistent activity of the cortex, reduction of sensory stimulation, and loss of self-control of thinking REM is not necessary but the emotional arousal created by REM tends to intensify dreams This theory has been supported by research
How does dreaming differ from other thinking?
Dreaming resembles other thinking, but it occurs during a time of decreased sensory input and loss of voluntary control of thinking.
According to Freud, fixation at the oral stage might lead to what?
Drinking, smoking, and overeating
Research on rats suggests that bulimia nervosa resembles what other condition?
Drug addiction
Antipsychotic drugs
Drugs that alleviate schizophrenia block dopamine synapses. However, all current antipsychotic drugs produce unpleasant side effects.
Attentional Blink
During a brief time after perceiving one stimulus, it is difficult to attend to something else
Sleep stages.
During sleep, people cycle through sleep stages 1 through 4 and back through stages 3 and 2 to 1 again. The cycle beginning and ending with stage 1 lasts about
For depression, the treatment with the most rapid benefit is and the treatment most likely to produce long-lasting benefits is .
ECT ... psychotherapy
What dietary change is recommended for people with depression?
Eat more seafood.
Under what circumstances would an eating binge produce an experience similar to taking an addictive drug?
Eating a meal high in sugars and fats right after a deprivation period produces an experience comparable to those produced by addictive drugs.
Defense mechanisms
Ego's way of keeping unwanted thoughts and feelings in the unconscious -usually function as healthy ways to suppress anxiety -become problematic only if they prevent the person from effectively dealing with reality -There is support for the idea that we use defense mechanisms (like coping)
Polysomnograph
Electroencephalograph (EEG) measures electrical activity of the brain combined with a device to track eye movements device that combines an EEG measure with a simultaneous measure of eye movement
Schachter and Singer's theory of emotions
Emotion and Perceived Arousal Schachter and Singer's theory of emotions Physiological state is NOT the same as the emotion Intensity of the physiological reaction determines only the intensity of the emotion, NOT the type of emotion Cognitive appraisal of the situation determines the emotion experienced statement that the degree of sympathetic nervous system arousal determines the intensity of the emotion, but a cognitive appraisal of the situation identifies the type of emotion
Why have psychological researchers made slower progress in understanding emotion than in sensation, learning, and memory?
Emotion is difficult to measure.
You read a list of terms including "blind date." Later someone asks you which word on the list was the name of a fruit, and you fail to think of "date." Why?
Encoding specificity
Remembering your most recent visit to your cousins is what type of memory?
Episodic memory
Learning and memory are strengthened
Especially for motor skills and language-related tasks•Areas in brain specialized for motor tasks are active during sleep after learning•Memories are reanalyzed during sleep
(free) Recall
Essay or short answer test
Standardization
Established rules for administering and interpreting test
Which of the following is an example of evidence to support monism?
Every mental activity is associated with measureable brain activity.
He didn't make his theory falsifiable
Evidence that would disprove his theories was explained away
Of the various treatments recommended for depression, which one(s) might be helpful for prevention, as opposed to treating a disorder that has already occurred?
Exercise and seafood are suitable for prevention.
Why are many psychologists and psychiatrists skeptical of the categorical approach to mental illness?
Few people exactly fit the criteria for one and only one disorder. More frequently, someone partly fits the description for two or more disorders. Also, the genetic and environmental causes of any disorder overlap those for other disorders, and the treatments designed for one disorder may be effective for others.
Cued recall
Fill in the blank
To determine what would be a reinforcer for some child today, according to the disequilibrium principle, how should we start?
Find something the child has not recently had enough opportunity to do.
How could you increase your probability of getting a good start on writing a term paper?
First, find some way to boost your confidence. Then make specific plans, such as, "I will spend Monday night at the library looking for materials." You could also estimate your probability of completing the first part of the paper.
Because of a shortage of apples, your local store will sell you only one per day. Which schedule of reinforcement is this?
Fixed interval
Solving a problem of a type you have never seen before requires which type of intelligence?
Fluid intelligence
Non-standardized personality tests
For example, we tend to agree with vague statements (Barnum effect) - Criminal Profiling: Great TV, lousy science - Consistent relationships haven't been found between personality characteristics and criminal tendencies - The profiles produced in these efforts differ little from those of members of the general and non-criminal public
What is a problem with current tests of "emotional intelligence"?
For many items, no one is sure what the correct answer is.
Other treatments
For the many people who do not respond to drugs or psychotherapy, electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is another option. Exercise and seafood help to prevent depression.
Suppose your final exam is just one essay question: "Describe everything you learned in this course!" What type of memory test is that?
Free recall
Freud's psychosexual stages
Freud believed that many unconscious thoughts and motives are sexual in nature. He proposed that people progress through stages or periods of psychosexual development—oral, anal, phallic, latent, and genital—and that frustration at any stage fixates the libido at that stage.
The psychoanalytic approach
Freud maintained that dreams reveal unconscious thoughts and motives. He referred to the surface content of the dream as "manifest" content. He called the hidden content, represented only in symbols "latent" content. An analyst discovers the meaning of latent content by relating the dreamer's personal associations to details of the manifest content. This approach to dream analysis was popular for years. But it's not scientific - there is no way to test this approach empirically.
If someone has persistent problems with independence and dependence, Freud would suggest a fixation at which psychosexual stage?
Freud would interpret this behavior as a fixation at the oral stage.
Critics now and then said Freud was too focused on sex
Freud's idea that much of mental life is non-conscious turns out to be supported (think about those implicit memories) but they're not so focused on sex
Why do introductory psychology texts put so little emphasis on Freud?
Freud's views have only limited influence in psychology today.
psychoanalysis
Freudian approach to psychotherapy emphasizing the exploration of unconscious conflicts
Which of the following strongly increases the probability of anger and aggression?
Frustration
Aggressive behavior
Frustration or discomfort of any kind increases the probability of anger and aggression, especially if one perceives that others have caused their frustration intentionally.
In the early days of psychology, how did functionalists differ from structuralists?
Functionalists studied the purpose of behaviors. Structuralists analyzed the composition of the mind.
Social Learning Approach
Gender role -psychological aspects and social behaviors associated with being male or female Cross-cultural research -Gender roles vary across cultures (so personality traits related to "masculinity" and "femininity" cannot be due to nature or biology) Learning -Reinforcements and punishments for (un)desired gender role behaviors -Vicarious learning in children -Boys observed to imitate men, and girls to imitate women
Which of these might define something as "a man's job" or "a woman's job"?
Gender roles
motivated behaviors
Goal-directedProcess that determines the reinforcement value of an outcome Variability in time and persons
Group polarization
Groups of people who lean mostly in the same direction on a given issue often make more extreme decisions than most people would have made on their own.
alcoholism
Habitual Overuse of Alcohol
Why does Selye's definition of stress classify poverty as not being stressful?
He defined stress as an experience that changes your life.
How did Lawrence Kohlberg evaluate moral reasoning?
He evaluated the reasons people gave for their decisions on moral dilemmas.
When Freud attributed adult psychological problems to childhood sexual fantasies, what evidence did he have?
He had no evidence, except for his ability to construct a story linking a patient's symptoms and dreams to early sexual fantasies that Freud inferred.
How did Piaget determine whether a child understands object permanence?
He watched whether the child would reach for a toy behind a barrier.
Many former mental hospital patients are now:
Homeless, In nursing homes, Imprisoned, Dead
What is the question that Schachter and Singer's theory addresses?
How do you know which emotion you are feeling?
What does the depth-of-processing principle relate to?
How to study to make something easy to remember
Someone with a strong belief in a just world would probably agree with which of the following statements?
How well I succeed in life will depend on how hard I work.
Validity
How well a test measures what it claims to measure
What can we infer from comparing several methods of testing memory?
How well you remember something depends on how someone tests you.
Language
Human language has transformational grammar •Two men are talking at the intersection Surface Stucture Deep Structure
Humanistic psychology
Humanistic psychologists emphasize conscious, deliberate decision making.
------- is a homeostatic drive that makes fuel available to the body
Hunger
Which of these brain areas is considered most important for regulating hunger and satiety?
Hypothalamus
Transformational Grammar
I want an apple I'd like an apple Give me an apple May I have an apple?
If differences in heredity are important for differences in IQ scores, what should we expect to find?
IQ correlations should be higher for monozygotic than dizygotic twins.
What, if anything, do high or low IQ scores explain?
IQ scores do not explain anything.
How would group polarization affect a jury?
If most jury members lean toward a guilty or innocent verdict, they will become even more confident of their decision after a discussion. In a civil suit, if most jurors favor a strong penalty against the defendant, they will probably choose an even stronger penalty after a discussion.
Fixation
If normal development is blocked, a person may become preoccupied with gratification of the libido in a manner typical of an earlier period
Forewarning and inoculation effects.
If people have been warned that someone will try to persuade them of something or if they have previously heard a weak version of the persuasive argument, they tend to resist the argument.
Based on studies of children known to have experienced highly traumatic experiences, what are the implications for the concept of repression?
If repression occurs at all, it occurs under rare and unknown circumstances.
What conclusion would have followed if the early-deadline students did better than the late-deadline students did but that the class on the average did as well as the assigned-deadline students?
If students in the two sections had equal performance overall, we could not conclude that deadlines help. Instead, the conclusion would be that brighter students tend to set earlier deadlines.
What evidence would indicate an important role of the shared environment—the influences that are the same for all children within a family?
If the personalities of adopted children within a family correlated highly with one another, we would conclude that the similarity reflected the shared environment. The weakness of such correlations is the main evidence for the importance of the unshared environment.
Of the most common symptoms of autism, which would be considered negative symptoms analogous to the negative symptoms of schizophrenia?
Impaired social relationships and impaired communication.
Of the possible explanations for the Flynn effect, which of these is the LEAST likely?
Improved education
Obedience
In Milgram's obedience study, many people followed directions in which they thought they were delivering painful shocks to another person.
What is one apparent advantage of feeling sad?
In some ways sad people are more realistic.
How has treatment of psychological disorders changed since the 1950s?
In the 1950s, psychiatrists conducted almost all psychotherapy. Today, clinical psychologists and other specialists also provide treatment. Today's therapists use a variety of empirically supported treatments, with less reliance on Freudian methods. Therapists try to achieve good results in just a few sessions, when possible, instead of proceeding for months or years. Today's therapists provide diagnoses for more disorders and define their diagnoses more carefully.
Views of abnormality
In the past, people have described abnormal behavior in many ways, including spirit possession. The standard view today is that abnormal behavior results from a combination of biological, psychological, and social influences.
Correlates of happine
Inborn temperament or disposition Marital status (being married relates to being happy) Striving towards goals and working for causes Having a religious faith Being healthy
Which theory of motivation best explains people's interest in having an exciting experience?
Incentive
Which of the following changes has been reported for American children and teenagers, as compared to those of previous generations?
Increased desire for wealth and an expensive lifestyle
Insulin levels are generally higher at midday than in the middle of the night. What is the result?
Increased hunger during the day.
Readiness potential
Increased motor cortex activity prior to the start of a movement
Hypnosis can produce:
Increased relaxation Better concentration Temporary changes in behavior that may persist beyond the end of the trance
What is one likely explanation for why puberty starts earlier now than it did long ago?
Increased weight gain has led to higher levels of the hormone leptin.
Most adults remember very few events from early childhood. Studies on mice support which explanation for this infantile amnesia?
Infants form many new neurons that not only facilitate new learning but also forgetting.
Why do the results of Zimbardo's prison study not lead to a firm conclusion?
Influence of demand characteristics
Why are people unconscious most of the time while they are asleep?
Inhibitory synapses block the spread of messages from one brain area to another.
What was Freud's original view of the cause of personality problems, and what view did he substitute? What evidence did he have for either view?
Initially, Freud pointed to childhood sexual abuse. Later, he said the problem was childhood sexual fantasies, such as the Oedipus complex. His only evidence was that he thought he could infer these childhood events from his patients' dreams and symptoms.
The Activation-Synthesis theory
Input from the brainstem (the pons) activates the brain during REM sleep The cerebral cortex makes "sense" of the random activity by imposing a story on the stimuli that activate the sense organs during this process The meaning is not a cause, as in Freud's approach, but a by-product. Does not make clear, testable predictions either
Hormones secreted by the pancreas help regulate hunger and nutrition:
Insulin increases the flow of glucose and other nutrients into body cells surges at the beginning of a meal and then declines -Glucagon converts stored nutrients into blood glucose released when energy is needed
Insulin levels fluctuate over the course of a day. Would they be higher in the middle of the day, when people tend to be hungry, or late at night, when most are less hungry?
Insulin levels are higher in the middle of the day (LeMagnen, 1981). As a result, much of your meal is stored, and you become hungry again. At night, when insulin levels are lower, you draw from your supplies to make more glucose.
Which hormones strongly influence appetite?
Insulin, ghrelin, and leptin
Your friend Annie can't seem to hang on to a cent. She spends her money wildly. Her roommates are always threatening to call the health department because she never cleans up after herself and her room always looks like a "pigsty." Freud would say that she...
Is fixated in the anal stage.
Your friend Oscar can't seem to go more than 30 minutes without lighting up a cigarette. Freud would say that he...
Is fixated in the oral stage.
What is one benefit of incorporating virtual reality into PTSD treatment?
It allows each patient to receive customized treatment based on their individual experience?.
How does Antabuse (disulfiram) help someone quit alcohol?
It blocks the breakdown of acetaldehyde.
Although Alfred Kinsey reported that 13 percent of men and 7 percent of women had a predominantly homosexual orientation; later surveys reported much lower numbers. Why?
Kinsey did not interview a representative sample of the population.
Limits to Kohlberg's views
Kohlberg concentrated on logical reasoning. In fact, people usually act first, based on an emotional urge, and look for a justification later. Also, many people, especially in non-Western cultures, base their moral decisions on factors Kohlberg ignored, including loyalty, authority, and purity.
Kohlberg's view of moral reasoning
Lawrence Kohlberg argued that we should evaluate moral reasoning on the basis of the reasons people give for a decision rather than the decision itself.
To do research on the psychological effects of birth order, what should a researcher do?
Limit the study to people from families with at least two children.
The study of people with brain damage supports which of these conclusions?
Localized damage can impair a specific function, such as face recognition.
Stages 3 and 4 NREM (Delta wave)
Long, slow synchronized waves indicate decreased brain activity•Eyes relatively inactive•The sleeper moves back through stages 3 and 2 and has first REM episode of the night
Major depression
Loss of interest, low mood and Problems with sleeping, appetite, fatigue, slowed motor functions, difficulty concentrating, guilt feelings, suicidal thoughts or attempts
More recently, "Elliot" had prefrontal cortex damage after neurosurgery
Lost emotional experience and was unable to make decisions evidence that feeling distinctly good or bad is crucial to achieve the best outcome in important decisions
Which of the following happens when mammals or birds sleep?
Lower body temperature
SNS
Made up of two chains of neuron clusters to the left and right spinal cord; prepares the body for intense activity, "fight or flight" and other high energy behaviors
How does major depression differ from sadness or discouragement?
Major depression is more severe than sadness and lasts months. A person with major depression finds almost no pleasure in anything.
Which of the following is NOT good advice about making a New Year's resolution?
Make it general, such as "I will do my best."
If you want to get a good start on a project, which of these is good advice?
Make specific plans about what you will do at a particular time.
If you compare all the first-borns in your class to all the later-borns, what might influence the results, other than birth order?
Many first-borns come from one-child families
What observation led to Selye's concept of stress?
Many illnesses and troublesome experiences lead to the same symptoms.
Conformity
Many people conform to the majority view even when they are confident that the majority is wrong. An individual is as likely to conform to a group of three as to a larger group, but an individual with an ally is less likely to conform.
Brain abnormalities
Many people with schizophrenia show indications of mild brain abnormalities. However, some of the damage may be due to alcohol abuse.
The neurodevelopmental hypothesis
Many researchers believe that schizophrenia originates with abnormal brain development before or around the time of birth because of either genetics or prenatal environment. Early abnormal development leaves a person vulnerable to further deterioration in adulthood.
Marriage
Marriage and similar relationships often break up because of problems that were present from the start, such as displays of anger.
What is one way to predict which young people will later become heavy drinkers?
Measure the amount of body sway after drinking, or ask people to report how many drinks they need to experience various effects. People who report experiencing little effect from a moderate amount of alcohol are more likely than average to become heavy drinkers.
Changes over generations
Measurements of anxiety have gradually increased over the decades so that normal people now report anxiety levels that used to characterize people in mental hospitals. American teenagers today report more desire for wealth than teenagers of the past did, while also reporting less intention to work hard.
For which of these purposes are physiological measurements more helpful?
Measuring the strength of someone's anger or fear
Influence of fear
Messages that appeal to fear are sometimes effective, unless the message is too extreme or if it suggests that the problem is hopeless.
Performance and Emotion
Mildly sad moods increase the accuracy of judgment and decision-making
What did Mineka's experiments with monkeys show?
Monkeys can learn a fear by observing another monkey's fear.
When asked what conditions would increase happiness, most people answered:
More money A good job More leisure time A boyfriend or girlfriend (or a new one)
Why is the ability to recognize the expressions of six emotions not convincing evidence that these are basic emotions?
Most everyday expressions do not fit neatly into those six categories. We can also identify additional states, such as contempt and pride. Also, we can identify facial expressions of other conditions that may or may not be emotions.
What is the evidence that parenthood effects happiness?
Most parents describe their children as a source of joy.
People who have taken a new personality test say they think its results are highly accurate. Why should we be skeptical?
Most people accept almost any assessment of themselves as valid.
What did Solomon Asch's study of conformity reveal?
Most people conform even when they know the majority opinion is wrong.
What do people perceive during binocular rivalry?
Most people perceive one stimulus and then the other, alternating.
The concept of the "g" factor in intelligence was based on what evidence?
Most people who do well on one mental test also do well on many others.
What are the arguments against regarding anorexia as a result of emotional problems?
Most people with anorexia had no psychiatric problems before developing anorexia. Standard forms of psychotherapy and drug therapies are not very effective with anorexia. Also, a treatment based on increasing body warmth and avoiding excessive exercise has been reported to be highly effective.
The idea of a set point in body weight is supported by what evidence?
Most people's weight fluctuates around a nearly constant level.
Doubts about the categorical approach
Most troubled people partly fit two or more diagnoses. Also, the genetic and environmental causes of various disorders overlap, and the treatment designed for one disorder may help with another. An alternative is to rate each person along several dimensions of distress.
Five major traits
Much of personality can be explained by these five traits: emotional stability, extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness to new experience.
The learning approach.
Much of what we call personality is learned through individual experience, imitation, or vicarious reinforcement and punishment.
Recognition
Multiple choice
It will --- give a person new mental or physical abilities
NOT
Substance Use Disorders are --- due to "personal weakness", laziness, or poor moral character; they have significant biological underpinnings
NOT
Why can someone predict the grades for first-year English graduate students better from their Graduate Record Exam (GRE) quantitative scores than from their GRE verbal scores?
Nearly all English grad students have very similar, high verbal scores.
Name four ways in which nearly all forms of psychotherapy are similar.
Nearly all forms of psychotherapy include a close relationship between client and therapist, an effort to discuss personal difficulties openly, an expectation of improvement, and a commitment to make changes in one's life.
What are some of the ways in which men's sexuality differs from women's?
Nearly all men identify their sexual orientation early and cannot imagine switching. Some women discover their orientation later, and a fair number have a consistent bisexual response. Measuring penis erections can accurately indicate a man's sexual interest, but vaginal secretions are not a dependable way to measure a woman's sexual interest.
The findings from a study looking at blood pressure changes over a 4-year window showed that negative social interactions increased the risk of hypertension for women between the ages of 51-64, but not men in the same age range. Which interpretation below is consistent with this finding?
Negative interactions have a greater impact on women because they place more importance on social relationships than men.
Neurodevelopmental hypothesis
Nervous system impairments from prenatal or early childhood
Which of these is true of the nervous system?
New neurons can form in certain areas of the adult brain.
Two reasons that volunteering may affect blood pressure are:
New social ties and a meaningful experience
How, if at all, can therapists confirm which of two or more psychiatric diagnoses is the correct one?
No available test can confirm one diagnosis over another.
Are Freud's ideas on dreaming falsifiable in the sense described in Chapter 2?
No. A falsifiable theory makes specific predictions so that we could imagine evidence that would contradict it. Freud's dream theories make no clear predictions.
Nomothetic and idiographic research
Nomothetic studies examine large numbers of people briefly, whereas idiographic studies examine one or a few individuals intensively.
What was a major criterion for identifying the "Big Five" personality traits?
None of them should correlate highly with any of the others.
Which conclusion did Milgram draw from his obedience study?
Normal people will follow orders even if it means badly hurting someone.
After people have quit an addiction, when are they most likely to resume the habit?
People are most likely to relapse into an addictive habit during times of high stress.
Debate continues but agreement has been reached on a few points:
Not faking or pretending Does not bestow any unusual abilities or powers Enables people to relax, concentrate, and follow suggestions more effectively•Beware of any claims beyond the scope of these
Scores on some tests of cognitive skills go up on the second taking - does this mean the tests are unreliable?
Not necessarily - there could be a "practice effect," among other things
Most studies find that gay men have approximately the same levels of testosterone in their blood as heterosexual men of the same age. Do such results conflict with the suggestion that prenatal hormonal conditions can predispose certain men to homosexuality?
Not necessarily. The suggestion is that prenatal hormones can alter early brain development. In adulthood, hormone levels are normal, but certain aspects of brain development have already been determined.
Brief therapy is a goal or policy for many therapists. Why would it be less important in self-help groups such as Alcoholics Anonymous?
One advantage of brief therapy is that it limits the expense. Expense is not an issue for self-help groups because they charge nothing other than a voluntary contribution toward rental of the facilities.
You have read two explanations for humans' altruistic behavior. Why do both of them require individual recognition?
One explanation for altruistic behavior is that cooperating builds a reputation, and a reputation requires individuals to recognize one another. The other explanation is that people who cooperate will punish those who do not. Again, to retaliate, they need to recognize who has failed to cooperate.
Even though all of the participants saw the same film, the wording of the questions affected their answers. The speed estimates (in miles per hour) were 31, 34, 38, 39, and 41, respectively.
One week later, the participants were asked whether they had seen broken glass at the accident site. Although the correct answer was 'no,' 32% of the participants who were given the 'smashed' condition said that they had
What is meant by a "collectivist" culture?
One where people subordinate their own wishes to the welfare of their society
You read a list of all the 74 state parks in Ohio and try to recall them. Which will you be LEAST likely to remember?
One with a common name, such as East Harbor
Better to use emotions in decision-making or be completely rational?
Only extreme emotions interfere with decision-making Some degree of emotionality is needed for good decision-making
What is one explanation for why reports of life satisfaction have failed to increase in the United States in recent decades?
Only the rich people are getting richer.
Cognitive re-framing has protective effects
Opportunities, looking on the bright side, etc. Participants asked to restrain their emotions while looking at pictures of injured people or crying children Most successful Ps reinterpreted the pictures as being of people who were receiving good medical care
What are some limitations of Kohlberg's approach?
Ordinarily, people make quick moral decisions intuitively and emotionally, rather than reasoning them out logically. Also, Kohlberg assumed that all moral decisions are based on seeking justice and avoiding harm to others. Most of the world's people also consider such matters as group loyalty, respect for authority, and spiritual purity.
First impressions
Other things being equal, we pay more attention to the first information we learn about someone than to later information. First impressions form rapidly, and some are more accurate than we might guess.
The degree of stressfulness of any event depends on:
Our interpretation of the event Our reaction to it The nature of the other events in our lives
Dopamine hypothesis
Overactivation or oversensitivity of dopamine
Which disorder is characterized by unprovoked periods of rapid breathing, rapid heart rate, chest pains, sweating, faintness, and trembling?
Panic disorder
Which of these procedures would produce cognitive dissonance?
Pay someone a small bribe to say something he/she didn't believe.
To what extent do facial expressions of emotion differ among human cultures?
People anywhere can recognize facial expressions with greater than chance accuracy, but they are more accurate with faces from their own culture.
Bystander apathy
People are less likely to help someone if other people are in an equally good position to help.
Common phobias
People are more likely to develop phobias of certain objects (e.g., snakes) than of others (e.g., cars). The most common objects of phobias have menaced humans throughout evolutionary history. They pose dangers that are difficult to predict or control, and we generally have few safe experiences with them.
Forming relationships
People generally choose friends and romantic partners who live near them. In the early stage of romantic attraction, physical appearance is the key factor, but similarity of interests and goals becomes more serious later. Relationships are most likely to thrive if each person believes that he or she is getting about as good a deal as the other person is.
Over the past few decades, the average age of starting puberty has become younger. What is one explanation, based on this chapter?
People have been gaining weight and therefore producing more leptin. Leptin facilitates the onset of puberty.
Social influence
People influence our behavior by setting norms and by offering information. We also follow others' examples just because they suggested a possible action.
Give three explanations for why more people develop phobias of snakes and spiders than of cars and guns.
People may be born with a predisposition to learn fears of objects that have been dangerous throughout our evolutionary history. We more readily fear objects with which we have few safe experiences. We more readily fear objects that we cannot predict or control.
Self-serving bias and self-handicapping
People often try to protect their self-esteem by attributing their successes to skill and their failures to outside influences. They sometimes place themselves at a disadvantage to provide an excuse for failure.
Why are projective tests called "projective"?
People project their personality characteristics onto ambiguous stimuli.
Cognitive factors in aggression
People sometimes justify cruel or uncooperative behavior by lowering their opinion of the victims. People also decrease their own sense of personal responsibility.
Whereas people tend to compete in the prisoner's dilemma, what makes them more cooperative in real life?
People want to build a reputation for being fair.
Microexpressions
People who are trying to keep a happy or "straight" face make very subtle, quick facial expressions of negative emotion when lying; very brief, sudden emotional expressions
Substance dependence
People who find it difficult or impossible to stop using a substance are said to be dependent on or addicted to it.
Predisposition to alcoholism
People who have less than average intoxication from moderate drinking are more likely than average to become heavy drinkers.
Implicit memory
People with Amnesia - normal implicit memory, but impaired explicit memories
Motivations behind addiction
People with an addiction continue a habit even though they recognize that it does them more harm than good. Reasons for continued use include avoiding withdrawal symptoms and coping with distress. Also, addictive substances alter the brain's synapses to increase response to substance-related experiences and decrease response to other activities. In spite of all this, some people do manage to quit.
Bipolar disorder
People with bipolar disorder alternate between periods of depression and periods of mania.
Symptoms of depression
People with depression find little interest or pleasure in life and have trouble sleeping.
Generalized anxiety disorder and panic disorder
People with generalized anxiety disorder experience excessive anxiety much of the day, even when actual dangers are low. Panic disorder is characterized by episodes of disabling anxiety, high heart rate, and rapid breathing.
Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
People with obsessive-compulsive disorder have distressing thoughts or impulses. Many also perform repetitive behaviors.
Why is agoraphobia common in people with panic disorder?
People with panic disorder avoid public places because they worry about embarrassing themselves by having a panic attack.
Suppose someone argues that the brain abnormalities in schizophrenia indicate that brain damage causes schizophrenia. What is an alternative explanation?
Perhaps schizophrenia leads to alcohol abuse, which in turn leads to brain abnormalities.
Why do most psychologists raise objections to the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator?
Personalities vary along continuous dimensions, not by types.
Measurement problems
Personality researchers rely mostly on self-reports, which are not entirely accurate.
Case Studies
Phineas Gage Prefrontal cortex damage followed by impaired decision-making (as well as personality changes)
conservation
Piaget's term for the awareness that physical quantities stay constant despite changes in shape or appearance
Why do researchers recommend against widespread use of polygraph tests?
Polygraphs tests require expensive equipment ordinarily limited to major hospitals.
What are typical "positive" and "negative" symptoms of schizophrenia?
Positive symptoms of schizophrenia include hallucinations, delusions, and thought disorder. Negative symptoms include lack of speech, lack of emotional expression, and lack of social contact.
Errors or Biases
Premature commitment to a hypothesis •Framing effect•The framing or presentation of a question also influences the way we answer it Participants saw a film of a traffic accident and then answered questions about the event, including the question 'About how fast were the cars going when they contacted each other?' Other participants received the same information, except that the verb 'contacted' was replaced by either hit, bumped, collided, or smashed.
In addition to genetics, what might help explain the correlation between adopted children's IQ scores and those of their biological mothers?
Prenatal environment
What can a psychiatrist do that a clinical psychologist cannot do, in most states?
Prescribe drugs
Could we decrease violent crime through better treatment of mental illness?
Probably not, although treating drug abuse might be effective. Aggressive behavior is often a problem among mental patients who abuse alcohol or other drugs, but mental patients without substance abuse are no more dangerous than anyone else.
The Range of Emotions
Producing facial expressions - What's the function? In all primates communication Facial expression of emotion more likely to occur in the presence of others
A man who cheats on his taxes argues that "everyone cheats on their taxes." Which of Freud's defense mechanisms might be responsible for this action?
Projection
In which of these ways does a highly stressful experience increase the risk of depression?
Prolonged stressful experiences release chemicals related to inflammation.
What methods do psychoanalysts use to try to gain access to the unconscious?
Psychoanalysts use free association, dream analysis, and transference to infer the contents of the unconscious.
What is one way in which psychological research differs from chemistry and other sciences?
Psychological research faces more serious ethical restraints.
Psychologists made more progress in understanding sensation than emotion or personality. Why?
Psychologists can measure sensation more accurately.
Romantic love
Psychologists distinguish passionate love and companionate love. For many people, love fades over a lifetime, but for a substantial number of people, it remains strong and passionate even after decades of marriage.
Spatial neglect
R hemispheric damage•Lack awareness of information and sensations from the left side of the body
The sleeper moves back through stages 3 and 2 and has first --- episode of the night
REM
If you awaken hours earlier than usual, you will miss most of which stage of sleep?
REM sleep
Why are the terms "light sleep" and "deep sleep" not very useful?
REM sleep is deep in some ways and light in others
Your ex-spouse, who cheated on you, writes a best-selling nonfiction book arguing that human beings are not naturally monogamous and have an instinctive need for variety.
Rationalization
Symptoms include
Re-experiencing trauma via nightmares, flashbacks Emotional numbing, alienation, problems in social relations Elevated arousal, anxiety, and guilt
A political candidate who is unwilling to admit a history of using drugs argues for stricter penalties against drug users. Which of Freud's defense mechanisms might be responsible for this action?
Reaction formation
You are in love with your best friend's new flame. The friendship is an old one and very valuable to you. You tell everybody that your friend's new love interest is a terrible human being and you don't understand their relationship at all.
Reaction formation
Appraisal-focused
Reappraisal - reinterpret stressor to make it seem less threatening
People develop phenylketonuria only if they have two genes for this condition Therefore we say the gene is which of the following?
Recessive
Which kind of memory test are you taking right now?
Recognition
PET or fMRI records the activity of various brain areas during a task. Before we can draw conclusions about those brain areas, what other information do we need?
Recordings from the same areas during a comparison task.
In which of these ways does a memory recovered by therapy differ, on average, from traumatic memories that people recover spontaneously?
Recovered memories are seldom supported by evidence.
Relaxation
Reducing stress at the physiological and/or psychological level
Rationalization
Reframing unpleasant events or actions as beneficial or appropriate
Denial
Refusal to acknowledge a problem
Gender identity
Regarding oneself in terms of masculinity and femininity Woman or Man; sex that someone regards himself or herself as being
State-dependent memory
Remember something better if physical condition at time of recall = that at the time of learning
Which of these bits of advice is best for someone who is trying to resist a temptation?
Remind yourself of ethical norms.
Your health professor, who smokes a pack of cigarettes every day, "forgets" to list nicotine on a handout you receive in class that lists addictive substances and drugs of abuse.
Repression
Attentive processing
Requires searching through the items in series•Example: Searching for your friend who is wearing maize and blue among all the other U of M fans
Opiate abuse
Some opiate users manage to quit. Others substitute methadone or buprenorphine under medical supervision.
Evidently some of the same factors that lead to depression can also lead to other disorders. How might that fact complicate the search for genes linked to depression?
Researchers compare the genes of people with depression to those without depression. If certain genes sometimes lead to depression and sometimes lead to different problems, then the genes linked to depression will also show up frequently in the population of people without depression.
Broaden-and-build hypothesis
Researchers induce happy moods in experiments•happy moods increase readiness to explore new ideas and opportunities
What is one reason why researchers would think it's important to measure PTSD symptoms by using a combination of these 4 different methods?
Researchers need to determine if outward signs of improvement are accompanied by an internal sense of well-being.
How did researchers arrange for a stimulus to be conscious on some trials and not others?
Researchers presented a word for a small fraction of a second. When they simply presented the word, most people identified it. In other cases, researchers put interfering patterns before and after the word. In those cases, people were not conscious of it.
Last week you read a magazine article and discussed it. Since then you have read several additional articles. When you try to discuss the article you read last week, you find that you cannot remember it clearly. Why?
Retroactive interference
Contingency management
Rewarding people for abstaining from drugs is sometimes effective.
When a psychoanalyst asks someone to free associate, what should the person do?
Say everything that comes to mind.
Which of the following is the most plausible statement of the relationship between genetics and schizophrenia?
Schizophrenia can result from a disruption of any of a large number of genes.
How does the neurodevelopmental hypothesis explain the difficulty of locating a gene for schizophrenia?
Schizophrenia can result from prenatal environment instead of genetics.
According to the neurodevelopmental hypothesis, what is one reason why researchers cannot find a single gene responsible for schizophrenia?
Schizophrenia sometimes results from the prenatal environment instead of genetics.
National Institutes of Health recommendations:
School-age children: at least 10 hours Teens: 9-10 hours Adults: 7-8 hours
An employer begins by experimenting to find the most efficient way to do a job, and then trains workers to do it exactly that way. Which approach to job design is the employer following?
Scientific management
What does someone who supports the position of determinism believe?
Scientific research can discover explanations of behavior.
What do the views of Alfred Adler and humanistic psychology have in common?
See the person as striving to achieve their full potential
How can you summarize the treatment Dr. Reger describes in the video?
Seeing the situation over and over in a safe environment reduces its emotional impact.
According to Alfred Adler, what causes anxieties and other psychological disorders?
Seeking immature or improper goals
Embarrassment, shame, guilt, and pride are grouped as what category of emotions?
Self-conscious
How do self-initiated movements differ from stimulus-elicited movements?
Self-initiated movements are generally slow and gradual.
Your memory of how to define some word is an example of what?
Semantic memory
Well-established use - pain management
Sensory portions of the brain are stimulated, the same as an un-hypnotized person, but emotional portions are unresponsive
Psychodynamic theories
Several historically influential theories have described personality as the outcome of unconscious internal forces.
Which of the following would increase your probability of contributing money to a charity?
Several weeks in advance, someone asks you to estimate your probability of contributing to the charity.
What did one woman in a vegetative state do that suggested she might be conscious?
She responded to instructions with increased activity in appropriate brain areas.
Which misconception did Masters and Johnson disprove?
Sigmund Freud had argued that clitoral orgasms were immature.
Freud
Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, proposed that much of what we do and say has hidden meanings. However, most psychologists today doubt most of his interpretations of those hidden meanings.
Name two important functions of sleep.
Sleep conserves energy, and memories strengthen during sleep.
Which of these is an important reason for sleep?
Sleep saves energy
Why do we sleep?
Sleep saves energy Mammals and birds lower body temperature Animals decrease muscle activity Humans e.g., energy is conserved in times of famine w more sleep
The need for sleep
Sleep serves several functions, including conservation of energy and an opportunity to strengthen memories. Sleep-deprived people have difficulty maintaining attention.
Parasomnias
Sleep talking - normal, non-pathological Sleepwalking - usually found in children during stage 4 sleep It is perfectly safe to wake a sleepwalker! Night terrors awakening during slow-wave sleep in extreme panic; more commonly found in children than in adults
Antabuse
Some alcoholics are treated with Antabuse, a prescription drug that makes them ill if they drink alcohol.
Why is it important to do careful research before initiating a new program to prevent a psychological disorder?
Some programs intended for prevention have been ineffective or counterproductive.
The possible functions of crying
Some research suggests crying may not actually relieve tension and that those who cry are more likely to report feelings of depression than those who don't. Crying may function to draw attention and sympathy. The shedding of tears occurs exclusively in humans.
In general, who is most likely to develop an alcohol problem?
Someone who can drink much alcohol before starting to feel drunk
Many methadone clinics carefully watch patients while they are taking their pills. Why?
Someone who didn't swallow the pill could dissolve it in water and inject it to get a "high" similar to that of heroin or morphine.
What is a transformational leader?
Someone who is seen as visionary and stimulating
The "Yes-ists" claim there are intelligent beings somewhere in outer space. The "No-ists" claim there are not. Which side has the burden of proof, and why?
Someone who should be in the better position to provide convincing evidence
What behavior would Freud expect of someone with an unusually strong superego?
Someone with an unusually strong superego would be unusually inhibited and dominated by feelings of guilt.
Methods of influence
Someone you like or consider similar to yourself is more persuasive than other people are. Being told that most people favor some idea or action makes it appealing. You may feel obligated to perform a favor for someone who did a favor for you or gave you something. An item may appear more desirable because of its contrast to something else. In the foot-in-the-door, bait-and-switch, and that's-not-all techniques, a first request makes you more likely to accept a second request.
Sleepwalking, lucid dreaming, and waking up unable to move illustrate which idea?
Sometimes one brain area is awake while another is asleep.
The return of a phobia months or years after treatment with exposure therapy is comparable to which of these aspects of classical conditioning?
Spontaneous recovery
Preattentive processing
Stands out immediately (without effort)•Example: Spotting a Spartan fan in green and white in the maize and blue section
Stereotype Threat
Steele and Aronson; Black students in test situations may feel apprehension about confirming negative stereotypes of intellectual inferiority
Why else could the scores differ?
Stereotype Threat
Stereotypes and prejudices
Stereotypes are generalized beliefs about groups of people. A prejudice is an unfavorable stereotype.
Once encoded:
Storage of long-term memories can last a life-time and be an active process Retrieval of long-term memories...
If someone quickly yields to every temptation, what would be Freud's interpretation?
Strong id and weak superego
Reasons for cooperation
Studies of the prisoner's dilemma demonstrate two rational reasons for cooperation: A cooperative person enhances his or her reputation and therefore gains cooperation from others. Also, people who cooperate punish those who do not.
Determinants of personality
Studies of twins and adopted children indicate that heredity contributes to the observed differences in personality. However, no single gene controls much of the variance. Family environment evidently contributes rather little. Some personality variation relates to unshared environment, the special experiences that vary from one person to another even within a family.
ositive psychology
Study of factors that enrich life, such as hope, creativity, courage, spirituality and responsibility
Emotional suppression
Subdue feelings
Narcolepsy
Sudden attacks of extreme, irresistible sleepiness; Associated with these are muscle weakness or paralysis and vivid dreams Like a burst of REM sleep in the midst of a waking period condition characterized by sudden attacks of sleepiness during the day
You arrive at your psychology class and realize that there is a test today and you completely forgot about it. You feel nervous and start to sweat. According to the James-Lange theory, which comes first, the feeling of fear or the sweating?
Sweating
Positive symptoms (Schizophrenia)
Symptoms that are in addition to typical functioning: Delusions, hallucinations, disturbed speecH
What happens in the brain when people repeatedly use cocaine?
Synapses in the nucleus accumbens respond less than usual to other reinforcers.
System 1: Automatic Intuitive Instinctive Primary Rapid Blind "WYSIATI"
System 1•Quick, automatic processes and easy questions
System 2: Considered Effortful Focused Secondary Slower Lazy
System 2•Processes that require more focused attention, mathematical calculations, evaluating evidence
Distraction
Taking attention away from the stressor
If you become depressed after a highly stressful event, what is good advice?
Talk with a therapist briefly, then move on with life.
Social support
Talking with someone you trust Giving support can be even more stress-reducing
Coercive persuasion
Techniques designed to pressure a suspect into confessing decrease the reliability of the confession because, under these circumstances, many innocent people confess also.
Which of these is a clear example of a homeostatic motivation?
Temperature regulation
Suppose you are an experimenter, and you have trained someone to press a lever to avoid shocks. Now you disconnect the shock generator. Other than telling the person what you have done, how could you facilitate extinction of the lever pressing?
Temporarily prevent the person from pressing the lever. Only by ceasing to press it does the person discover that pressing is not necessary.
conscientiousness
Tendency to Show Self-Discipline, to be Dutiful, and to Strive for Achievement and Competence
agreeableness
Tendency to be Compassionate Toward Others
Representativeness heuristic
Tendency to presume that someone or something belongs to a particular group if resembling (representing) a typical member
How could you measure the reliability of a new test intended to measure nervousness?
Test people repeatedly and see whether they get about the same score each time.
What evidence argues AGAINST Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences?
Test scores on language, logic, and spatial reasoning correlate highly with one another.
Gender factors
Testosterone - availability and use by the fetus determines (EXTERNAL) genitalia Estrogen - important for INTERNAL female organs Intersexes- Having intermediate appearance of genitalia
Is testosterone related more to sexual activity or to seeking new partners? What evidence supports this conclusion?
Testosterone relates more to seeking partners. Men with higher testosterone levels are less likely to commit themselves to a monogamous relationship.
How do psychologists use if-then contingencies as a way of describing someone's personality?
The "if" portion describes a situation or context, while the "then" portion describes the behavior or traits.
Defining mental illness
The American Psychiatric Association defines mental disorder as a clinically significant disturbance in an individual's cognition, emotion regulation, or behavior. It is sometimes difficult to apply that definition, because of disagreements over what constitutes a significant disturbance.
In classical conditioning terms, what was the conditioned stimulus (CS) in Watson and Rayner's experiment? The unconditioned stimulus (UCS)? The conditioned response (CR)? The unconditioned response (UCR)?
The CS was the white rat. The UCS was the loud noise. The CR and the UCR were a combination of crying and other fear reactions.
The DSM-5
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders - Establishes uniform definitions and standards for diagnosis
The categorical approach
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) lists possible diagnoses and the criteria for identifying each of them.
Why do psychologists use the Implicit Association Test (IAT) to measure racial prejudices?
The IAT measures prejudices that people don't admit.
Emotion and Perceived Arousal
The James-Lange theory of emotions The psychological experience of emotion is the individual's perception of autonomic/ behavioral changes Requires that we accurately interpret different patterns of physiological responses
Preattentive and attentive processes
The Stroop effect shows the difference between preattentive and attentive processes.•Reading for most of us is an automatic and preattentive process.•Refraining from reading and instead naming the color ink in which words are written makes large demands on attention
Predictability and control
The ability to predict how things will unfold makes the activity or event less stressful
The introduction to this chapter described people who stood in line to visit a foul-smelling flower. Would that action make sense in terms of drive-reduction, incentive, or homeostasis views of motivation?
The action is a response to an incentive, the opportunity for an unusual experience. It would be harder to explain in terms of drive-reduction or homeostasis.
"I drove fast today because I was in a hurry. That other driver who drove fast is probably a rude, aggressive person." Which phenomenon do these statements illustrate?
The actor-observer effect
Savings or Relearning
The amount of time saved between the original learning and the relearning
Because you can easily think of examples of dishonest politicians, you might conclude that dishonesty is common among politicians. Reasoning of this type is an example of what?
The availability heuristic
What advice would you give someone who wants to resist a temptation?
The best advice is to avoid the situation in which you might feel temptation! Second, don't expose yourself to one temptation just after successfully resisting a different type of temptation. If it is possible to make a commitment far in advance, do so. Think of people who yield to the temptation as different from yourself. Also, remind yourself of ethical norms.
What is a common criticism of the big five approach to describing personality?
The big five approach omits several other important traits.
During which sleep stage is the brain least active? During which stage are the muscles least active?
The brain is least active during stage 4 sleep. The muscles are least active during REM sleep.
When you are conscious of one eye's stimulus during binocular rivalry, what happens to the representation of the stimulus in the other eye?
The brain processes that stimulus enough to determine whether or not it is important.
Why do many psychologists doubt that ADHD is a single disorder?
The causes and the brain abnormalities vary from one case to another.
According to Piaget, which of these is an example of egocentric thinking?
The child describes an object but cannot say how it would look from a different angle.
Brain mechanisms
The circadian cycle is governed by the suprachiasmic nucleus (SCN) =the body's "clock" Controls the sleep-wake cycle in part by regulating the secretion of melatonin by the pineal gland
According to Carl Jung, what is the origin of the collective unconscious?
The collective unconscious developed from the experiences of our ancestors.
In Jung's theory, how similar is the collective unconscious from one person to another?
The collective unconscious is similar for nearly all people.
In the alarm method to treat bed-wetting, what is the conditioned stimulus? What is the unconditioned stimulus? What is the conditioned response?
The conditioned stimulus is the sensation of a full bladder. The unconditioned stimulus is the alarm. The conditioned response (and unconditioned response) is waking up.
A moral dilemma such as the trolley dilemma or the footbridge dilemma pits two considerations against each other. What are they?
The desire to help more people versus the guilt you would feel from hurting one person
Why do many researchers doubt that antidepressant drugs produce all their benefits by facilitating transmission at serotonin and dopamine synapses?
The drugs' effects on synapses are faster than their effects on behavior.
What do the findings in epigenetics imply about the concept of heritability?
The effects of heredity depend on the environment.
What differed between the same-tested and different tested groups during the test session
The environment in which the injection was administered
The experiment tracks molecules crucial to making memories, which were given fluorescent 'tags' so they could be observed traveling in real time in living brain cells.
The experiment tracks molecules crucial to making memories, which were given fluorescent 'tags' so they could be observed traveling in real time in living brain cells. The Einstein researchers stimulated neurons from the mouse's hippocampus, where memories are made and stored, and then watched fluorescently glowing beta-actin mRNA molecules form in the nuclei of neurons and travel within dendrites, the neuron's branched projections.
What was the primary difference between the control and experimental groups in this experiment?
The experimental group was asked to provide reasons for liking or disliking the jams they tasted, whereas the control group was not
To evaluate moral reasoning, Kohlberg emphasized which of the following?
The explanations people gave for their answers on moral dilemmas
At a meeting of your student government, you suggest a new method of testing and grading students. The other members immediately reject your plan. Should you give up?
The fact that your idea was rejected does not mean that you should give up. If you and a few allies continue to present this plan, showing apparent agreement among yourselves, the majority may eventually adopt a similar plan—probably without giving you credit for it.
The NEO PI-R is based on which of the following?
The five-factor model of personality
These data contradict the widely held assumption that OSN profiles are created to promote a more idealized version of the profile owner. The experimenters attribute these surprising results to the fact that other people have the capability to post or make comments on a profile owners page. What insight did the researchers most likely gain by highlighting this characteristic of Facebook?
The functionality of Facebook, not the profile owners themselves, contributes to the accurate reflection in personality
In the video, Dr. Weber states that most drug-related public service announcements (PSAs) have two main goals. How does the PSA you just watched attempt to meet those goals?
The hospital scene is designed to make you view meth as dangerous, which should make you reluctant to try it.
Measuring unconscious prejudice
The implicit association test finds evidence of subtle prejudice, even among many people who deny having such prejudices. However, most people are aware of their prejudices, even if they don't like to admit them.
What is the advantage of the implicit association test over asking people about their racial prejudices?
The implicit association test may reveal prejudices that people don't want to admit, even to themselves.
Suppose someone expresses a positive attitude on a Likert scale but you suspect the person really has a negative attitude. Which method from an earlier module of this chapter might confirm your suspicion?
The implicit association test measures attitudes that don't match what people say.
independent variable VS dependent variable
The independent variable is the factor that you purposely change or control in order to see what effect it has. The variable that responds to the change in the independent variable is called the dependent variable. It depends on the independent variable. An independent variable is exactly what it sounds like. It is a variable that stands alone and isn't changed by the other variables you are trying to measure. For example, someone's age might be an independent variable. Other factors (such as what they eat, how much they go to school, how much television they watch) aren't going to change a person's age. In fact, when you are looking for some kind of relationship between variables you are trying to see if the independent variable causes some kind of change in the other variables, or dependent variables. Just like an independent variable, a dependent variable is exactly what it sounds like. It is something that depends on other factors. For example, a test score could be a dependent variable because it could change depending on several factors such as how much you studied, how much sleep you got the night before you took the test, or even how hungry you were when you took it. Usually when you are looking for a relationship between two things you are trying to find out what makes the dependent variable change the way it does.
What behavior do the implicit association test and the affective priming paradigm measure?
They measure response speeds to different stimuli.
subjective well-being
The individual's assessment of the degree to which his or her life is pleasant, interesting and satisfying; self-evaluation of one's life as pleasant, interesting, satisfying, and meaningful
An infant shows habituation after repetitions of the sound "ba." When the sound shifts to "pa," the infant increases responses. What do psychologists infer?
The infant hears a difference between the two sounds.
Someone who records sympathetic nervous system arousal is probably trying to measure what?
The intensity of someone's current emotion.
How does this type of therapy work?
The intensity of the experience gradual increases after patients become familiar with the virtual environment.
Which of the following statements accurately describes the ratings made by the participants in this experiment
The jam rated second best by the control group was rated fourth best by the experimental group
In a typical family, one or two members have jobs, but their wages benefit all. Why do those wage earners not engage in social loafing?
The main reason is that the wage earners see they can make a special contribution that the others (children, injured, or retired) cannot. Also, others can easily observe their contributions.
Why do people almost never act out their dreams during REM sleep?
The major postural muscles are paralyzed during REM sleep.
Suppose that research using the Rorschach inkblots suggests that highly talkative people are more mentally disturbed than average. What would be a likely explanation?
The more someone says, the greater chance of saying something that's considered "disturbed."
Treatments for OCD
The most effective treatment is exposure to the source of distress while preventing the ritualized response. However, this treatment is often ineffective, partly because many patients refuse or quit the treatment. A valuable supplement is a cognitive intervention to help people reinterpret their thoughts and images.
Suppose you watch the news on TV every night. According to the recency effect in memory, which of the following are you likely to remember?
The news that you watched last night
The trait approach to personality is an example of which of these?
The nomothetic approach
Which of the following could be an operational definition of "sadness"?
The number of tears shed during a day
The data from this study support the extended real-life hypothesis. Based on this conclusion, which of the following trends must be true of the data collected?
The observer rating match the profile owners' paper-based results more than the description of what they would ideally like to be.
Which of these criticisms seems to apply to Zimbardo's prison study?
The participants were probably influenced by demand characteristics.
If someone is trying to remember an event that may have happened long ago, what is the probable consequence of showing a photograph from that period of time?
The person becomes more susceptible to suggestion of something that didn't happen.
Which of the following is an indication that an adolescent is more likely than average to become depressed at some later time?
The person has trouble sleeping.
What evidence indicates that children learn little of their personality by imitating their parents?
The personality of adopted children correlates very low with that of the adopting parents.
What evidence suggests that parental behavior has little effect on children's personality?
The personality of adopting parents correlates almost zero with their adopted children.
If your professor gave you an "adaptive test," how would it differ from most college tests?
The questions would get easier or harder, depending on how well you are doing.
That quiz is a drag. According to the Schachter-Singer theory, which comes first, the realization that you forgot about the test, or the feeling of fear?
The realization (cognitive appraisal)
Research on "choice blindness" supports which of these conclusions?
The reason people give for a decision may have been made up afterwards.
Why is it difficult to get rid of superstitions and phobias?
The responses are based on avoidance learning.
In Libet's experiment, in which people reported the time of a decision to flex the wrist, why were the results relevant to philosophical questions?
The results implied that conscious decisions do not control behavior.
If someone publishes surprising but incorrect results, in the long run people will not take the study seriously. Why not?
The results will not be replicable.
Which of the following best describes the results of Dr. Sneed's study on volunteering and hypertension?
The risk of developing hypertension is negatively correlated with number of hours spent volunteering.
What does it mean to say that a particular test has high predictive validity?
The scores enable us to predict performance on some other task.
Alcoholics Anonymous
The self-help group Alcoholics Anonymous provides the most common treatment for alcoholism in North America.
In science and in a criminal trial, who has the "burden of proof"—that is, the obligation to demonstrate that its claims are correct?
The side that should be able to produce good evidence, if they are right
Why are adolescents more likely than adults to make risky decisions?
They often decide impulsively under peer pressure.
What is one advantage of a cross-sectional study over a longitudinal study?
The study is completed more quickly.
Consciousness
The subjective experience of perceiving one's self and other entities Brain activity and consciousness are related Decreases in brain activity typically accompany declines in level of consciousness Neurological activity is not entirely conscious eg. reflexes
What does it mean to say that a test is biased against members of a particular group?
The test scores underestimate the performance of that group on other tasks.
What is the independent variable in the experiment just described in the video?
The type of iconography (Korean or American) participants are exposed to.
How did the difference identified in the previous question most likely lead to the difference in fatality rates?
The unfamiliar environment caused the different-tested rats not to anticipate the heroin injection, increasing their fatality rate.
When questionnaire studies appear to show that men have higher self-esteem than women, what else is it possible that the scores mean?
The women had higher goals than the men.
According to current evidence, how accurate are criminal profilers?
Their assessments are slightly more accurate than those that an untrained person would make.
In what way do people with obsessive-compulsive disorder have an abnormal memory?
Their memory is normal but they have low confidence in their memory.
TAT is an abbreviation for
Thematic Apperception Test.
Physical attractiveness
Theoretically, physical attractiveness should be a cue to someone's health and therefore desirability as a mate. Someone with approximately average features is attractive, presumably because average features have been associated with successful breeding in the past.
What, if anything, differs between potentially addictive substances and those that are not addictive?
There is no dependable distinction between addictive and nonaddictive substances.
As children learn the rules for combining words and using suffixes to modify words, they often engage in overregularization. What is one common overregularization error children make?
They apply a suffix to a word instead modifying the root of the word (e.g. "tooths" instead of "teeth" or "fighted" instead of "fought").
Panic disorder and other anxiety disorders are more common than average for which type of people?
They are more common in women than in men.
The graphs at the end of the survey represent average data for typical, college-age students. How can we describe the sleep pattern of typical college students
They are so tired from classes that they do not have difficulty falling asleep
The brains of people deprived of REM sleep will attempt to produce more of it
They become very irritable, anxious and distracted
Behaviorists avoid research on thought and knowledge. Why?
They believe questions about unobservable processes are unanswerable.
What is the main effect that antipsychotic drugs have in common with one another?
They block activity at dopamine synapses.
Which of these is an important function that emotional expressions accomplish?
They communicate with other people.
What do people do during both an adolescent identity crisis and a midlife transition?
They consider their goals and future directions.
How do the functions of the occipital, parietal, and temporal lobes differ?
They control different sensory systems.
In the mid-1900s, many psychologists studied rats in mazes. What was their goal?
They expected to discover general laws of learning.
Wilson and Schooler state that analysis "changed people's minds about how they felt" in this experiment. Which of the following thought processes is consistent wit assertion?
They focused on attributes that were detectable but not necessarily relevant to liking, then altered their opinion so that it matched their analysis.
Why does the "circumplex" model of emotion place anger and fear near each other?
They have similar amounts of pleasure and arousal.
What is the relationship between "The movie was great" and "It was a great movie"?
They have the same deep structure and different surface structures.
In addition to their effects on serotonin and other neurotransmitters, what other brain effect do antidepressant drugs produce?
They increase production of a chemical that increases birth of new neurons in the hippocampus.
Nearly all addictive substances and addictive behaviors affect the brain in what way?
They increase release of the neurotransmitter dopamine in certain brain areas.
Information-Processing Model of Memory
This model of memory uses computers to represent the workings of memory. According to this view, information enters the system, is processed and coded in various ways, and is then stored.
What does it mean to say that someone with an IQ score of 130 is in the 98th percentile?
This person scored better than 98% of comparable people.
In avoidance learning, someone learns to make some response to avoid shock or other misfortune. What is unusual about this type of learning?
This type of learning is highly resistant to extinction.
Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences
Those who excel in an area may lack knowledge and skill in others; Research generally has disconfirmed Gardener's theory
fixed interval schedule
Time; Rapid responding near time for reinforcement
Hibernating male ground squirrels emerge from their burrows before the females do, and before food is available. What important point does this fact demonstrate?
Timing mechanisms prepare animals for future needs.
How does systematic desensitization resemble extinction of a learned shock-avoidance response?
To extinguish a learned shock-avoidance response, prevent the response so that the individual learns that a failure to respond is not dangerous. Similarly, in systematic desensitization, the patient is prevented from fleeing the feared stimulus. He or she learns that the danger is not as great as imagined.
Memory Improvement
To improve memory - must improve strategies used to store the material
When a rat runs in a running wheel before a meal, what is the main motivation?
To keep warm
Why does the MMPI include some items that ask about common flaws, such as, "Sometimes I think more about my own welfare than that of others"?
To measure people's tendency to lie
When researchers briefly flash a word and then present a masking pattern, what is the purpose of the masking pattern?
To prevent consciousness of the word.
Satisficing
To stop at the choice that is good enough
Maximizing
To thoroughly consider every possibility in order to find the best choice
Traits and states
Traits are personality characteristics that persist over time; states are temporary tendencies in response to particular situations.
If you are an evening person, what could you do to improve your grades?
Try to schedule your important classes in the afternoon instead of the morning.
A vocabulary "explosion" during which children acquire new words at a rapid rate typically begins around:
Two years of age
Measuring happiness
Unlike negative emotions, it doesn't cause any obvious behavioral changes (like running away or attacking) Most rely on self-reports
Which of these (if successful) would be an example of far transfer?
Using crossword puzzles to improve old people's memory
Metacognition
Using our ability to evaluate our own thinking to carefully evaluate evidence for any conclusion
Based on the study presented in the video, what strategy would you recommend to maximize someone's feelings of happiness?
View positive outcomes globally and compartmentalize negative outcomes
Several studies indicate that brain activity preparing for a movement starts before the conscious decision to make the movement. Why is the interpretation of results uncertain?
Voluntary decisions are gradual and difficult to pinpoint in time
Distinctive VS Usual
Von Restorff Effect - distinctive information is more memorable
Why is the ability to recognize the facial expressions of emotions not good evidence for the idea of basic emotions?
We also recognize facial expressions of other states that we don't regard as emotions.
Actor-observer effect
We are more likely to attribute internal causes to other people's behavior than to our own.
Shifting attention
We can't focus on everything at the same time! Instead, we shift attention from one stimulus to another
If a category is hard to define, like "country music," how do we decide what items fit that category?
We compare an item to some prototypes of that category.
This is that same concept of "correlation does not equal causation."
We do NOT make causal claims when talking about correlational or observational studies! This is for good reasons, like sometimes something else causes the two variables that are correlated ("third variable problem"). Observational studies do NOT give us the confidence that one variable is the cause of the other.
Libet's experiment indicated that the brain activity responsible for a movement began earlier than the conscious decision to make the movement. What is the main reason to be uncertain of this conclusion?
We have reasons to doubt that people can accurately state the time that a conscious decision began. Spontaneous movements and the decisions behind them develop gradually, not suddenly.
Why do human infants tightly grasp anything placed in the palm of the hand?
We inherited this behavior from monkey-like ancestors.
How is the content of dreams similar to waking thoughts, and how is it different?
We mostly dream about the same topics we think about, but dreams usually feature less happy emotions.
All or Nothing Phenomenon
We seem to either be conscious of something or not
Suppose someone reports that a therapy lasting several years relieves many cases of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Should we be impressed? Why or why not?
We should not be impressed. Over a long enough time, most people recover from obsessive-compulsive disorder, even without treatment.
A brief masked stimulus is not perceived consciously, but a slightly longer one is perceived as lasting the entire duration. That finding supports which of these conclusions?
We sometimes construct a conscious perception after the stimulus, not simultaneously with it.
Meaningful VS Nonsense
We tend to remember meaningful information better than meaningless
Edna suffers a stroke and is left with a condition characterized by difficulty recalling the names of objects and impaired comprehension of language. This condition is known as ---------- aphasia
Wernicke's
Left (or dominant) temporal
Wernicke's: UNDERSTANDING:understanding grammatical devices - prepositions, conjunctions, prefixes, suffixes, etc.
What do evolutionary psychologists try to understand?
What advantages do certain genes and certain behaviors produce?
"50% of all military personnel prefer to watch TV talk shows, but only 10% of all middle-aged people do. So more watchers of TV talk shows are military personnel"
What information would you need to assess the accuracy of this statement?The base rates:How many military personnel are there?How many middle-aged people?
Which of the following is an example of a question for "applied research"?
What is the best way to help children with autism?
A survey reports how many people say they have done something dishonest at work. Before we can interpret these results, what do we need to know?
What were they told to count as an example of a dishonest act?
With masking, flash suppression, or binocular rivalry, a viewer is conscious of a stimulus under one condition but not another. How does the brain representation differ as a result?
When a viewer is conscious of a stimulus, the brain activity is stronger and more widespread.
Why do most high-risk individuals tend to disregard PSAs and view them negatively?
When one aspect of a PSA is unrealistic or fails to match their experience, high-risk individuals distrust the entire message.
Persuasion
When people consider a topic unimportant, they form attitudes based on happy or unhappy associations, often from superficial factors such as a speaker's appearance. When people care about the topic, they evaluate the evidence more carefully and consider their emotions only to the extent that they are relevant.
Why is it difficult to use self-reports to compare personality trends from one country to another?
When people rate themselves, they compare themselves to others within the country, and therefore, their ratings are not necessarily a good gauge of what the country as a whole does. Also, people in some countries are more likely to use the extremes of a scale, whereas those in other countries usually stay closer to the middle.
Reconstruction
When we try to retrieve memories, we reconstruct based partly on surviving memories and partly on expectations. Start with details you remember clearly, and fill in gaps Surviving memories + Expectations The less certain we are, the more we rely on our expectations
Which of these can be easily explained by the drive theory of motivation?
When you feel a thorn in your leg, you stop to remove it.
When is the startle reflex stronger than usual?
When you feel anxiety
For which of these questions would you probably use System 2 instead of System 1?
Which is colder, -30°C or -30°F?
White college students tend to evaluate
White faces more favorably than Black faces.
What does Maslow's hierarchy of needs attempt to explain?
Why certain motivations take priority over other ones
Women differ most strongly from men, on average, in which of these aspects of sexual experience?
Women are more likely to experience more than one orgasm in a short time.
On average, how does self-esteem compare between women and men, on average?
Women report lower self-esteem only with regard to athletics and physical appearance.
Overcoming prejudice
Working together for a common goal weakens prejudices between groups.
Common errors of human cognition
Would you go to an event for which you paid $70.00 per ticket if you were miserably sick? •If you were given tickets to the same event, but you felt sick that evening, would you go anyway?•People are more likely to go if they paid for it - sunk cost effect
A new intelligence test has been devised. An adult's shoe size is divided by 6 and multiplied by 100.
Yes - the score won't change unless your shoe size does. For adults, that is not likely to happen (maybe by 1/2 size at some point)
Suppose someone with intact retinas becomes blind because of damage to the visual cortex. Will that person nevertheless synchronize the circadian rhythm to the time of sunlight? Explain.
Yes, someone with blindness because of cortical damage nevertheless tends to waken during times of sunlight. The average amount of bright light activates certain ganglion cells that send their output not to the visual cortex, but to the suprachiasmatic nucleus, which controls the circadian rhythm.
Is it possible for two people to get the same diagnosis without having many symptoms in common?
Yes. In DSM-5, many diagnoses are based on variable combinations of symptoms, such as six out of column A or six out of column B.
The fact that the nervous system conveys impulses by action potentials instead of electrical conduction causes which of the following?
You are aware of events in your body slightly after they happen.
what roles of stress and uncertainty might play in undocumented youths' development?
You can't get a job or car. The opportunities that are there they must stay below the radar in everything.
Theoretically, how can we explain why you sometimes act altruistically toward people you have never met?
You hope to develop a reputation for being helpful.
Which of these is an example of an incentive motivation?
You join some friends to watch a movie.
Suppose someone observes your behavior over a period of time and reports that your personality seems inconsistent. How does the learning approach to personality explain that inconsistency?
You learn your behaviors one situation at a time. You may have learned to be friendly in one situation and not another or honest in one situation and not another.
Juanita returns from watching The Return of the Son of Sequel Strikes Back Again Part 2 and says it was excellent. Most other people disliked the movie. Will you make an internal or external attribution for Juanita's opinion? Why? (distinctiveness, consensus, or consistency?)
You probably will make an internal attribution because of consensus. When one person's behavior differs from others', we make an internal attribution.
Suppose you are the president of a U.S. company, negotiating a business deal with someone from the opposite side of the world. Should you prefer a meeting place in Europe or on an island in the Pacific Ocean?
You should prefer to meet on a Pacific island so that you will travel west.
If instead of watching someone, you close your eyes and imagine yourself in that person's position, will you be more likely to explain the behavior with internal or external attributions? Why?
You will be more likely to give an external attribution because you will become more like an actor and less like an observer.
Suppose your parents pay you to get a good grade in a boring course. According to cognitive dissonance theory, are you more likely to develop a positive attitude toward your studies if your parents pay you $10 or $100?
You will come to like your studies more if you are paid $10. If you are paid only $10, you won't be able to tell yourself that you are studying harder only for the money. Instead, you will tell yourself that you must be really interested. The theory of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (Chapter 11) leads to the same prediction: If you study hard without any strong external reason, you perceive that you have internal reasons for studying.
Are you more likely to conform to a group when you are outnumbered 5 to 1, 10 to 1, or 10 to 2?
You would be about equally likely to conform when outnumbered 5 to 1 or 10 to 1. Any group of 3 or more produces about the same urge to conform. However, having even one ally decreases the pressure, so you would be less likely to conform when outnumbered 10 to 2.
If you were on a submarine deep in the ocean with only artificial light that was the same at all times, what would happen to your rhythm of wakefulness and sleepiness?
You would continue to produce a 24-hour circadian rhythm. The sun resets the rhythm, but you generate it within your own body.
An internally generated tendency toward vigorous activity is known as __________; an external stimulus that pulls us toward a particular activity is known as __________
a drive...an incentive
A stereotype is:
a generalized belief or expectation about a group of people.
Enjoying diversity.
a goal of treating everyone the same sometimes backfires by implying that everyone should act the same. A goal of accepting and enjoying the differences among people is generally a better goal.
What is a mnemonic device?
a method for improving memorization
intrinsic motivation
a motivation based on the pleasure that the act itself provides
hallucination
a perception at odds with reality
What is meant by the term "neo-Freudian"?
a psychologist who wants to keep some of Freud's theories and to modify others
What did Alfred Adler mean by the term "individual psychology"?
a psychology of the person as an indivisible whole
Nondeclatative (implicit)
a recollection that a person does not know exists and is retrieved unconsciously
A compulsion is
a repetitive action.
Fear
a response to an immediate danger
iris
a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening
subjective well-being
a self-evaluation of one's life as pleasant, interesting, satisfying, and meaningful (Diener, 2000).
prisoner's dilemma
a situation where people choose between a cooperative act and a competitive act that benefits themselves but hurts others In the prisoner's dilemma, two people can choose to cooperate or compete. The compete move seems best from the individual's point of view, but it is harmful to the group.
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
a standardized test designed to identify problem areas of functioning in an individual's personality
Lazarus' Stress and Coping Model
a stressful situation occurs when person regards an event as threatening or exceeding his or her resources
In Watson and Rayner's experiment, the conditioned stimulus was . The unconditioned stimulus was . The conditioned response was . (The unconditioned response was the same as the conditioned response.)
a white rat ... a loud noise ... crying and other fear responses
Which of the following is evidence in favor of the idea of monism?
a. Brain damage causes people to lose part of their mental abilities.
What does the James-Lange theory predict about someone who has weak autonomic responses?
a. emotional feelings
fluid intelligence
abilities that rely on information-processing skills such as reaction time, attention, and working memory
creativity
ability to combine mental elements in new and useful ways
recognition
ability to correctly identify previously learned information
working memory
ability to hold and manipulate information in conscious attention
crystallized intelligence
ability to solve problems using already acquired knowledge
Declarative Memory
ability to state a fact
Corey's school nurse is testing him for the volume at which Corey detects a sound being played 50% of the time. She finds the absolute threshold at 15% volume and knows that this is the least amount of sound Corey can detect 50% of the time.
absolute threshold
Once Frank learned that not all brown furry things are dogs, he started learning new groups of animals that can also be furry and brown. Frank's formation of new groups of furry, brown animals is an example of ----------.
accommodation
Oedipus complex
according to Freud, a young boy's sexual interest in his mother accompanied by competitive aggression toward his father
manifest content
according to Freud, content that appears on the surface of a dream
latent content
according to Freud, hidden ideas that a dream experience represents symbolically
What is meant by crystallized intelligence?
acquired skills and knowledge and the application of that knowledge to familiar problems
attribution
act of assigning cause to behavior
Priming
activates implicit memory
Causal language should indicate one variable is ---------- the other and indicate the ---------- of that causality, and non-causal
affecting.....direction
major depressive disorder
affective disorder in which a person feels sad and hopeless for weeks or months
conditioned response
after conditioning salivation
preoperational stage
age 2 to 7
concrete operational stage
age 7 to 11
A new mother is trying to stop her baby boy from crying. She tries out many different options. She finds that giving him his favorite toy for 10-min of playtime, followed by feeding him a half-cup of warm milk immediately stops his crying. Now every time she wants her son to stop crying, she employs this effective ---------.
algorithm
Consciousness of a stimulus appears to be an ------------------. Either the brain activity spreads strongly through the brain, or it does not.
all-or-none process
binocular rivalry
alteration between seeing the pattern in the left retina and the pattern in the right retina
hypnosis
altered state of consciousness characterized by focused attention, deep relaxation, and heightened suggestibility
According to Freud, a boy who develops a sexual interest in his mother and competitive aggression toward his father is experiencing
an Oedipus complex.
During a vision experiment conducted in his laboratory, Dr. Clapt concludes that just about everyone has a particular section of their visual field from which they are unable to see. This obscured section is referred to as the ----- ----.
blind spot
resistance
blockage in the flow of free association around topics the client avoids thinking or talking about
fixed ratio schedule
blue line
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)
book that sets specific criteria for each psychological diagnosis
When people report the time of a conscious decision to make a movement, ------------ indicate that the brain activity responsible for the movement began before the reported time of the conscious decision.
brain scans
Minimally conscious state
brief periods of purposeful action; condition in which someone has brief periods of purposeful actions and speech comprehension
intelligence
capacity for rational thought, purposeful action, and effective adaptation
Observational studies do not justify ------- ---------; true experiments do.
causal conclusions
We use ----- -------- when we have evidence from true experiments
causal language
feature detector
cells in the cortex that respond to a specific attribute of an object
People listening to a message on a topic they consider very important will probably follow the __________ route to persuasion.
central
Denard's teacher taught him how to spell the word 'AMYGDALA' by verbally reciting each letter in proper sequence. Instead of remembering each letter individually, Denard uses the ------- method and breaks the word into three separate parts: Amy G Dala, to help himself encode the word's proper spelling.
chunking
Even though Borus has been in solitary confinement for 15 years in a room with no windows, he is able to sleep and wake on schedule and exhibits proper hunger cycles. Borus can maintain his biological schedules in the absence of external cues about the time of day or night because of his ingrained --------- ------.
circadian rhythm
A rhythm of activity and inactivity that lasts about a day is called a
circadian rhythm.
depressive disorders
class of disorders marked by chronic feelings of sadness and despondency
anxiety disorders
class of disorders marked by feelings of excessive apprehension and worry
lens
clear structure behind the pupil that bends light toward the retina
social support
close, positive relationships with other people
The brain processes stimuli even without consciousness, enough to evaluate their importance. Unconscious processes are an important part of --------.
cognition
The study of how people think, acquire knowledge, imagine, plan, and solve problems is called -------- psychology.
cognitive
hue
color of light, as determined by its wavelength
The stage of language acquisition in which children start to use --------- to make a request occurs by about -------.
complete sentences.....4 years of age
unconditional positive regard
complete, unqualified acceptance of another person as he or she is
obedience
compliance with a request from an authority figure
biopsychosocial model
concept that emphasizes three aspects of abnormal behavior: biological, psychological, and sociological
Oswald is shown three pairs of blocks and is asked to identify the larger block in each pair. The three blocks he chose are placed on a table and his teacher asks: "if A is bigger than B and B is bigger than C, then is A bigger than C?" After a pause, Oswald concludes correctly that A is bigger than C. According to Piaget, Oswald has reached the ---------- -------- ------- of thinking.
concrete operational stage
tardive dyskinesia
condition characterized by tremors and involuntary movements
seasonal affective disorder (SAD)
condition in which someone repeatedly becomes depressed during a particular season of the year
pure autonomic failure
condition in which the autonomic nervous system stops regulating the organs
coma
condition in which the brain shows a steady but low level of activity and no response to any stimulus
periodic limb movement disorder
condition marked by unpleasant sensations in the legs and repetitive leg movements strong enough to interrupt sleep
night terror
condition that causes someone to awaken screaming and sweating with a racing heart rate, sometimes flailing with the arms
physical dependence
condition when a person must continue to take a drug to avoid withdrawal illness
People with prefrontal cortex damage answer questions partly with wild guesses. These guesses, which are mostly out-of-date information, are called __________.
confabulations
The tendency to look for evidence supporting one particular hypothesis and not considering other possibilities is known as the
confirmation bias
Maintaining or changing one's behavior to match the behavior of others is called:
conformity
Backstrom is about to take his final exam in chemistry and suddenly realizes how nervous he is. To ease his nerves he performs a variety of breathing exercises. Backstrom's awareness of his exam anxiety and his ability to control that nervousness through his breathing are properties of his --------------.
consciousness
Brain scans provide suggestions of ------------- in certain patients who seem unresponsive to their environment.
consciousness
Psychologists long ago abandoned the study of -----------------, but today research is possible because of an operational definition, limited research questions, methods of measuring brain activity, and methods of presenting a stimulus while avoiding conscious perception.
consciousness
The subjective experience of perceiving oneself and other entities is known as
consciousness.
Olga is 4 years old and has reached Piaget's preoperational stage of development. As a standard task to chart progress through this stage, she is shown a short and tall glass, both containing the same volume of water. When asked which glass contains more water, she says that the taller glass contains more water than the shorter one. This classic activity tests Piaget's principle of (of volume).
conservation
Personality
consistent patterns of an individual's behavior across settings, especially in social contexts
The unconscious mind
contains memories, emotions, and thoughts, including irrational or socially unacceptable ones.
unconscious
contents of the mind that are beyond awareness, especially impulses and desires
By moving his index finger held out at arm's length directly inward to touch his nose, Jimbo realizes he loses focus on his finger. The depth cue illustrated by his exercise is called ______.
convergence
sensation
conversion of energy from the environment into a pattern of response by the nervous system
encoding
converting information into a form to be retained in memory
rationalization
creating false but plausible excuses to justify unacceptable behavior
Freud took the information that his patients gave him and made his own interpretations
critics suggest he significantly distorted their experiences
After many years spent as a young man studying in the field of philosophy, Johan was very well versed in many of the different philosophers and their teachings. That he can still remember and write about those different philosophers and what they taught at the ripe age of 94, exemplifies --------- intelligence.
crystallized
An experienced taxi driver becomes more and more skilled at finding various addresses within a city, without improving other kinds of intellectual skills. We can say that the driver has increased his or her:
crystallized intelligence.
gender
culturally constructed distinctions between male and female characteristics
Semantic
dealing with principles of knowledge The weather in Miami is almost always warm. Shaping and chaining are methods of training animals to perform complex sequences of behavior. A potassium ion has a chemical valence of +1. Thai food tends to be hot and spicy. The Cincinnati Bengals' colors are black and orange. Renting a tuxedo is very expensive.
delay of gratification
declining a pleasant activity now in order to get greater pleasure later
Tolerance
decreased effects of a given dose
rapid eye movement (rem) sleep
deep stage of sleep marked by rapid eye movements, high-frequency brain waves, and dreaming; stage characterized by rapid eye movements, a high level of brain activity, and deep relaxation of the postural muscles; also known as paradoxical sleep
validity
degree to which a test measures the trait that it was designed to
convergence
degree to which the eyes turn in to focus on a close object
sleeper effect
delayed persuasion by an initially rejected message; When people reject a message because of their low regard for the person who proposed it, they sometimes forget where they heard the idea and later come to accept it.
A smoker insists there is no convincing evidence that smoking impairs health.
denial
Which of the following conditions is more common among women than men?
depression
adolescence
development period from puberty to young adulthood
retinal disparity
difference between the images projected onto each eye
insomnia
difficulty in getting to sleep or staying asleep; condition of not getting enough sleep to feel rested the next day ubjectively unsatisfactory sleep—results from many influences. Sleep abnormalities include sleep apnea and narcolepsy.
One of the main reasons why people frequently fail to help a person in distress is
diffusion of responsibility
Damage to amygdala
diminishes recognition of these in others-- impairment in the ability to recognize anger, disgust and surprise
What emotion word literally means "bad taste"? reaction to something that would make you feel contaminated if it got into your mouth
disgust
sleep apnea
disorder in which a person stops breathing during sleep; condition in which someone fails to breathe for a minute or more during sleep
bulimia nervosa
disorder marked by excessive eating followed by inappropriate methods of preventing weight gain; a condition in which people alternate between self-deprivation and periods of excessive eating, with a feeling of loss of control
A man who is angry with his neighbor goes deer hunting.
displacement
Displacement
diverting a thought or behavior from its natural target toward a less threatening one
need for achievement
drive to excel in one's endeavors
selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)
drugs that block reuptake of only serotonin
monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs)
drugs that block the metabolic breakdown of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin
unconditioned response
during conditioning salivation
anorexia nervosa
eating disorder characterized by a distorted body image and maintenance of unusually low body weight; condition in which someone intensely fears gaining weight and refuses to eat a normal amount
A therapist who uses a variety of methods, depending on the needs of different clients, is said to be
eclectic.
A store marks its prices "25 percent off," scratches that out and marks them "50 percent off!"
either the contrast effect or the that's-not-all technique.
attachment
emotional bonding between an infant and its parent or caregiver
embarrassment
emotional reaction to mistakes, being the center of attention, or "sticky situations"
Cassie was riding the subway and called her boss to get a coworker's number when she suddenly realized she had no pen or paper on which to write it down! As her boss was relaying the phone number, Cassie recited it repeatedly in her head so she could remember. This rehearsal is a form of verbal -------- necessary for memory storage.
encoding
sexual orientation
enduring pattern of attraction to members of the same and/or other sex
flashbulb memories
especially vivid and detailed recollection of an emotional event
self-esteem
evaluation of one's own abilities, performance, and worth
Episodic
events and details of life history I went to Miami during spring break last year. I read Chapter 7 of this textbook last Thursday. Professor Ben Zene gave a very funny guest lecture in my Chem 101 class during my freshman year. I ate at a Thai restaurant once—it made me sick. I went to my first professional football game last Sunday. I'll never forget the day I got married.
agoraphobia
excessive, irrational fear of being in public places
social loafing
exerting less effort when performing a specific task with a group than when alone; tendency to work less hard ("loaf") when sharing work with other people
The actor-observer effect is the tendency to attribute viewed from the actor's perspective mostly to __________ causes and behavior viewed from the observer's perspective mostly to __________ causes.
external...internal
Behavioral observations
facial emotions can be suppressed; micro-expressions can be revealing
A specialized nerve cell that detects certain types of visual stimuli like line segments, round edges, and angles is referred to as a ------- ----------. If a certain organism cannot detect round objects from angular ones, they may be missing these cells.
feature detector
emotion
feeling state that has physiological, cognitive, and behavioral components
zygote
fertilized egg cell
In the months since Helen and Bob have been trying to get pregnant, Helen has stopped drinking wine and liquor. She knows that if she drinks during her pregnancy, her baby could develop perceptual and attentional deficits, and possibly even mental retardation. These defects, and a host of others, result from --------.
fetal alcohol syndrome
In Freud's terms, blockage of normal sexual development at some stage is called
fixation
Sakai works at a retail store near to her home. The every-other-week paycheck she receives in the mail rewards her on a ------ -------- -------.
fixed interval schedule
Marsha, a veteran auto salesperson, receives a $100 bonus for every 5 cars she sells. Her cash bonus reward occurs on a ------ ---- ------.
fixed ratio schedule
Manny was given a glass jar and a long string and was asked to come up with as many different possible uses as he could think of. He quickly created a toy, a cooking utensil, and a unique purse out of the objects. Manny's ability to reason abstractly about the objects without any instruction is an example of ----------------------.
fluid intelligence
The ability to reason and to learn new skills is -------- intelligence. The ability to apply acquired skills to familiar problem is -------- intelligence
fluid......crystalized
The ability to reason and to learn new skills is __________ intelligence. The ability to apply acquired skills to a familiar problem is __________ intelligence.
fluid...crystallized
a stimulus that elicits a response without any prior experience
food
unconditioned stimulus
food during conditioning
A friend asks you to help carry some supplies over to the elementary school for an afternoon tutoring program. When you get there, the principal says that one of the tutors is late and asks whether you could take her place until she arrives. You agree and spend the rest of the afternoon tutoring. The principal then talks you into coming back every week as a tutor.
foot-in-the-door technique.
classical conditioning (or Pavlovian conditioning)
form of learning in which reflex responses are associated with new stimuli
11 year old Felipe was asked what would happen if humans could fly. He reasoned that people would get places faster, that there would be fewer cars on the road, and that people would have to watch out for birds! Felipe's reasoning capacity allows us to place him within Piaget's ----------- of intellectual development.
formal operational stage
Direct effects
from prolonged activation of the SNS and prolonged exposure to cortisol
A possible function of conscious thought is to prepare for ------- action when a similar situation arises.
future
Most people with anorexia nervosa
have one or more of a variety of other disorders as well, including anxiety and depression.
The polygraph test measures
heart rate, breathing rate, and electrical resistance of the skin.
altruistic behavior
helping others despite a cost to ourselves
The phrase "'I' before 'e' except after 'c'" many of us learned in grade-school is an example of a -------- we use in everyday spelling. However there are some words that don't follow this guideline that we should be wary of as well.
heuristic
storage
holding information in memory for later use
estradiol
hormone present in higher quantities in females than in males
testosterone
hormone present in higher quantities in males than in females
insulin
hormone that increases the flow of glucose and several other nutrients into body cells
leptin
hormone that the body's fat cells release in amounts proportional to their mass
pitch
how high or low a tone sounds
The term "base-rate information" refers to information about
how rare or common something is
Which is least likely to offer advice and interpretations of behavior?
humanistic therapy
Dr. Khan specializes in altered states of consciousness as therapeutic measures. He prescribes drugs, meditative practices and customized sleep remedies. One day a patient comes to him for a -------- treatment. Dr. Khan puts the patient into a trance state in which they are in a heightened, more receptive state of mind and can try to overcome their problems.
hypnosis
3 components of the psyche
id, ego, superego
broaden-and-build hypothesis
idea that a happy mood increases your readiness to explore new ideas and opportunities
belief in a just world
idea that life is fair and people usually get what they deserve
neurodevelopmental hypothesis
idea that schizophrenia originates with nervous system impairments that develop before birth or in early childhood because of either genetics or early environment, especially prenatal environment
dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia
idea that the underlying cause of schizophrenia is excessive stimulation of certain types of dopamine synapses
The approach to the study of individual differences that concentrates on intensive studies of individuals is the __________ approach.
idiographic
bottom-up-process
in form perception, progression from individual elements to the whole
mental age
in intelligence testing, the average cognitive ability displayed by people of a given age
anterograde amnesia
inability to form or retrieve memories of events that occur after an injury or trauma
binocular cue
indication of distance from the differing views of the two eyes
client-centered therapy
individual being treated talks without direction, judgment, or interpretation from the therapist
instinct
innate impulse that directs or motivates behavior
People listening to a message on a topic that they consider of little importance to them will pay more attention to things like the speaker's appearance and reputation than to the logic and evidence behind the speaker's message. This approach to persuasion is called the __________ approach.
peripheral
specific phobia
persistent fear and avoidance of a specific object or situation
introspection
personal observation of your own thoughts, feelings, and behavior
idiographic approach
personality study that concentrates on intensive studies of individuals
nomothetic approach
personality study that seeks broad, general principles of personality
Neo-Freudians: Carl Jung
phasis on continuity of human experience and need for spiritual meaning in lifecollective unconsciousthe cumulative experiences of all of our ancestorscontains archetypesfigures and themes that emerge repeatedly in history and across cultures
mere measurement effect
phenomenon that estimating your probability of doing some desirable activity increases your probability of doing it
forewarning effect
phenomenon that informing people that they are about to hear a persuasive speech activates their resistance and weakens the persuasion
cones
photoreceptors that are sensitive to color
maturation
physical growth and development of the body, brain, and nervous system
aggression
physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone
Paradoxical sleep
physiological and brain wave activity almost indistinguishable from the waking state Yet the large muscle groups are so relaxed that the person is paralyzed
According to Schachter and Singer's theory, the intensity of an emotion depends on your ___ and your identification of which emotion you feel depends on your _____.
physiological arousal ... appraisal of the situation
attitude
positive or negative perception of people, objects, or issues
People who experience war or violence often suffer from frequent nightmares, outbursts of anger, constant unhappiness, guilt, and difficulty concentrating. This condition is known as
posttraumatic stress disorder.
The term "sexual orientation" refers to a person's
preference for male or female sexual partners.
dissociative identity disorder
presence of two or more distinct personalities (multiple personality)
stress
pressure or demand placed on an organism to adjust or adapt
When an object differs drastically from those around it in size, shape, color, or movement, we find it by a ---------, meaning that it stands out immediately.
preventative processes
The __________ effect is a tendency to remember the first items on a list; the __________ effect is a tendency to remember the last items.
primacy...recency
When Chris first taught his dog Fluffy to sit, he used a treat every time Fluffy sat on command. Later on, Chris used vocal rewards, such as "good dog!" Because the treat has innate nutritional, or biological, value to the dog, the treat in this scenario represents the -------- --------.
primary reinforcer.
mere exposure effect
principle that the more often we come into contact with someone or something, the more we tend to like that person or object
One explanation for the primacy effect is that ____________ interrupts the retention/recall of later information, which is why we remember the first item better; one explanation for the recency effect is that _______________ blocks earlier information, which is why our memory isn't as good for the earlier items.
proactive ... retroactive
Trolley Dilemma and Footbridge Dilemma:
problems involving decisions about letting a small number of people die to save a larger number, provide evidence that emotions play a powerful role in deciding the most moral course of action
flash suppression
procedure of blocking consciousness of a stationary visual stimulus by surrounding it with rapidly flashing items
backward masking
procedure of following a stimulus with an interfering pattern that might prevent consciousness of the stimulus
Masking
procedure of preceding or following a stimulus with an interfering pattern that might prevent consciousness of the stimulus
implicit personality test
procedure that measures some aspect of your personality without your awareness
central route to persuasion
process in which people who take a decision seriously invest the necessary effort to evaluate the evidence and logic
chunking
process of grouping similar or meaningful information together
cognition
process of thinking, gaining knowledge, and dealing with knowledge
motivation
process that arouses, maintains, and guides behavior toward a goal
motivation
process that determines the reinforcement value of an outcome
A man who beats his wife writes a book arguing that people have an instinctive need for aggressive behavior.
projection
In Freud's theory, if you take something you dislike about yourself (such as hostility) and attribute it to other people, you are engaging in?
projection.
A test that encourages people to describe themselves indirectly by talking about an ambiguous stimulus such as an inkblot is called a __________ test.
projective
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
projective personality technique in which someone is asked to make up a story for each picture
Rorschach inkblots
projective test that consists of complex, irregular monochromatic shapes
opponent process theory of color vision
proposition that color vision is based on coding things as red or green, yellow or blue, or black or white
activation-synthesis theory
proposition that dreams are how brains process the random electrical discharges of REM sleep
place principle
proposition that higher and lower tones excite specific areas of the cochlea
James-Lange theory
proposition that physical sensations lead to subjective feelings perceived stimulus, specific physical arousal, subjective feeling (all in one direct line) idea that perception of bodily changes provides the feeling aspect of emotion
frequency principle
proposition that pitch is decoded from the rate at which hair cells of the basilar membrane are firing
Cannon-Bard theory
proposition that thalamus activity causes emotions and bodily arousal to occur simultaneously perceived stimulus, physical responses, subjective feeling
decay theory
proposition that the ability to retrieve rarely used information diminishes over time
schedule of reinforcement
protocol for determining when and how often responses will be rewarded
Which two types of therapy try to change what people think?
psychoanalysis and cognitive therapy
A theory that relates personality to the interplay of conflicting forces within the individual is known as a
psychodynamic theory.
cognitive dissonance
psychological state of having related ideas or perceptions that are inconsistent
genital stage
puberty and later Period of psychosexual development in which sexual pleasure focuses on sexual relations, according to Freud
The tendency to assume that if an item is similar to members of a particular category, it is probably a member of that category itself is known as •Tendency to presume that someone or something belongs to a particular group if resembling (representing) a typical member
representativeness heuristic
law of effect
responses that lead to desirable results are repeated while those that produce undesirable ones are not
recall
retrieval of information with a minimum of external cues
secondary reinforcer
reward that organisms learn to like
social norms
rules that define acceptable and expected behavior for members of a group
Antipsychotic drugs are drugs intended to relieve
schizophrenia.
behaviorism
school of thought in psychology that emphasizes study of observable actions over study of the mind
A new psychological test has a reliability of zero. This means that
scores fluctuate randomly from one time to another.
Psychologists sometimes use the term "gifted" to describe someone who
scores more than two standard deviations above the mean on an IQ test.
MMPI-2
second edition of MMPI
perception
selection, organization, and interpretation of sensory input
Expectations that change one's own behavior in such a way as to increase the probability of the predicted event are known as
self-fulfilling prophecies.
Our first impression of somebody may influence the way we treat that person and they, in turn, may react in accordance with the way they are being treated. This can lead to what is termed a
self-fulfilling prophecy.
Alcoholics Anonymous (AA)
self-help group of people who are trying to abstain from alcohol use and help others do the same
Attributions that we adopt in an effort to maximize our credit for success and minimize our blame for failure are called?
self-serving biases.
olfaction
sense of smell
emotional intelligence
the ability to perceive, use, understand, and manage feeling states; ability to perceive, imagine, and understand emotions and to use that information in making decisions
What is meant by fluid intelligence?
the ability to reason, use knowledge, and gain more information
REM sleep is also called paradoxical sleep because
the brain is very active, but heart rate, breathing rate, and temperature fluctuate greatly and the muscles are relaxed.
A motivation is regarded as homeostatic if
the individual maintains some variable around a constant value.
Procedural memory
the memory of how to do something
Procedural memory
the memory of how to do something Examples: how to drive, how to play the piano
"In a universe composed of matter and energy, why is there such a thing as consciousness?" This question relates most closely to which of these philosophical issues?
the mind-brain relationship
self-concept
the perception of one's own personality traits
self-actualization
the process of fully developing personal potentials
Deeper processing
think about each item or each part of the material
tricyclic drugs
those that interfere with axons' ability to reabsorb the neurotransmitters dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin after releasing them
fovea
tiny spot in the center of the retina, containing only cones, where visual acuity is greatest
according to Freud, the decision-making part of personality that operates on the reality principle
top left of iceberg (ego)
according to Freud, the part of personality that represents moral conscience
top right of iceberg (superego)
electroconvulsive therapy
treatment for severe depression in which electrical current is applied to the brain, causing a seizure
electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
treatment in which a brief electrical shock is administered across a patient's head to induce a convulsion
family systems therapy
treatment of a group of related individuals that focuses on interpersonal dynamics and communication
cognitive therapy
treatment of emotional and behavioral problems by changing maladaptive thoughts, beliefs, and feelings
discrimination
unfair actions based on stereotyping and prejudice
prejudice
unfavorable attitude toward an entire group of people
Delusions are
unfounded beliefs.
Long-term memory
unlimited capacity storage that can hold information over long periods of time
Withdrawal
unpleasant sensations when the drug is not used (or too little is used)
antisocial personality disorder
unusual remorselessness, lack of empathy, or disregard for social conventions
Physiological measures
use autonomic nervous activity but meaning is ambiguous
peripheral route to persuasion
use of superficial factors to persuade people, such as repetition of a message or prestige of the speaker
Voluntary smile
utilizes mouth muscles alone
rods
visual receptors for dim light that produce only black and white sensations
According to the M'Naghten rule, a criminal defendant is not guilty by reason of insanity if the defendant
was so mentally disordered as not to know what he/she was doing.
sleep spindles
waves of brain activity at about 12 to 14 per second
"Change blindness" is the phenomenon that
we often fail to notice changes in the background of a scene.
positive reinforcement
when a response is followed by a reward or other positive event
continuous reinforcement
when a reward follows every correct response
Stage 1 NREM (Theta waves)
when first dozing off•Little eye movement and a fair amount of non-rhythmic brain activity ("desynchronized.")
Depression is more common than among , and more common among than among .
women ... men; whites ... blacks
language
words or symbols, and rules for combining them, that are used for thinking and communication
Social loafing refers to people's tendency to
work less hard when sharing the work with other people than when working alone. Most people work less hard when they are part of a group than when they work alone, except when they think they can make a unique contribution or if they think others are evaluating their contribution.
According to the activation-synthesis theory, dreaming is
your brain's effort to make sense of spontaneous sensory activity.
Availability heuristic
•Assuming that easily remembered examples of an event accurately indicate of how commonly that event occurs•Example: •It is easier to think of examples of people dying from car crashes than from stomach cancer, so you assume that you are more likely to die in a car crash.•You are somewhat more likely to die from stomach cancer. The actual base rate of digestive cancer is the higher than that of car crashes
Linda is a 31 year-old, single, outspoken, and very bright woman. She majored in philosophy in college. As a student she was deeply concerned with discrimination and other social issues, and she participated in antinuclear demonstrations.
•Would you say that :A) Linda is a bank tellerB) Linda is a bank teller and active in the feminist movementThe best answer is A. It is more probable that we can satisfy one condition (bank teller) versus two (bank